Diagnostic and therapeutic potential of shark variable new antigen receptor (VNAR) single domain antibody

Rapid transformation of nanobodies affinity based on AlphaFold2's high-accuracy predictions and interaction analysis for enrofloxacin detection in coastal fish

High-affinity antibodies are crucial in biosensors, disease diagnostics, therapeutic drug development, and immunological analysis, making the enhancement of antibody affinity a key research focus within the field. Computer-aided design is recognized as a time-saving and labor-efficient method for nanobodies in vitro affinity maturation. Compared to experimental mutagenesis techniques, it is advantageous due to the elimination of the need for laborious library construction and screening processes. However, these approaches are constrained by structural prediction since inaccuracy in structure could readily result in maturation failures. Herein, a novel nanobodies modification method for in vitro affinity maturation, utilizing the high accuracy prediction of AlphaFold2, was employed to rapidly transform a low affinity nanobody against enrofloxacin (ENR) into one with high affinity. The molecular docking results revealed a 1.5- to 2.5-fold increase in the number of noncovalent interactions of modified nanobodies, accompanied by a reduction in binding free energy ranging from 14.1 to 62.6%. The evaluation results from ELISA and BLI indicated that the affinity of the modified nanobodies had been enhanced by 6.2-91.6 times compared to the template nanobody. Furthermore, the modified nanobodies were employed for the detection of ENR-spiked coastal fish samples. In summary, this research proposed a nanobodies modification method from a new perspective, endowing its great application potential in biosensors, food safety, and environmental monitoring.

Shark-on-a-dish: Elasmobranch cell cultures as a promising tool for the conservation of threatened species

Anthropogenic activities have increasingly contaminated aquatic ecosystems worldwide, requiring the development of adequate methods to assess the effects of environmental pollution on aquatic biota. Currently, ecotoxicological research on fish is largely based on in vivo studies, many times using post-mortem fish samples bought in fish markets or obtained through capture-and-release programs. However, such samples provide a narrow window to the cellular and molecular processes that occur to fish upon exposure to pollutants and other toxicants or pathogens. In thi sense, in vitro cell culture systems have been increasingly proven a valuable tool in several research fields, from molecular biology studies to conservation efforts. To date, however, cell cultures obtained from bony fish have been the most studied and with the best-described protocols and models. Elasmobranchs, comprising shark and rays, play important trophic and environmental roles, employed as chemical contamination environmental sentinels, suffering the effects of such contamination due to bioaccumulation and biomagnification processes. For these reasons, the development of new experimental tools to study elasmobranch cellular and molecular responses to environmental stimuli in controlled conditions is highly desirable. However, only some research groups have attempted to develop elasmobranch cell culture protocols to be used in an ecotoxicological context. In this sense, this review discusses the current elasmobranch cell culture scenario, its importance and potential applications in ecotoxicology assessments and conservation actions.

Characteristics and Genomic Localization of Nurse Shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) IgNAR

The variable domain of IgNAR shows great potential in biological medicine and therapy. IgNAR has been discovered in sharks and rays, with the nurse shark (Ginglymostoma cirratum) IgNARs being the most extensively studied among sharks. Despite being identified in nurse sharks over 30 years ago, the characteristics and genomic localization of IgNAR remain poorly defined, with significant gaps even in the latest released genome data. In our research, we localized the IgNAR loci in the nurse shark genome and resolved the previously missing regions. We identified three IgNAR loci, designated GcIgNAR1, GcIgNAR2, and GcIgNAR3, with only GcIgNAR1 and GcIgNAR2 being expressed. GcIgNAR1 and GcIgNAR2 belong to type I and type II IgNARs, respectively, and each exhibits several different isoforms. Most nurse shark IgNARs possess five constant domains. However, we found transcripts of GcIgNAR1 and GcIgNAR2 lacking two constant domains, C4 and C5, which differ from the IgNAR of the whitespotted bamboo shark. The protein structures of GcIgNAR1 and GcIgNAR2, generated by AlphaFold3, confirmed the accuracy of the IgNAR loci we identified. Our findings advance scientific understanding of IgNAR in nurse sharks and facilitate future research and medical applications.

Safety Assessment of Camelid-Derived Single-Domain Antibody as Feed Additive for Juvenile Whiteleg Shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei) Against White Spot Syndrome Virus

A six-week feeding trial was conducted to assess the safety of single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) derived from camelids against the white spot syndrome virus (WSSV) (WSSVvp28 was used as the antigen), focusing on the whole-organism responses and molecular-level changes in juvenile whiteleg shrimp (Litopenaeus vannamei). Five experimental diets with varying levels of sdAbs were formulated: CON (no sdAb supplementation); SDA8.2 (8.20% of sdAbs); SDA16.4 (16.40% of sdAbs); SDA24.6 (24.60% of sdAbs); and SDA32.8 (32.80% of sdAbs). In the CON diet, 450 mL of water per kg of diet (45%) was used to form a feed dough, while sdAbs were used to replace the water in the treatment diets. A total of 450 shrimp, with an initial body weight of 3.27 ± 0.02 g (mean ± SEM), were randomly distributed in 15 tanks (30 shrimp per tank; three tanks per treatment). Each tank was filled with 30 L of seawater (77 L capacity) in an indoor semi-recirculating system with a constant water flow rate of 1.2 L min-1. The photoperiod was maintained at 12 h of light and 12 h of dark. The water temperature, pH, salinity, and dissolved oxygen were 27.3 ± 0.1 °C, 7.61 ± 0.01, 34 ± 1 ppt, and 5.94 ± 0.04 mg L-1, respectively. During the feeding trial, the shrimp were fed the experimental diet (40% protein and 11% lipid) three times a day for six weeks. Following the feeding trial, an acute cold-water-temperature stress test was conducted by abruptly exposing the shrimp from each treatment to 15 °C for 4 h, down from 27 °C. The results showed no significant differences in the growth performance (weight gain, feed utilization efficiency, survival, etc.), plasma metabolites (aspartate aminotransferase activity, alanine aminotransferase activity, total protein, and glucose), or antioxidant enzymes (superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase) among all the experimental diets (p > 0.05). In the acute cold-temperature stress test, there was no significant interaction between sdAb supplementation and temperature stress, nor any main effect from either factor, except for the main effect of temperature stress on the glucose levels, which was significantly higher in shrimp exposed to cold-temperature stress (p < 0.05). The next-generation sequencing of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the hepatopancreases of shrimp fed the CON, SDA16.4, and SDA32.8 diets, followed by Gene Ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses, indicated that DEGs were significantly enriched in signaling pathways associated with growth, cold stress, and antioxidant systems. Overall, the results from conventional measurements suggest that the use of sdAbs against the WSSV may be safe for juvenile whiteleg shrimp. However, findings from the sophisticated analysis indicate that further research is needed to understand the molecular mechanisms underlying the observed changes, and to evaluate the long-term effects of sdAb supplementation in shrimp diets.

PLAbDab-nano: a database of camelid and shark nanobodies from patents and literature

Nanobodies are essential proteins of the adaptive immune systems of camelid and shark species, complementing conventional antibodies. Properties such as their relatively small size, solubility and high thermostability make VHH (variable heavy domain of the heavy chain) and VNAR (variable new antigen receptor) modalities a promising therapeutic format and a valuable resource for a wide range of biological applications. The volume of academic literature and patents related to nanobodies has risen significantly over the past decade. Here, we present PLAbDab-nano, a nanobody complement to the Patent and Literature Antibody Database (PLAbDab). PLAbDab-nano is a self-updating, searchable repository containing ∼5000 annotated VHH and VNAR sequences. We describe the methods used to curate the entries in PLAbDab-nano, and highlight how PLAbDab-nano could be used to design diverse libraries, as well as find sequences similar to known patented or therapeutic entries. PLAbDab-nano is freely available as a searchable web server (https://opig.stats.ox.ac.uk/webapps/plabdab-nano/).

Transitions in Immunoassay Leading to Next-Generation Lateral Flow Assays and Future Prospects

In the field of clinical testing, the traditional focus has been on the development of large-scale analysis equipment designed to process high volumes of samples with fully automatic and high-sensitivity measurements. However, there has been a growing demand in recent years for the development of analytical reagents tailored to point-of-care testing (POCT), which does not necessitate a specific location or specialized operator. This trend is epitomized using the lateral flow assay (LFA), which became a cornerstone during the 2019 pandemic due to its simplicity, speed of delivering results-within about 10 min from minimal sample concentrations-and user-friendly design. LFAs, with their paper-based construction, combine cost-effectiveness with ease of disposal, addressing both budgetary and environmental concerns comprehensively. Despite their compact size, LFAs encapsulate a wealth of technological ingenuity, embodying years of research and development. Current research is dedicated to further evolving LFA technology, paving the way for the next generation of diagnostic devices. These advancements aim to redefine accessibility, empower individuals, and enhance responsiveness to public health challenges. The future of LFAs, now unfolding, promises even greater integration into routine health management and emergency responses, underscoring their critical role in the evolution of decentralized and patient-centric healthcare solutions. In this review, the historical development of LFA and several of the latest LFA technologies using catalytic amplification, surface-enhanced Raman scattering, heat detection, electron chemical detections, magnetoresistance, and detection of reflected electrons detection are introduced to inspire readers for future research and development.

VHH Nanobody Versatility against Pentameric Ligand-Gated Ion Channels

Pentameric ligand-gated ion channels provide rapid chemical-electrical signal transmission between cells in the central and peripheral nervous system. Their dysfunction is associated with many nervous system disorders. They are composed of five identical (homomeric receptors) or homologous (heteromeric receptors) subunits. VHH nanobodies, or single-chain antibodies, are the variable domain, VHH, of antibodies that are composed of the heavy chain only from camelids. Their unique structure results in many specific biochemical and biophysical properties that make them an excellent alternative to conventional antibodies. This Perspective explores the published VHH nanobodies which have been isolated against pentameric ligand-gated ion channel subfamilies. It outlines the genetic and chemical modifications available to alter nanobody function. An assessment of the available functional and structural data indicate that it is feasible to create therapeutic agents and impart, through their modification, a given desired modulatory effect of its target receptor for current stoichiometric-specific VHH nanobodies.

Osteoarthritis versus psoriasis arthritis: Physiopathology, cellular signaling, and therapeutic strategies

Osteoarthritis and psoriasis arthritis are two degenerative forms of arthritis that share similar yet also different manifestations at the histological, cellular, and clinical levels. Rheumatologists have marked them as two entirely distinct arthropathies. Given recent discoveries in disease initiation and progression, potential mechanisms, cellular signaling pathways, and ongoing clinical therapeutics, there are now more opportunities for discovering osteoarthritis drugs. This review summarized the osteoarthritis and psoriasis arthritis signaling pathways, crosstalk between BMP, WNT, TGF-β, VEGF, TLR, and FGF signaling pathways, biomarkers, and anatomical pathologies. Through bench research, we demonstrated that regenerative medicine is a promising alternative for treating osteoarthritis by highlighting significant scientific discoveries on entheses, multiple signaling blockers, and novel molecules such as immunoglobulin new antigen receptors targeted for potential drug evaluation. Furthermore, we offered valuable therapeutic approaches with a multidisciplinary strategy to treat patients with osteoarthritis or psoriasis arthritis in the coming future in the clinic.

Colorimetric and surface-enhanced Raman scattering dual-mode lateral flow immunosensor using phage-displayed shark nanobody for the detection of crustacean allergen tropomyosin

Tropomyosin (TM) is the primary allergenic protein responsible for crustacean food allergies, and thus sensitive and rapid methods are required for the screening of crustacean TM in food. In this study, using the phage-displayed shark nanobody (PSN) as a multifunctional biomaterial, we developed a colorimetric and surface-enhanced Raman scattering dual-mode lateral flow immunosensor (CM/SERS-LFI) for competitive detection of crustacean TM. The SERS tag AuMBA@AgNPs with the Raman signal molecule 4-mercaptobenzoic acid (4-MBA) was prepared and immobilized on the PSN to construct the immunoprobe AuMBA@Ag-PSN. The probe can identify free TM that competes with TM on the T-line, and the optimized CM/SERS-LFI enables quantitative analysis of TM using the probe with a limit of detection (LOD) of 0.0026 μg/mL (SERS mode) and 0.0057 μg/mL (colorimetric mode), respectively. Additionally, it can implement a qualitative analysis by the naked eye with a visual LOD of 0.01 μg/mL. The CM/SERS-LFI exhibited excellent performance in the tests of selectivity, accuracy, precision, and stability. Moreover, the method's effectiveness in the analysis of real samples was confirmed by a commercial ELISA kit. Therefore, the developed CM/SERS-LFI was demonstrated to be a powerful and reliable tool for the rapid and sensitive detection of crustacean TM in food.

vNARs as Neutralizing Intracellular Therapeutic Agents: Glioblastoma as a Target

Glioblastoma is the most prevalent and fatal form of primary brain tumors. New targeted therapeutic strategies for this type of tumor are imperative given the dire prognosis for glioblastoma patients and the poor results of current multimodal therapy. Previously reported drawbacks of antibody-based therapeutics include the inability to translocate across the blood-brain barrier and reach intracellular targets due to their molecular weight. These disadvantages translate into poor target neutralization and cancer maintenance. Unlike conventional antibodies, vNARs can permeate tissues and recognize conformational or cryptic epitopes due to their stability, CDR3 amino acid sequence, and smaller molecular weight. Thus, vNARs represent a potential antibody format to use as intrabodies or soluble immunocarriers. This review comprehensively summarizes key intracellular pathways in glioblastoma cells that induce proliferation, progression, and cancer survival to determine a new potential targeted glioblastoma therapy based on previously reported vNARs. The results seek to support the next application of vNARs as single-domain antibody drug-conjugated therapies, which could overcome the disadvantages of conventional monoclonal antibodies and provide an innovative approach for glioblastoma treatment.

Development of Shark Single Domain Antibodies Specific for Human α-Fetoprotein and the Multimerization Strategy in Serum Detection

Sensitive detection of cancer biomarkers can contribute to the timely diagnosis and treatment of diseases. In this study, the whitespotted bamboo sharks were immunized with human α-fetoprotein (AFP), and a phage-displayed variable new antigen receptor (VNAR) single domain antibody library was constructed. Then four unique VNARs (VNAR1, VNAR11, VNAR21, and VNAR25) against AFP were isolated from the library by biopanning for the first time. All of the sequences belong to type II of VNAR, and the VNAR11 was much different from the rest of the three sequences. Then VNAR1 and VNAR11 were selected to fuse with the C4-binding protein α chain (C4bpα) sequence and efficiently expressed in the Escherichia coli system. Furthermore, a VNAR-C4bpα-mediated sandwich chemiluminescence immunoassay (VSCLIA) was developed for the detection of AFP in human serum samples. After optimization, the VSCLIA showed a limit of detection of 0.74 ng/mL with good selectivity and accuracy. Moreover, the results of clinical serum samples detected by the VSCLIA were confirmed by an automatic immunoanalyzer in the hospital, indicating its practical application in actual samples. In conclusion, the novel antibody element VNAR exhibits great potential for immunodiagnosis, and this study also provides a new direction and experimental basis for AFP detection.

Lateral Flow Immunochromatographic Assay for Competitive Detection of Crustacean Allergen Tropomyosin Using Phage-Displayed Shark Single-Domain Antibody

The common food allergy crustacean tropomyosin (TM) poses a significant food safety challenge, which requires rapid and sensitive methods for screening TM in food. Herein, the variable new antigen receptor (VNAR) single-domain antibodies specific for the crustacean TM were isolated from a naïve phage-displayed shark VNAR library. Subsequently, a lateral flow immunochromatographic assay (LFIA) based on the gold nanoparticle-labeled phage-displayed shark VNAR (AuNPs@PSV) probe was developed for the detection of TM in food. The AuNPs@PSV-LFIA took 15 min for one test and had a visual limit of detection (vLOD) of 0.1 μg/mL and an instrumental LOD of 0.02 μg/mL. Good selectivity, accuracy, precision, and stability were confirmed for the AuNPs@PSV-LFIA. Moreover, the test results of 21 commercially available food products consisted of the allergen labels and were validated by a commercial ELISA kit. Therefore, this work demonstrated the great potential of VNAR for detecting TM in food by LFIA.

Chimeric Protein Switch Biosensors

Rapid detection of protein and small-molecule analytes is a valuable technique across multiple disciplines, but most in vitro testing of biological or environmental samples requires long, laborious processes and trained personnel in laboratory settings, leading to long wait times for results and high expenses. Fusion of recognition with reporter elements has been introduced to detection methods such as enzyme-linked immunoassays (ELISA), with enzyme-conjugated secondary antibodies removing one of the many incubation and wash steps. Chimeric protein switch biosensors go further and provide a platform for homogenous mix-and-read assays where long wash and incubation steps are eradicated from the process. Chimeric protein switch biosensors consist of an enzyme switch (the reporter) coupled to a recognition element, where binding of the analyte results in switching the activity of the reporter enzyme on or off. Several chimeric protein switch biosensors have successfully been developed for analytes ranging from small molecule drugs to large protein biomarkers. There are two main formats of chimeric protein switch biosensor developed, one-component and multi-component, and these formats exhibit unique advantages and disadvantages. Genetically fusing a recognition protein to the enzyme switch has many advantages in the production and performance of the biosensor. A range of immune and synthetic binding proteins have been developed as alternatives to antibodies, including antibody mimetics or antibody fragments. These are mainly small, easily manipulated proteins and can be genetically fused to a reporter for recombinant expression or manipulated to allow chemical fusion. Here, aspects of chimeric protein switch biosensors will be reviewed with a comparison of different classes of recognition elements and switching mechanisms.

Design and Construction of Antibody Fusion Proteins Incorporating Variable New Antigen Receptor (VNAR) Domains

Antibody therapeutics have become a cornerstone of the pharmaceutical market due to their precise molecular targeting, favorable pharmacokinetic properties, and multitiered mechanisms of action. Since the first monoclonal antibody was clinically approved 35 years ago, there have been considerable advances in antibody technology. A major breakthrough has been the design of multispecific antibodies and antibody fusion proteins, which introduce the possibility of recognizing two or more targets with a single molecule. However, despite tremendous progress in the antibody engineering field, challenges in formulation, stability, and tissue penetration necessitate the design of novel antibody formats with improved pharmaceutical properties. There is a growing interest in development of single-domain antibodies, which harbor advantages such as high solubility, robust thermostability, and unique geometries that allow for access to cryptic epitopes. Chondrichthyes such as sharks and rays provide a source of single-domain antibody fragments known as variable new antigen receptors (VNARs), which have been exploited as molecular targeting agents. Here, we describe methods to engineer antibody fusion proteins that incorporate VNARs. We present multiple fusion topologies, and detail the design, expression, and purification for each format. These novel antibody fusion proteins hold great promise for a range of applications in biomedical research and therapeutic design.

Novel Approach for Obtaining Variable Domain of New Antigen Receptor with Different Physicochemical Properties from Japanese Topeshark (Hemitriakis japanica)

Diverse candidate antibodies are needed to successfully identify therapeutic and diagnostic applications. The variable domain of IgNAR (VNAR), a shark single-domain antibody, has attracted attention owing to its favorable physicochemical properties. The phage display method used to screen for optimal VNARs loses sequence diversity because of the bias caused by the differential ease of protein expression in Escherichia coli. Here, we investigated a VNAR selection method that combined panning with various selection pressures and next-generation sequencing (NGS) analyses to obtain additional candidates. Drawing inspiration from the physiological conditions of sharks and the physicochemical properties of VNARs, we examined the effects of NaCl and urea concentrations, low temperature, and preheating at the binding step of panning. VNAR phage libraries generated from Japanese topeshark (Hemitriakis japanica) were enriched under these conditions. We then performed NGS analysis and attempted to select clones that were specifically enriched under each panning condition. The identified VNARs exhibited higher reactivity than those obtained by panning without selection pressure. Additionally, they possess physicochemical properties that reflect their respective selection pressures. These results can greatly enhance our understanding of VNAR properties and offer guidance for the screening of high-quality VNAR clones that are present at low frequencies.

Efficient Hapten-Specific Biopanning Strategy Based on the Fe3O4@ENR-Functionalized Core-Shell Magnetic Nanoparticles

The biopanning of target-specific phages is one of the most critical steps in the preparation of single-domain antibodies. In the traditional biopanning of haptens, the nonspecific binding of library phages to macromolecular proteins is one of the most challenging problems in preparing single-domain antibodies. In this research, Fe3O4@ENR-functionalized core-shell magnetic nanoparticles (FMNPs) were silylated and aminated by tetraethyl orthosilicate and (3-aminopropyl)triethoxysilane, and target enrofloxacin was coupled onto the surface by the carbodiimide method. The magnetic nanoparticles were characterized by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, particle size distribution, zeta potential, transmission electron microscopy observation, and indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). A biopanning strategy based on Fe3O4@ENR FMNPs was then established to solve the problem in the traditional solid-phase biopanning process. The results showed that a considerable number of enrofloxacin (ENR)-positive phages were screened by only one round of biopanning. Finally, two ENR-specific shark-derived single-domain genes were identified and validated by monoclonal phage ELISA, gene sequencing, and biolayer interferometry technology. Our study provides a new biopanning strategy based on Fe3O4@ENR FMNPs for efficiently providing phages specific to haptens.

VNAR development through antigen immunization of Japanese topeshark (Hemitriakis japanica)

The VNAR (Variable New Antigen Receptor) is the smallest single-domain antibody derived from the variable domain of IgNAR of cartilaginous fishes. Despite its biomedical and diagnostic potential, research on VNAR has been limited due to the difficulties in obtaining and maintaining immune animals and the lack of research tools. In this study, we investigated the Japanese topeshark as a promising immune animal for the development of VNAR. This shark is an underutilized fishery resource readily available in East Asia coastal waters and can be safely handled without sharp teeth or venomous stingers. The administration of Venus fluorescent protein to Japanese topesharks markedly increased antigen-specific IgM and IgNAR antibodies in the blood. Both the phage-display library and the yeast-display library were constructed using RNA from immunized shark splenocytes. Each library was enriched by biopanning, and multiple antigen-specific VNARs were acquired. The obtained antibodies had affinities of 1 × 10-8 M order and showed high plasticity, retaining their binding activity even after high-temperature or reducing-agent treatment. The dissociation rate of a low-affinity VNAR was significantly improved via dimerization. These results demonstrate the potential utility of the Japanese topeshark for the development of VNAR. Furthermore, we conducted deep sequencing analysis to reveal the quantitative changes in the CDR3-coding sequences, revealing distinct enrichment bias between libraries. VNARs that were primarily enriched in the phage display had CDR3 coding sequences with fewer E. coli rare codons, suggesting translation machinery on the selection and enrichment process during biopanning.

Identification and characterization of shark VNARs targeting the Helicobacter pylori adhesin HpaA

Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is recognized as a pathogen associated with several gastrointestinal diseases. The current treatments exhibit numerous drawbacks, including antibiotic resistance. H. pylori can adhere to and colonize the gastric mucosa through H. pylori adhesin A (HpaA), and antibodies against HpaA may be an effective therapeutic approach. The variable domain of immunoglobulin new antigen receptor (VNAR) is a novel type of single-domain antibody with a small size, good stability, and easy manufacturability. This study isolated VNARs against HpaA from an immune shark VNAR phage display library. The VNARs can bind both recombinant and native HpaA proteins. The VNARs, 2A2 and 3D6, showed high binding affinities to HpaA with different epitopes. Furthermore, homodimeric bivalent VNARs, biNb-2A2 and biNb-3D6, were constructed to enhance the binding affinity. The biNb-2A2 and biNb-3D6 had excellent stability at gastrointestinal pH conditions. Finally, a sandwich ELISA assay was developed to quantify the HpaA protein using BiNb-2A2 as the capture antibody and BiNb-3D6 as the detection antibody. This study provides a potential foundation for novel alternative approaches to treatment or diagnostics applications of H. pylori infection.

Exploring shark VNAR antibody against infectious diseases using phage display technology

Antibody with high affinity and specificity to antigen has widely used as a tool to combat various diseases. The variable domain of immunoglobulin new antigen receptor (VNAR) naturally found in shark contains autonomous function as single-domain antibody. Due to its excellent characteristics, the small, non-complex, and highly stable have made shark VNAR can acquires the antigen-binding capability that might not be reached by conventional antibody. Phage display technology enables shark VNAR to be presented on the surface of phage, allowing the exploration of shark VNAR as an alternative antibody format to target antigens from various infectious diseases. The application of phage-displayed shark VNAR in antibody library and biopanning eventually leads to the discovery and isolation of antigen-specific VNARs with diagnostic and therapeutic potential towards infectious diseases. This review provides an overview of the shark VNAR antibody, the types of phage display technology with comparison to the other types of display system, as well as the application and case studies of phage-displayed shark VNAR antibodies against infectious diseases.

Screening and anti-glioma activity of Chiloscyllium plagiosum anti-human IL-13Rα2 single-domain antibody

Glioblastoma is a common and fatal malignant tumour of the central nervous system, with high invasiveness. Conventional treatments for this disease, including comprehensive treatment of surgical resection combined with chemoradiotherapy, are ineffective, with low survival rate and extremely poor prognosis. Targeted therapy is promising in overcoming the difficulties in brain tumour treatment and IL-13Rα2 is a widely watched target. The development of new therapies for glioma, however, is challenged by factors, such as the unique location and immune microenvironment of gliomas. The unique advantages of single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) may provide a novel potential treatment for brain tumours. In this study, Chiloscyllium plagiosum was immunized with recombinant IL-13Rα2 protein to produce sdAb and sdAb sequences were screened by multi-omics. The targeted sdAb genes obtained were efficiently expressed in the Escherichia coli prokaryotic expression system, showing a significant binding capacity to IL-13Rα2 in vitro. The cell proliferation and migration inhibitory effects of recombinant variable domain of the new antigen receptor (VNAR) on glioma cells were detected by CCK-8 and cell scratch assays. The sdAb obtained in this study showed high in vitro activity and favourable cell proliferation inhibitory effect on glioma cells, with potential clinical application value. The present study also provides a new direction and experimental basis for the development of targeted therapies for glioma.

Shark VNAR phage display libraries: An alternative source for therapeutic and diagnostic recombinant antibody fragments

The development of recombinant antibody fragments as promising alternatives to full-length immunoglobulins offers vast opportunities for biomedicine. Antibody fragments have important advantages compared with conventional monoclonal antibodies that make them attractive for the biotech industry: superior stability and solubility, reduced immunogenicity, higher specificity and affinity, capacity to target the hidden epitope and cross the blood-brain barrier, the ability to refold after heat denaturation and inexpensive and easy large-scale production. Different antibody formats such as antigen-binding fragments (Fab), single-chain fragment variable (scFv) consisting of the antigen-binding domains of Ig heavy (VH) and light (VL) chain regions connected by a flexible peptide linker, single-domain antibody fragments (sdAbs) like camelid heavy-chain variable domains (VHHs) and shark variable new antigen receptor (VNARs), and bispecific antibodies (bsAbs) are currently being evaluated as diagnostics or therapeutics in preclinical studies and clinical trials. In the present review, we summarize and discuss studies on VNARs, the smallest recombinant antibody fragment, obtained after the screening of different types of phage display antibody libraries. Results published until March 2023 are discussed.

Isolation and Characterization of Targeting-HBsAg VNAR Single Domain Antibodies from Whitespotted Bamboo Sharks (Chiloscyllium plagiosum)

Immunoglobulin new antigen receptor (IgNAR) is a naturally occurring antibody that consists of only two heavy chains with two independent variable domains. The variable binding domain of IgNAR, called variable new antigen receptor (VNAR), is attractive due to its solubility, thermal stability, and small size. Hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg) is a viral capsid protein found on the surface of the Hepatitis B virus (HBV). It appears in the blood of an individual infected with HBV and is widely used as a diagnostic marker for HBV infection. In this study, the whitespotted bamboo sharks (Chiloscyllium plagiosum) were immunized with the recombinant HBsAg protein. Peripheral blood leukocytes (PBLs) of immunized bamboo sharks were further isolated and used to construct a VNAR-targeted HBsAg phage display library. The 20 specific VNARs against HBsAg were then isolated by bio-panning and phage ELISA. The 50% of maximal effect (EC₅₀) of three nanobodies, including HB14, HB17, and HB18, were 4.864 nM, 4.260 nM, and 8.979 nM, respectively. The Sandwich ELISA assay further showed that these three nanobodies interacted with different epitopes of HBsAg protein. When taken together, our results provide a new possibility for the application of VNAR in HBV diagnosis and also demonstrate the feasibility of using VNAR for medical testing.

Chimeric Peptides from Californiconus californicus and Heterodontus francisci with Antigen-Binding Capacity: A Conotoxin Scaffold to Create Non-Natural Antibodies (NoNaBodies)

Research into various proteins capable of blocking metabolic pathways has improved the detection and treatment of multiple pathologies associated with the malfunction and overexpression of different metabolites. However, antigen-binding proteins have limitations. To overcome the disadvantages of the available antigen-binding proteins, the present investigation aims to provide chimeric antigen-binding peptides by binding a complementarity-determining region 3 (CDR3) of variable domains of new antigen receptors (VNARs) with a conotoxin. Six non-natural antibodies (NoNaBodies) were obtained from the complexes of conotoxin cal14.1a with six CDR3s from the VNARs of Heterodontus francisci and two NoNaBodies from the VNARs of other shark species. The peptides cal_P98Y vs. vascular endothelial growth factor 165 (VEGF165), cal_T10 vs. transforming growth factor beta (TGF-β), and cal_CV043 vs. carcinoembryonic antigen (CEA) showed in-silico and in vitro recognition capacity. Likewise, cal_P98Y and cal_CV043 demonstrated the capacity to neutralize the antigens for which they were designed.

First pan-specific vNAR against human TGF-β as a potential therapeutic application: in silico modeling assessment

Immunotherapies based on antibody fragments have been developed and applied to human diseases, describing novel antibody formats. The vNAR domains have a potential therapeutic use related to their unique properties. This work used a non-immunized Heterodontus francisci shark library to obtain a vNAR with recognition of TGF-β isoforms. The isolated vNAR T1 selected by phage display demonstrated binding of the vNAR T1 to TGF-β isoforms (-β1, -β2, -β3) by direct ELISA assay. These results are supported by using for the first time the Single-Cycle kinetics (SCK) method for Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) analysis for a vNAR. Also, the vNAR T1 shows an equilibrium dissociation constant (K_D) of 9.61 × 10^-8 M against rhTGF-β1. Furthermore, the molecular docking analysis revealed that the vNAR T1 interacts with amino acid residues of TGF-β1, which are essential for interaction with type I and II TGF-β receptors. The vNAR T1 is the first pan-specific shark domain reported against the three hTGF-β isoforms and a potential alternative to overcome the challenges related to the modulation of TGF-β levels implicated in several human diseases such as fibrosis, cancer, and COVID-19.

Targeting the Brain with Single-Domain Antibodies: Greater Potential Than Stated So Far?

Treatments for central nervous system diseases with therapeutic antibodies have been increasingly investigated over the last decades, leading to some approved monoclonal antibodies for brain disease therapies. The detection of biomarkers for diagnosis purposes with non-invasive antibody-based imaging approaches has also been explored in brain cancers. However, antibodies generally display a low capability of reaching the brain, as they do not efficiently cross the blood-brain barrier. As an alternative, recent studies have focused on single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) that correspond to the antigen-binding fragment. While some reports indicate that the brain uptake of these small antibodies is still low, the number of studies reporting brain-penetrating sdAbs is increasing. In this review, we provide an overview of methods used to assess or evaluate brain penetration of sdAbs and discuss the pros and cons that could affect the identification of brain-penetrating sdAbs of therapeutic or diagnostic interest.

Screening and characterization of inhibitory vNAR targeting nanodisc-assembled influenza M2 proteins

Influenza A virus poses a constant challenge to human health. The highly conserved influenza matrix-2 (M2) protein is an attractive target for the development of a universal antibody-based drug. However, screening using antigens with subphysiological conformation in a nonmembrane environment significantly reduces the generation of efficient antibodies. Here, M2(1-46) was incorporated into nanodiscs (M2-nanodiscs) with M2 in a membrane-embedded tetrameric conformation, closely resembling its natural physiological state in the influenza viral envelope. M2-nanodisc generation, an antigen, was followed by Chiloscyllium plagiosum immunization. The functional vNARs were selected by phage display panning strategy from the shark immune library. One of the isolated vNARs, AM2H10, could specifically bind to tetrameric M2 instead of monomeric M2e (the ectodomain of M2 protein). Furthermore, AM2H10 blocked ion influx through amantadine-sensitive and resistant M2 channels. Our findings indicated the possibility of developing functional shark nanobodies against various influenza viruses by targeting the M2 protein.

Single domain antibodies derived from ancient animals as broadly neutralizing agents for SARS-CoV-2 and other coronaviruses

With severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) as an emergent human virus since December 2019, the world population is susceptible to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). SARS-CoV-2 has higher transmissibility than the previous coronaviruses, associated by the ribonucleic acid (RNA) virus nature with high mutation rate, caused SARS-CoV-2 variants to arise while circulating worldwide. Neutralizing antibodies are identified as immediate and direct-acting therapeutic against COVID-19. Single-domain antibodies (sdAbs), as small biomolecules with non-complex structure and intrinsic stability, can acquire antigen-binding capabilities comparable to conventional antibodies, which serve as an attractive neutralizing solution. SARS-CoV-2 spike protein attaches to human angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor on lung epithelial cells to initiate viral infection, serves as potential therapeutic target. sdAbs have shown broad neutralization towards SARS-CoV-2 with various mutations, effectively stop and prevent infection while efficiently block mutational escape. In addition, sdAbs can be developed into multivalent antibodies or inhaled biotherapeutics against COVID-19.

Research progress on unique paratope structure, antigen binding modes, and systematic mutagenesis strategies of single-domain antibodies

Single-domain antibodies (sdAbs) showed the incredible advantages of small molecular weight, excellent affinity, specificity, and stability compared with traditional IgG antibodies, so their potential in binding hidden antigen epitopes and hazard detection in food, agricultural and veterinary fields were gradually explored. Moreover, its low immunogenicity, easy-to-carry target drugs, and penetration of the blood-brain barrier have made sdAbs remarkable achievements in medical treatment, toxin neutralization, and medical imaging. With the continuous development and maturity of modern molecular biology, protein analysis software and database with different algorithms, and next-generation sequencing technology, the unique paratope structure and different antigen binding modes of sdAbs compared with traditional IgG antibodies have aroused the broad interests of researchers with the increased related studies. However, the corresponding related summaries are lacking and needed. Different antigens, especially hapten antigens, show distinct binding modes with sdAbs. So, in this paper, the unique paratope structure of sdAbs, different antigen binding cases, and the current maturation strategy of sdAbs were classified and summarized. We hope this review lays a theoretical foundation to elucidate the antigen-binding mechanism of sdAbs and broaden the further application of sdAbs.

Neutralizing Ability of a Single Domain VNAR Antibody: In Vitro Neutralization of SARS-CoV-2 Variants of Concern

Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 is the causal pathogen of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). The emergence of new variants with different mutational patterns has limited the therapeutic options available and complicated the development of effective neutralizing antibodies targeting the spike (S) protein. Variable New Antigen Receptors (VNARs) constitute a neutralizing antibody technology that has been introduced into the list of possible therapeutic options against SARS-CoV-2. The unique qualities of VNARs, such as high affinities for target molecules, capacity for paratope reformatting, and relatively high stability, make them attractive molecules to counteract the emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. In this study, we characterized a VNAR antibody (SP240) that was isolated from a synthetic phage library of VNAR domains. In the phage display, a plasma with high antibody titers against SARS-CoV-2 was used to selectively displace the VNAR antibodies bound to the antigen SARS-CoV-2 receptor binding domain (RBD). In silico data suggested that the SP240 binding epitopes are located within the ACE2 binding interface. The neutralizing ability of SP240 was tested against live Delta and Omicron SARS-CoV-2 variants and was found to clear the infection of both variants in the lung cell line A549-ACE2-TMPRSS2. This study highlights the potential of VNARs to act as neutralizing antibodies against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants.

Screening and Characterization of Shark-Derived VNARs against SARS-CoV-2 Spike RBD Protein

The receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is the major target for antibody therapeutics. Shark-derived variable domains of new antigen receptors (VNARs) are the smallest antibody fragments with flexible paratopes that can recognize protein motifs inaccessible to classical antibodies. This study reported four VNARs binders (JM-2, JM-5, JM-17, and JM-18) isolated from Chiloscyllium plagiosum immunized with SARS-CoV-2 RBD. Biolayer interferometry showed that the VNARs bound to the RBD with an affinity K_D ranging from 38.5 to 2720 nM, and their Fc fusions had over ten times improved affinity. Gel filtration chromatography revealed that JM-2-Fc, JM-5-Fc, and JM-18-Fc could form stable complexes with RBD in solution. In addition, five bi-paratopic VNARs, named JM-2-5, JM-2-17, JM-2-18, JM-5-18, and JM-17-18, were constructed by fusing two VNARs targeting distinct RBD epitopes based on epitope grouping results. All these bi-paratopic VNARs except for JM-5-18 showed higher RBD binding affinities than its component VNARs, and their Fc fusions exhibited further enhanced binding affinities, with JM-2-5-Fc, JM-2-17-Fc, JM-2-18-Fc, and JM-5-18-Fc having K_D values lower than 1 pM. Among these Fc fusions of bi-paratopic VNARs, JM-2-5-Fc, JM-2-17-Fc, and JM-2-18-Fc could block the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) binding to the RBD of SARS-CoV-2 wildtype, Delta, Omicron, and SARS-CoV, with inhibition rates of 48.9~84.3%. Therefore, these high-affinity VNAR binders showed promise as detectors and therapeutics of COVID-19.

A Class of Shark-Derived Single-Domain Antibodies can Broadly Neutralize SARS-Related Coronaviruses and the Structural Basis of Neutralization and Omicron Escape

The identification of a novel class of shark-derived single domain antibodies, named vnarbodies that show picomolar affinities binding to the receptor binding domain (RBD) of Wuhan and Alpha, Beta, Kappa, Delta, Delta-plus, and Lambda variants, is reported. Vnarbody 20G6 and 17F6 have broad neutralizing activities against all these SARS-CoV-2 viruses as well as other sarbecoviruses, including Pangolin coronavirus and Bat coronavirus. Intranasal administration of 20G6 effectively protects mice from the challenges of SARS-CoV-2 Wuhan and Beta variants. 20G6 and 17F6 contain a unique "WXGY" motif in the complementary determining region 3 that binds to a hidden epitope on RBD, which is highly conserved in sarbecoviruses through a novel β-sheet interaction. It is found that the S375F mutation on Omicron RBD disrupts the structure of β-strand, thus impair the binding with 20G6. The study demonstrates that shark-derived vnarbodies offer a prophylactic and therapeutic option against most SARS-CoV-2 variants and provide insights into antibody evasion by the Omicron variant.

IgNAR antibody: Structural features, diversity and applications

In response to the invasion of exogenous microorganisms, one of the defence strategies of the immune system is to produce antibodies. Cartilaginous fish is among those who evolved the earliest humoral immune system that utilizes immunoglobulin-type antibodies. The cartilaginous fish antibodies fall into three categories: IgW, IgM, and IgNAR. The shark Immunoglobulin Novel Antigen Receptor (IgNAR) constitutes disulfide-bonded dimers of two protein chains, similar to the heavy chain of mammalian IgGs. Shark IgNAR is the primary antibody of a shark's adaptive immune system with a serum concentration of 0.1-1.0 mg/mL. Its structure comprises of one variable (V) domain (VNAR) and five constant (C1 -C5) domains in the secretory form. VNARs are classified into several subclasses based on specific properties such as the quantity and position of additional non-canonical cysteine (Cys) residues in the VNAR. The VDJ recombination in IgNAR comprises various fragments; one variable component, three diverse sections, one joining portion, and a solitary arrangement of constant fragments framed in each IgNAR gene cluster. The re-arrangement happens just inside this gene cluster bringing about a VD1D2D3J segment. Therefore, four re-arrangement procedures create the entire VNAR space. IgNAR antibody can serve as an excellent diagnostic, therapeutic, and research tool because it has a smaller size, high specificity for antigen-binding, and perfect stability. The domain characterization, structural features, types, diversity and therapeutic applications of IgNAR molecules are highlighted in this review. It would be helpful for further research on IgNAR antibodies acting as an essential constituent of the adaptive immune system and a potential therapeutic agent.

Generation and utility of a single-chain fragment variable monoclonal antibody platform against a baculovirus expressed recombinant receptor binding domain of SARS-CoV-2 spike protein

As the second wave of COVID-19 launched, various variants of Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) have emerged with a dramatic global spread amongst millions of people causing unprecedented case fatalities and economic shut-downs. That initiated a necessity for developing specific diagnostics and therapeutics along with vaccines to control such a pandemic. This endeavor describes generation of murine derived recombinant single-chain fragment variable (scFv) as a monoclonal antibody (MAb) platform targeting the receptor binding domain (RBD) of Spike protein of SARS-CoV-2. A specific synthesized RBD coding sequence was cloned and expressed in Baculovirus expression system. The recombinant RBD (rRBD) was ascertained to be at the proper encoding size of ∼ 600bp and expressed protein of the molecular weight of ∼ 21KDa. Purified rRBD was proved genuinely antigenic and immunogenic, exhibiting specific reactivity to anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibody in an indirect enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and inducing strong seroconversion in immunized mice. The scFv phage display library against rRBD was successfully constructed, revealing ∼ 90 % recombination frequency, and great enriching factor reaching 88 % and 25 % in polyclonal Ab-based and MAb-based ELISAs, respectively. Typically, three unique scFvs were generated, selected, purified and molecularly identified. That was manifested by their: accurate structure, close relation to the mouse immunoglobulin (Ig) superfamily, right anchored six complementarily-determining regions (CDRs) as three within variable heavy (vH) and variable light (vL) regions each, and proper configuration of the three-dimensional (3D) structure. Besides, their expression downstream in a non-suppressive amber codon of E. coli strain SS32 created a distinct protein band at an apparent molecular weight of ∼ 27KDa. Moreover, the purified scFvs showed authentic immunoreactivity and specificity to both rRBD and SARS-CoV-2 in western blot and ELISA. Accordingly, these developed scFvs platform might be a functional candidate for research, inexpensive diagnostics and therapeutics, mitigating spread of COVID-19.

Central Nervous System Delivery of Antibodies and Their Single-Domain Antibodies and Variable Fragment Derivatives with Focus on Intranasal Nose to Brain Administration

IgG antibodies are some of the most important biopharmaceutical molecules with a high market volume. In spite of the fact that clinical therapies with antibodies are broadly utilized in oncology, immunology and hematology, their delivery strategies and biodistribution need improvement, their limitations being due to their size and poor ability to penetrate into tissues. In view of their small size, there is a rising interest in derivatives, such as single-domain antibodies and single-chain variable fragments, for clinical diagnostic but also therapeutic applications. Smaller antibody formats combine several benefits for clinical applications and can be manufactured at reduced production costs compared with full-length IgGs. Moreover, such formats have a relevant potential for targeted drug delivery that directs drug cargo to a specific tissue or across the blood–brain barrier. In this review, we give an overview of the challenges for antibody drug delivery in general and focus on intranasal delivery to the central nervous system with antibody formats of different sizes.

Study review of camelid and shark antibodies for biomedical and biotechnological applications

The antibodies of camelids and sharks are about one–half of the conventional ones while regular antibodies have four protein chains: two light and two heavy, these small antibodies studied have just two heavy chains; they lack a light chain. In recent years, nanobodies have been the focus of attention because they can recognize epitopes that are usually not antigenic (hidden) for conventional antibodies. On the clinical side, researchers are testing nanobodies (Nbs) in the fight against diseases and disease diagnosis. Nanobodies also are attractive because they can prevent protein aggregation and clear the already existing aggregates. Furthermore, new treatments using these Nbs can neutralize the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) for preventing COVID-19. In this review, we sum up recent findings of the proposed nanobodies for their potential application.

Shark New Antigen Receptor (IgNAR): Structure, Characteristics and Potential Biomedical Applications

Shark is a cartilaginous fish that produces new antigen receptor (IgNAR) antibodies. This antibody is identified with a similar human heavy chain but dissimilar sequences. The variable domain (VNAR) of IgNAR is stable and small in size, these features are desirable for drug discovery. Previous study results revealed the effectiveness of VNAR as a single molecule or a combination molecule to treat diseases both in vivo and in vitro with promising clinical applications. We showed the first evidence of IgNAR alternative splicing from spotted bamboo shark (Chiloscyllium plagiosum), broadening our understanding of the IgNARs characteristics. In this review, we summarize the discoveries on IgNAR with a focus on its advantages for therapeutic development based on its peculiar biochemistry and molecular structure. Proper applications of IgNAR will provide a novel avenue to understand its special presence in cartilaginous fishes as well as designing a number of drugs for undefeated diseases.

Antibody therapy in pancreatic cancer: mAb-ye we're onto something?

Pancreatic cancer remains an extremely deadly disease, with little improvement seen in treatment or outcomes over the last 40 years. Targeted monoclonal antibody therapy is one area that has been explored in attempts to tackle this disease. This review examines antibodies that have undergone clinical evaluation in pancreatic cancer. These antibodies target a wide variety of molecules, including tumour cell surface, stromal, immune and embryonic pathway targets. We discuss the therapeutic utility of these therapies both as monotherapeutics and in combination with other treatments such as chemotherapy. While antibody therapy for pancreatic cancer has yet to yield significant success, lessons learned from research thus far highlights future directions that may help overcome observed hurdles to yield clinically efficacious results.

Neutralizing Human Antibodies against Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome Coronavirus 2 Isolated from a Human Synthetic Fab Phage Display Library

Since it was first reported in Wuhan, China, in 2019, the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) has caused a pandemic outbreak resulting in a tremendous global threat due to its unprecedented rapid spread and an absence of a prophylactic vaccine or therapeutic drugs treating the virus. The receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein is a key player in the viral entry into cells through its interaction with the angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor protein, and the RBD has therefore been crucial as a drug target. In this study, we used phage display to develop human monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) that neutralize SARS-CoV-2. A human synthetic Fab phage display library was panned against the RBD of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein (SARS-2 RBD), yielding ten unique Fabs with moderate apparent affinities (EC50 = 19-663 nM) for the SARS-2 RBD. All of the Fabs showed no cross-reactivity to the MERS-CoV spike protein, while three Fabs cross-reacted with the SARS-CoV spike protein. Five Fabs showed neutralizing activities in in vitro assays based on the Fabs' activities antagonizing the interaction between the SARS-2 RBD and ACE2. Reformatting the five Fabs into immunoglobulin Gs (IgGs) greatly increased their apparent affinities (KD = 0.08-1.0 nM), presumably due to the effects of avidity, without compromising their non-aggregating properties and thermal stability. Furthermore, two of the mAbs (D12 and C2) significantly showed neutralizing activities on pseudo-typed and authentic SARS-CoV-2. Given their desirable properties and neutralizing activities, we anticipate that these human anti-SARS-CoV-2 mAbs would be suitable reagents to be further developed as antibody therapeutics to treat COVID-19, as well as for diagnostics and research tools.

(Nano)tag-antibody conjugates in rapid tests

Antibodies (Abs) are naturally derived materials with favorable affinity, selectivity, and fast binding kinetics to the respective antigens, which enables their application as promising recognition elements in the development of various types of biosensors/bioassays, especially in rapid tests. These tests are low-cost and easy-to-use biosensing devices with broad applications including medical or veterinary diagnostics, environmental monitoring and industrial usages such as safety and quality analysis in food, providing on-site quick monitoring of various analytes, making it possible to save analysis costs and time. To reach such features, the conjugation of Abs with various nanomaterials (NMs) as tags is necessary, which range from conventional gold nanoparticles to other nanoparticles recently introduced, where magnetic, plasmonic, photoluminescent, or multi-modal properties play a critical role in the overall performance of the analytical device. In this context, to preserve the Ab affinity and provide a rapid response with long-term storage capability, the use of efficient bio-conjugation techniques is critical. Thanks to their prominent role in rapid tests, many studies have been devoted to the design and development of Abs-NMs conjugates with various chemistries including passive adsorption, covalent coupling, and affinity interactions. In this review, we present the state-of-the-art techniques allowing various Ab-NM conjugates with a special focus on the efficiency of the developed probes to be employed in in vitro rapid tests. Challenges and future perspectives on the development of Ab-conjugated nanotags in rapid diagnostic tests are highlighted along with a survey of the progress in commercially available Ab-NM conjugates.

Brain Delivery of Single-Domain Antibodies: A Focus on VHH and VNAR

Passive immunotherapy, i.e., treatment with therapeutic antibodies, has been increasingly used over the last decade in several diseases such as cancers or inflammation. However, these proteins have some limitations that single-domain antibodies could potentially solve. One of the main issues of conventional antibodies is their limited brain penetration because of the blood-brain barrier (BBB). In this review, we aim at exploring the different options single-domain antibodies (sDAbs) such as variable domain of heavy-chain antibodies (VHHs) and variable new antigen receptors (VNARs) have already taken to reach the brain allowing them to be used as therapeutic, diagnosis or transporter tools.

An update on antiviral antibody-based biopharmaceuticals

Due to the vastness of the science virology, it is no longer an offshoot solely of the microbiology. Viruses have become as the causative agents of major epidemics throughout history. Many therapeutic strategies have been used for these microorganisms, and in this way the recognizing of potential targets of viruses is of particular importance for success. For decades, antibodies and antibody fragments have occupied a significant body of the treatment approaches against infectious diseases. Because of their high affinity, they can be designed and engineered against a variety of purposes, mainly since antibody fragments such as scFv, nanobody, diabody, and bispecific antibody have emerged owing to their small size and interesting properties. In this review, we have discussed the antibody discovery and molecular and biological design of antibody fragments as inspiring therapeutic and diagnostic agents against viral targets.

SARS-CoV-2 neutralizing antibody development strategies

In December 2019 a novel coronavirus was detected in Wuhan City of Hubei Province-China. Owing to a high rate of transmission from human to human, the new virus called SARS-CoV-2 differed from others by its unexpectedly rapid spread. The World Health Organization (WHO) described the most recent coronavirus epidemic as a global pandemic in March 2020. The virus spread triggered a health crisis (the COVID-19 disease) within three months, with socioeconomic implications. No approved targeted-therapies are available for COVID-19, yet. However, it is foreseen that antibody-based treatments may provide an immediate cure for patients. Current neutralizing antibody development studies primarily target the S protein among the structural elements of SARS-CoV-2, which mediates the cell entry of the virus through the angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor of host cells. This review aims to provide some of the neutralizing antibody development strategies for SARS-CoV-2 and in vitro and in vivo neutralization assays.