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Ge S, Xie Y, Ding K, Xu S, Xu H, Chang X, Li H, Wang R, Luo Z, Shan Y, Ding S. The combination of metabolome and transcriptome clarifies the inhibition of the Alternaria toxin accumulation by methyl ferulate. Food Chem 2024; 456:140060. [PMID: 38878540 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2024.140060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2024] [Revised: 05/17/2024] [Accepted: 06/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/24/2024]
Abstract
As one of the most typical pathogens in fruit postharvest diseases, Alternaria alternata (A. alternata) can produce Alternaria toxins (ATs) aggravating fruit decay and harming human health. In this study, ATs (tenuazonic acid, alternariol monomethyl ether, and alternariol) production was inhibited effectively by 200 and 8000 mg/L MF (methyl ferulate) in vitro and in vivo. 1-Octen-3-ol and 3-octanol were the potential iconic volatile organic compounds of ATs (R2 > 0.99). MF induced oxidative stress, resulting in physiological and metabolic disorders, membrane lipid oxidation and cell damage. It decreased precursors and energy supply by disturbing amino acid metabolism, ABC transporters, citrate cycle, pentose and glucuronate interconversions to regulate ATs synthesis. MF down-regulated the genes related to ATs synthesis (PksJ, AaTAS1, and OmtI), transport (AaMFS1 and MFS), and pathogenicity to affect ATs production and virulence. This study provided a theoretical basis for the control of ATs production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuai Ge
- Longping Branch, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410125, China; DongTing Laboratory, Hunan Agricultural Product Processing Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Ying Xie
- Longping Branch, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410125, China; DongTing Laboratory, Hunan Agricultural Product Processing Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Ke Ding
- Longping Branch, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410125, China; DongTing Laboratory, Hunan Agricultural Product Processing Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Saiqing Xu
- Longping Branch, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410125, China; DongTing Laboratory, Hunan Agricultural Product Processing Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Haishan Xu
- Longping Branch, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410125, China; DongTing Laboratory, Hunan Agricultural Product Processing Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Xia Chang
- Longping Branch, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410125, China; DongTing Laboratory, Hunan Agricultural Product Processing Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Huan Li
- DongTing Laboratory, Hunan Agricultural Product Processing Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Rongrong Wang
- College of Food Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Zisheng Luo
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310000, China
| | - Yang Shan
- Longping Branch, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410125, China; DongTing Laboratory, Hunan Agricultural Product Processing Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China
| | - Shenghua Ding
- Longping Branch, College of Biology, Hunan University, Changsha 410125, China; DongTing Laboratory, Hunan Agricultural Product Processing Institute, Hunan Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410125, China.
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2
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Wang L, Wang C, Xu L, Wang M. Regulation of nitrogen utilization and mycotoxin biosynthesis by the GATA transcription factor AaAreA in Alternaria alternata. World J Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 40:236. [PMID: 38850454 DOI: 10.1007/s11274-024-04045-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 06/03/2024] [Indexed: 06/10/2024]
Abstract
Alternaria alternata is a prevalent postharvest pathogen that generates diverse mycotoxins, notably alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), which are recurrent severe contaminants. Nitrogen sources modulate fungal growth, development, and secondary metabolism, including mycotoxin production. The GATA transcription factor AreA regulates nitrogen source utilization. However, little is known about its involvement in the regulation of nitrogen utilization in A. alternata. To examine the regulatory mechanism of AaAreA on AOH and AME biosynthesis in A. alternata, we analyzed the impact of diverse nitrogen sources on the fungal growth, conidiation and mycotoxin production. The use of a secondary nitrogen source (NaNO3) enhanced mycelial elongation and sporulation more than the use of a primary source (NH4Cl). NaNO3 favored greater mycotoxin accumulation than did NH4Cl. The regulatory roles of AaAreA were further clarified through gene knockout. The absence of AaAreA led to an overall reduction in growth in minimal media containing any nitrogen source except NH4Cl. AaAreA positively regulates mycotoxin biosynthesis when both NH4Cl and NaNO3 are used as nitrogen sources. Subcellular localization analysis revealed abundant nuclear transport when NaNO3 was the sole nitrogen source. The regulatory pathway of AaAreA was systematically revealed through comprehensive transcriptomic analyses. The deletion of AaAreA significantly impedes the transcription of mycotoxin biosynthetic genes, including aohR, pksI and omtI. The interaction between AaAreA and aohR, a pathway-specific transcription factor gene, demonstrated that AaAreA binds to the aohR promoter sequence (5'-GGCTATGGAAA-3'), activating its transcription. The expressed AohR regulates the expression of downstream synthase genes in the cluster, ultimately impacting mycotoxin production. This study provides valuable information to further understand how AreA regulates AOH and AME biosynthesis in A. alternata, thereby enabling the effective design of control measures for mycotoxin contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liuqing Wang
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology of BAAFS (Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences), No. 9 Middle Road of Shuguanghuayuan, Haidian District, Beijing, 100097, China
| | - Cheng Wang
- Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agri-Products (Urumqi), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agri-Products, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Urumqi, 830091, China.
| | - Liang Xu
- Flower Technology Extension and Demonstration Station of Daxing District, Beijing, 102601, China
| | - Meng Wang
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology of BAAFS (Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences), No. 9 Middle Road of Shuguanghuayuan, Haidian District, Beijing, 100097, China.
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Wang J, Zhou Y, Wang P, Zhao L, Zhang H, Qu H, Xu F. Inhibitory Effect and Mechanism of Carvacrol against Black Mold Disease Agent Alternaria alternata in Goji Berries. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:402. [PMID: 38921388 PMCID: PMC11204410 DOI: 10.3390/jof10060402] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Revised: 05/30/2024] [Accepted: 05/31/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Alternaria alternata, as a main decay fungus of goji berry, can produce mycotoxins such as alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), and tenuazonic acid (TeA). Carvacrol (CVR) has exhibited a broad-spectrum antifungal activity in vitro. We assumed that CVR can also be applied to control Alternaria rot on goji berries and mycotoxins produced by the pathogens. To investigate whether CVR impacts the accumulation of mycotoxins and cell membrane damage of A. alternata, the antifungal activity of CVR on the fungal growth and mycotoxin production was evaluated in this study. The results showed that the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of CVR against A. alternata was 0.12 µL/mL. Meanwhile, the destruction of plasma membrane integrity, cytoplasmic leakage, intracellular oxidative damage, and inhibitory effect in vivo were also observed in A. alternata treated with CVR. Moreover, CVR significantly reduced the accumulation of AOH, AME, and TeA. Transcriptomic profiling was performed by means of comparative RNA-Seq analysis to research the gene expression level of A. alternata, which attested to significant changes in nitrogen metabolism, carbon utilization, fatty acid oxidation, and antioxidant enzymes in CVR-treated A. alternata. This study suggests a new understanding of the molecular mechanism of response to CVR treatment in A. alternata, indicating that CVR is a novel antifungal agent with the potential to be applied to various fungi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Junjie Wang
- Key Laboratory of Storage and Processing of Plant Agro-Products, School of Biological Science and Engineering, North Minzu University, Yinchuan 750021, China; (Y.Z.); (P.W.); (L.Z.); (H.Q.); (F.X.)
| | - Yueli Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Storage and Processing of Plant Agro-Products, School of Biological Science and Engineering, North Minzu University, Yinchuan 750021, China; (Y.Z.); (P.W.); (L.Z.); (H.Q.); (F.X.)
| | - Peng Wang
- Key Laboratory of Storage and Processing of Plant Agro-Products, School of Biological Science and Engineering, North Minzu University, Yinchuan 750021, China; (Y.Z.); (P.W.); (L.Z.); (H.Q.); (F.X.)
- College of Life Science, Northwest A & F University, Yangling 712100, China
| | - Lunaike Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Storage and Processing of Plant Agro-Products, School of Biological Science and Engineering, North Minzu University, Yinchuan 750021, China; (Y.Z.); (P.W.); (L.Z.); (H.Q.); (F.X.)
| | - Huaiyu Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Storage and Processing of Plant Agro-Products, School of Biological Science and Engineering, North Minzu University, Yinchuan 750021, China; (Y.Z.); (P.W.); (L.Z.); (H.Q.); (F.X.)
| | - Huan Qu
- Key Laboratory of Storage and Processing of Plant Agro-Products, School of Biological Science and Engineering, North Minzu University, Yinchuan 750021, China; (Y.Z.); (P.W.); (L.Z.); (H.Q.); (F.X.)
| | - Fei Xu
- Key Laboratory of Storage and Processing of Plant Agro-Products, School of Biological Science and Engineering, North Minzu University, Yinchuan 750021, China; (Y.Z.); (P.W.); (L.Z.); (H.Q.); (F.X.)
- Physical and Chemical Laboratory of Ningxia Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Yinchuan 750021, China
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Zhao L, Li L, Liu Z, Wang X, Yang R, Luo Z, Fang X, Luan Y. Aptamer functionalized magnetic hydrophobic polymer with synergetic effect for enhanced adsorption of alternariol from wheat. Food Chem 2024; 435:137556. [PMID: 37774612 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2023.137556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 09/16/2023] [Accepted: 09/19/2023] [Indexed: 10/01/2023]
Abstract
A new adsorbent based on aptamer functionalized magnetic hydrophobic polymer (MHbPA) was developed for specific and efficient adsorption of alternariol (AOH). Through the synergistic effect of aptamer-AOH affinity and hydrophobic interaction of polymer, enhanced adsorption properties had been realized, in which AOH aptamer was the first selected through capture-SELEX with good specificity and affinity, and the targeting polymer was designed based on the hydrophobicity of AOH to increase the interaction. The proposed MHbPA demonstrated a high adsorption capacity of 187.6 ng/mg for AOH. The adsorption behavior was considered as Langmuir adsorption model and pseudo-secondary kinetic adsorption model. Notably, the adsorption of AOH in wheat powder samples could be accomplished within 10 mins with acceptable recoveries. The as designed adsorbent with synergistic effect provides new insights into the development of enhanced pretreatment materials for mycotoxin monitoring in complex food matrices with specific aptamer and targeting polymer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liping Zhao
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology of BAAFS, Agricultural Product Quality and Safety Risk Assessment Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Linsen Li
- Key Laboratory of Molecular Medicine and Biotherapy, School of Life Science, Beijing Institute of Technology, China
| | - Zheng Liu
- Beijing Institute of Food Inspection and Research (Beijing Municipal Center for Food Safety Monitoring and Risk Assessment), Beijing 100085, China
| | - Xinjie Wang
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology of BAAFS, Agricultural Product Quality and Safety Risk Assessment Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Ruiqi Yang
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology of BAAFS, Agricultural Product Quality and Safety Risk Assessment Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture, Beijing 100097, China
| | - Zhaofeng Luo
- The Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province for Aptamers and Theranostic;Aptamer Selection Center, Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310022, China
| | - Xiaona Fang
- The Key Laboratory of Zhejiang Province for Aptamers and Theranostic;Aptamer Selection Center, Hangzhou Institute of Medicine (HIM), Chinese Academy of Sciences, Hangzhou, Zhejiang 310022, China
| | - Yunxia Luan
- Institute of Quality Standard and Testing Technology of BAAFS, Agricultural Product Quality and Safety Risk Assessment Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture, Beijing 100097, China.
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Tribelhorn K, Twarużek M, Kosicki R, Straubinger RK, Ebel F, Ulrich S. A Chemically Defined Medium That Supports Mycotoxin Production by Stachybotrys chartarum Enabled Analysis of the Impact of Nitrogen and Carbon Sources on the Biosynthesis of Macrocyclic Trichothecenes and Stachybotrylactam. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023:e0016323. [PMID: 37338364 PMCID: PMC10370337 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00163-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2023] [Accepted: 05/21/2023] [Indexed: 06/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Stachybotrys chartarum (Hypocreales, Ascomycota) is a toxigenic fungus that is frequently isolated from water-damaged buildings or improperly stored feed. The secondary metabolites formed by this mold have been associated with health problems in humans and animals. Several authors have studied the influence of environmental conditions on the production of mycotoxins, but these studies focused on undefined or complex substrates, such as building materials and media that impeded investigations of the influence of specific nutrients. In this study, a chemically defined cultivation medium was used to investigate the impact of several nitrogen and carbon sources on growth of S. chartarum and its production of macrocyclic trichothecenes (MTs) and stachybotrylactam (STLAC). Increasing concentrations of sodium nitrate were found to positively affect mycelial growth, the level of sporulation, and MT production, while ammonium nitrate and ammonium chloride had an inhibitory effect. Potato starch was the superior and most reliable carbon source tested. Additionally, we observed that the level of sporulation was correlated with the production of MTs but not with that of STLAC. In this study, we provide a chemically well-defined cultivation medium suitable for standardized in vitro testing of the capacity of S. chartarum isolates to produce macrocyclic trichothecenes. IMPORTANCE Macrocyclic trichothecenes (MTs) are highly toxic secondary metabolites that are produced by certain Stachybotrys chartarum strains, which consequently pose a risk for animals and humans. To identify hazardous, toxin-producing strains by analytical means, it is important to grow them under conditions that support MT production. Nutrients determine growth and development and thus the synthesis of secondary metabolites. Complex rich media are commonly used for diagnostics, but batch differences of supplements pose a risk for inconsistent data. We have established a chemically defined medium for S. chartarum and used it to analyze the impact of nitrogen and carbon sources. A key finding is that nitrate stimulates MT production, whereas ammonium suppresses it. Defining nutrients that support MT production will enable a more reliable identification of hazardous S. chartarum isolates. The new medium will also be instrumental in analyzing the biosynthetic pathways and regulatory mechanisms that control mycotoxin production in S. chartarum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Tribelhorn
- Chair of Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Magdalena Twarużek
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Robert Kosicki
- Department of Physiology and Toxicology, Faculty of Biological Sciences, Kazimierz Wielki University, Bydgoszcz, Poland
| | - Reinhard K Straubinger
- Chair of Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Frank Ebel
- Chair of Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
| | - Sebastian Ulrich
- Chair of Bacteriology and Mycology, Department of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute for Infectious Diseases and Zoonosis, LMU Munich, Munich, Germany
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Kortei NK, Oman Ayiku P, Nsor-Atindana J, Owusu Ansah L, Wiafe-Kwagyan M, Kyei-Baffour V, Kottoh ID, Odamtten GT. Toxicogenic fungal profile, Ochratoxin A exposure and cancer risk characterization through maize (Zea mays) consumed by different age populations in the Volta region of Ghana. Toxicon 2023; 226:107085. [PMID: 36921906 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2022] [Revised: 02/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 03/16/2023]
Abstract
Maize (Zea mays) is an important staple food crop for the majority of Ghanaians. Maize is mostly contaminated by fungal species and particularly mycotoxins. This work aimed to identify and quantify the incidence of fungal infection and exposure to Ochratoxin A (OTA) as well as the health risk characterization in different age populations due to maize consumption in the Volta region. Maize samples were plated on Dichloran Rose Bengal Chloramphenicol (DRBC) agar, and Oxytetracycline Glucose Yeast Extract (OGYE) agar. All media were prepared in accordance with the manufacturers' instructions. The plates were incubated at 28 ± 2 °C for 5-7 days. High-Performance Liquid Chromatography connected to a fluorescence detector (HPLC-FLD) was used to analyze the ochratoxin A (OTA) levels in maize. Cancer risk assessments were also conducted using models prescribed by the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Additives (JECFA). The maize samples collected from the Volta region contained fungal population between the range of 3.08-4.58 log10 CFU/g. Eight (8) genera were recorded belonging to Aspergillus, Trichoderma, Penicillium, Fusarium, Saccharomyces, Mucor, Rhodotorula and Rhizopus. The species diversity includes A. flavus, A. niger, T. harzianum, P. verrucosum, F. oxysporum, Yeast, F. verticillioides, Rhodotorulla sp, A. fumigatus, R. stolonifer, M. racemosus species. Additionally, the ochratoxins level contained in the samples were very noteworthy and ranged from 1.22 to 28.17 μg/kg. Cancer risk assessments of OTA produced outcomes also ranged between 2.15 and 524.54 ng/kg bw/day, 0.03-8.31, 0.0323, and 0.07-16.94 for cases/100,000 person/yr for Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Margin of Exposure (MOE), Average Potency, and Cancer Risks respectively for all age categories investigated. There was very high mycoflora load on the maize sampled from the Volta region, likewise the range of mycotoxins present in the maize grains, suggesting the potential to pose some adverse health effects with the populace of the Volta region.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nii Korley Kortei
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Allied Health Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, PMB 31, Ho, Ghana.
| | - Peter Oman Ayiku
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Allied Health Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, PMB 31, Ho, Ghana
| | - John Nsor-Atindana
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Allied Health Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, PMB 31, Ho, Ghana
| | - Leslie Owusu Ansah
- Department of Food Laboratory, Food and Drugs Authority, P.O. Box CT 2783, Cantonments, Accra, Ghana
| | - Michael Wiafe-Kwagyan
- Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana
| | - Vincent Kyei-Baffour
- Food Chemistry and Nutrition Research Division, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research- Food Research Institute, P. O. Box M20, Accra, Ghana
| | - Isaac Delali Kottoh
- Biotechnology and Nuclear Agriculture Research Institute (BNARI), Ghana Atomic Energy Commission, P. O. Box LG 80, Legon, Accra, Ghana
| | - George Tawia Odamtten
- Department of Plant and Environmental Biology, College of Basic and Applied Sciences, University of Ghana, P. O. Box LG 55, Legon, Ghana
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Miranda-Apodaca J, Artetxe U, Aguado I, Martin-Souto L, Ramirez-Garcia A, Lacuesta M, Becerril JM, Estonba A, Ortiz-Barredo A, Hernández A, Zarraonaindia I, Pérez-López U. Stress Response to Climate Change and Postharvest Handling in Two Differently Pigmented Lettuce Genotypes: Impact on Alternaria alternata Invasion and Mycotoxin Production. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 12:1304. [PMID: 36986993 PMCID: PMC10059781 DOI: 10.3390/plants12061304] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Revised: 02/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/19/2023]
Abstract
Many species of Alternaria are important pathogens that cause plant diseases and postharvest rots. They lead to significant economic losses in agriculture and affect human and animal health due to their capacity to produce mycotoxins. Therefore, it is necessary to study the factors that can result in an increase in A. alternata. In this study, we discuss the mechanism by which phenol content protects from A. alternata, since the red oak leaf cultivar (containing higher phenols) showed lower invasion than the green one, Batavia, and no mycotoxin production. A climate change scenario enhanced fungal growth in the most susceptible cultivar, green lettuce, likely because elevated temperature and CO2 levels decrease plant N content, modifying the C/N ratio. Finally, while the abundance of the fungi was maintained at similar levels after keeping the lettuces for four days at 4 °C, this postharvest handling triggered TeA and TEN mycotoxin synthesis, but only in the green cultivar. Therefore, the results demonstrated that invasion and mycotoxin production are cultivar- and temperature-dependent. Further research should be directed to search for resistant cultivars and effective postharvest strategies to reduce the toxicological risk and economic losses related to this fungus, which are expected to increase in a climate change scenario.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jon Miranda-Apodaca
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Unai Artetxe
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Iratxe Aguado
- Applied Genomics and Bioinformatics Research Group, Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Leire Martin-Souto
- Fungal and Bacterial Biomics Research Group, Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Andoni Ramirez-Garcia
- Fungal and Bacterial Biomics Research Group, Department of Immunology, Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Maite Lacuesta
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - José María Becerril
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Andone Estonba
- Applied Genomics and Bioinformatics Research Group, Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Amaia Ortiz-Barredo
- NEIKER-Basque Institute for Agricultural Research and Development, 01080 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain
| | - Antonio Hernández
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
| | - Iratxe Zarraonaindia
- Applied Genomics and Bioinformatics Research Group, Department of Genetics, Physical Anthropology and Animal Physiology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
- IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, Plaza Euskadi 5, 48009 Bilbao, Spain
| | - Usue Pérez-López
- Department of Plant Biology and Ecology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Barrio Sarriena s/n, 48940 Leioa, Spain
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Prencipe S, Meloni GR, Nari L, Schiavon G, Spadaro D. Pathogenicity, Molecular Characterization, and Mycotoxigenic Potential of Alternaria spp. Agents of Black Spots on Fruit and Leaves of Pyrus communis in Italy. PHYTOPATHOLOGY 2023; 113:309-320. [PMID: 36167507 DOI: 10.1094/phyto-03-22-0103-r] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Brown and black spots, caused by Stemphylium and Alternaria species, are important fungal diseases affecting European pear (Pyrus communis) in orchards. Both fungal genera cause similar symptoms, which could favor misidentification, but Alternaria spp. are increasingly reported due to the changing climatic conditions. In this study, Alternaria spp. were isolated from symptomatic leaves and fruits of European pear, and their pathogenicity was evaluated on pear fruits from cultivar Abate Fétel, and molecular and chemical characterization were performed. Based on maximum likelihood phylogenetic analysis, 15 of 46 isolates were identified as A. arborescens species complex (AASC), 27 as A. alternata, and four as Alternaria sp. Both species were isolated from mature fruits and leaves. In pathogenicity assays on pear fruits, all isolates reproduced the symptoms observed in the field, by both wound inoculation and direct penetration. All but one isolate produced Alternaria toxins on European pears, including tenuazonic acid and alternariol (89.1% of the isolates), alternariol monomethyl ether (89.1%), altertoxin I (80.4%), altenuene (50.0%), and tentoxin (2.2%). These isolates also produced at least two mycotoxins, and 43.5% produced four mycotoxins, with an average total concentration of the Alternaria toxins exceeding 7.58 × 106 ng/kg. Our data underline the potential risks for human health related to the high mycotoxin content found on fruits affected by black spot. This study also represents the first report of AASC as an agent of black spot on European pear in Italy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simona Prencipe
- Department of Agricultural, Forestry and Food Sciences (DiSAFA), University of Torino, via Paolo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Giovanna Roberta Meloni
- Department of Agricultural, Forestry and Food Sciences (DiSAFA), University of Torino, via Paolo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
- Centre of Competence for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector - AGROINNOVA, University of Turin, via Paolo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Luca Nari
- Fondazione Agrion - Via Falicetto, 24, 12030, Manta, CN, Italy
| | - Giada Schiavon
- Department of Agricultural, Forestry and Food Sciences (DiSAFA), University of Torino, via Paolo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
- Centre of Competence for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector - AGROINNOVA, University of Turin, via Paolo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
| | - Davide Spadaro
- Department of Agricultural, Forestry and Food Sciences (DiSAFA), University of Torino, via Paolo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
- Centre of Competence for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector - AGROINNOVA, University of Turin, via Paolo Braccini 2, 10095, Grugliasco, TO, Italy
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Production of Satratoxin G and H Is Tightly Linked to Sporulation in Stachybotrys chartarum. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080515. [PMID: 36006177 PMCID: PMC9413001 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080515] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2022] [Revised: 07/22/2022] [Accepted: 07/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/10/2022] Open
Abstract
Stachybotrys chartarum is a toxigenic fungus that is frequently isolated from damp building materials or improperly stored forage. Macrocyclic trichothecenes and in particular satratoxins are the most potent mycotoxins known to be produced by this fungus. Exposure of humans or animals to these secondary metabolites can be associated with severe health problems. To assess the pathogenic potential of S. chartarum isolates, it is essential to cultivate them under conditions that reliably promote toxin production. Potato dextrose agar (PDA) was reported to be the optimal nutrition medium for satratoxin production. In this study, the growth of S. chartarum genotype S strains on PDA from two manufacturers led to divergent results, namely, well-grown and sporulating cultures with high satratoxin concentrations (20.8 ± 0.4 µg/cm2) versus cultures with sparse sporulation and low satratoxin production (0.3 ± 0.1 µg/cm2). This finding is important for any attempt to identify toxigenic S. chartarum isolates. Further experiments performed with the two media provided strong evidence for a link between satratoxin production and sporulation. A comparison of three-point and one-point cultures grown on the two types of PDA, furthermore, demonstrated an inter-colony communication that influences both sporulation and mycotoxin production of S. chartarum genotype S strains.
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10
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Kortei NK, Annan T, Kyei-Baffour V, Essuman EK, Okyere H, Tettey CO. Exposure and risk characterizations of ochratoxins A and aflatoxins through maize (Zea mays) consumed in different agro-ecological zones of Ghana. Sci Rep 2021; 11:23339. [PMID: 34857860 PMCID: PMC8639867 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-02822-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2021] [Accepted: 11/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs is a serious food safety concern globally as the prolonged ingestion of these toxins has the tendency to worsen the risk of hepatocellular carcinoma. This study aimed at estimating ochratoxin A (OTA) and aflatoxin (AF) levels above international (European Food Safety Authority, EFSA) and local (Ghana Standards Authority, GSA) standards as well as the health risks associated with the consumption of maize (n = 180) sampled from six (6) regions representing the agro-ecological zones of Ghana. OTA and AF were measured with High-Performance Liquid Chromatography with a Fluorescence detector. Out of the 180 samples analyzed for total aflatoxins (AFtotal), 131/180 tested positive and 127 (70.50%) exceeded the limits of EFSA and ranged 4.27-441.02 µg/kg. While for GSA, 116 (64.44%) of samples exceeded this limit and ranged between 10.18 and 441.02 µg/kg. For OTA, 103/180 tested positive and 94 (52.22%) of samples between the range 4.00-97.51 µg/kg exceeded the tolerable limit of EFSA, whereas 89 (49.44%) and were in the range of 3.30-97.51 µg/kg exceeded the limits of GSA. Risk assessment values for total aflatoxins (AFtotal) ranged between 50 and 1150 ng/kg bw/day, 0.4-6.67, 0-0.0323 aflatoxins ng/kg bw/day and 1.62-37.15 cases/100,000 person/year for Estimated Daily Intake (EDI), Margin of Exposure (MOE), Average Potency, and Cancer Risks respectively. Likewise, ochratoxin (OTA) values were in the ranges of 8.6 × 10-3-450 ng/kg bw/day, 0.05-2059.97, 0-0.0323 ochratoxins ng/kg bw/day and 2.78 × 10-4-14.54 cases/100,000 person/year. Consumption of maize posed adverse health effects in all age categories of the locations studied since the calculated MOE values were less than 10,000.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nii Korley Kortei
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Allied Health Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, PMB 31, Ho, Ghana.
| | - Theophilus Annan
- Food Microbiology Division, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research- Food Research Institute, P. O. Box M20, Accra, Ghana
| | - Vincent Kyei-Baffour
- Food Chemistry and Nutrition Research Division, Council for Scientific and Industrial Research- Food Research Institute, P. O. Box M20, Accra, Ghana
| | - Edward Ken Essuman
- Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, School of Allied Health Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, PMB 31, Ho, Ghana
| | - Harry Okyere
- Council for Scientific and Industrial Research- Crops Research Institute, P. O. Box 3785, Fumesua, Kumasi, Ghana
| | - Clement Okraku Tettey
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Basic and Biomedical Sciences, University of Health and Allied Sciences, PMB 31, Ho, Ghana
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11
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Wang S, Gao H, Wei Z, Zhou J, Ren S, He J, Luan Y, Lou X. Shortened and multivalent aptamers for ultrasensitive and rapid detection of alternariol in wheat using optical waveguide sensors. Biosens Bioelectron 2021; 196:113702. [PMID: 34655971 DOI: 10.1016/j.bios.2021.113702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Alternariol (AOH) is one of the common mycotoxins existing in a variety of foods at low level. Aptamers hold great promise for the development of sensitive and rapid aptasensors, but suffer from the excessive length and the difficulty in identification of critical binding domains (CBDs). In this study, the 5 nt CBD of the original 59-nt AOH aptamer (AOH-59, KD = 423 nM) was identified to be a 'C' bulge in between two A-T base pairs. AOH-59 was successfully shortened to a 23 nt aptamer (AOH 6C, KD = 701 nM). A 30 nt bivalent aptamer B-2-3 (KD = 445 nM) and a 39 nt trivalent aptamer T-2-3 (KD = 274 nM) were obtained by simply incorporating one or two CBDs into AOH 6C. The AOH 6C-, B-2-3-, and T-2-3-based optical waveguide aptasensors possessed the unprecedented detection of limits (LODs, S/N = 3) of 42 ± 3, 6 ± 1 and 2 ± 1 fM, respectively. Using the AOH 6C-based sensor as an example, we further demonstrated the detection of AOH spiked in wheat powder with a LOD of 37 pg/g, 20-230-fold lower than those achieved by ELISAs. The sensor was capable for 35 times 2-min regeneration and the assay time including the extraction of AOH from wheat was only about 1 h. We not only devised the first aptasensors for AOH detection, but also provided a simple strategy to design multivalent aptamers for small molecule targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuo Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Xisanhuan North Road. 105, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Hualong Gao
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Xisanhuan North Road. 105, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Zhenzhe Wei
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Xisanhuan North Road. 105, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Jianshuo Zhou
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Xisanhuan North Road. 105, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Shang Ren
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Xisanhuan North Road. 105, Beijing 100048, China
| | - Junlin He
- State Key Laboratory of Toxicology and Medical Countermeasures, Beijing Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Beijing, 100850, China.
| | - Yunxia Luan
- Beijing Research Center for Agricultural Standards and Testing, Agricultural Product Quality and Safety Risk Assessment Laboratory of the Department of Agriculture, Beijing Municipal Key Laboratory of Agriculture Environment Monitoring, Beijing Academy of Agriculture and Forestry Sciences, Middle Road of Shuguang Huayuan No.9, Beijing 100097, China.
| | - Xinhui Lou
- Department of Chemistry, Capital Normal University, Xisanhuan North Road. 105, Beijing 100048, China.
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12
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Hadi J, Brightwell G. Safety of Alternative Proteins: Technological, Environmental and Regulatory Aspects of Cultured Meat, Plant-Based Meat, Insect Protein and Single-Cell Protein. Foods 2021; 10:1226. [PMID: 34071292 PMCID: PMC8230205 DOI: 10.3390/foods10061226] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Food security and environmental issues have become global crises that need transformative solutions. As livestock production is becoming less sustainable, alternative sources of proteins are urgently required. These include cultured meat, plant-based meat, insect protein and single-cell protein. Here, we describe the food safety aspects of these novel protein sources, in terms of their technological backgrounds, environmental impacts and the necessary regulatory framework for future mass-scale production. Briefly, cultured meat grown in fetal bovine serum-based media can be exposed to viruses or infectious prion, in addition to other safety risks associated with the use of genetic engineering. Plant-based meat may contain allergens, anti-nutrients and thermally induced carcinogens. Microbiological risks and allergens are the primary concerns associated with insect protein. Single-cell protein sources are divided into microalgae, fungi and bacteria, all of which have specific food safety risks that include toxins, allergens and high ribonucleic acid (RNA) contents. The environmental impacts of these alternative proteins can mainly be attributed to the production of growth substrates or during cultivation. Legislations related to novel food or genetic modification are the relevant regulatory framework to ensure the safety of alternative proteins. Lastly, additional studies on the food safety aspects of alternative proteins are urgently needed for providing relevant food governing authorities with sufficient data to oversee that the technological progress in this area is balanced with robust safety standards.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Hadi
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University Ave and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
| | - Gale Brightwell
- AgResearch Ltd., Hopkirk Research Institute, Cnr University Ave and Library Road, Massey University, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand;
- New Zealand Food Safety Science and Research Centre, Massey University Manawatu (Turitea), Tennent Drive, Palmerston North 4474, New Zealand
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13
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Antimycotoxigenic Activity of Beetroot Extracts against Alternaria alternata Mycotoxins on Potato Crop. APPLIED SCIENCES-BASEL 2021. [DOI: 10.3390/app11094239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Alternaria species, mainly air-borne fungi, affect potato plants, causing black spots symptoms. Morphological identification, pathogenicity assessment, and internal transcribed spacer (ITS) molecular identification confirmed that all isolates were Alternaria alternata. The annotated sequences were deposited in GenBank under accession numbers MN592771–MN592777. HPLC analysis revealed that the fungal isolates KH3 (133,200 ng/g) and NO3 (212,000 ng/g) produced higher levels of tenuazonic acid (TeA) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME), respectively. Beet ethanol extract (BEE) and beet methanol extract (BME) at different concentrations were used as antimycotoxins. BME decreased the production of mycotoxins by 66.99–99.79%. The highest TeA reduction rate (99.39%) was reported in the KH3 isolate with 150 µg/mL BME treatment. In comparison, the most effective AME reduction rate (99.79%) was shown in the NO3 isolate with 150 µg/mL BME treatment. In the same way, BEE application resulted in 95.60–99.91% mycotoxin reduction. The highest TeA reduction rate (99.91%) was reported in the KH3 isolate with 150 µg/mL BEE treatment, while the greatest AME reduction rate (99.68%) was shown in the Alam1 isolate with 75 µg/mL BEE treatment. GC-MS analysis showed that the main constituent in BME was the antioxidant compound 1-dodecanamine, n,n-dimethyl with a peak area of 43.75%. In contrast, oxirane, methyl- (23.22%); hexadecanoic acid, methyl ester (10.72%); and n-hexadecanoic acid (7.32%) were the main components in BEE found by GC-MS. They are probably antimicrobial molecules and have an effect on the mycotoxin in general. To our knowledge, this is the first study describing the antimycotoxigenic activity of beet extracts against A. alternata mycotoxins-contaminated potato crops in Egypt, aimed to manage and save the environment.
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14
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Fang Q, Du M, Chen J, Liu T, Zheng Y, Liao Z, Zhong Q, Wang L, Fang X, Wang J. Degradation and Detoxification of Aflatoxin B1 by Tea-Derived Aspergillus niger RAF106. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12120777. [PMID: 33291337 PMCID: PMC7762301 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120777] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 12/02/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Microbial degradation is an effective and attractive method for eliminating aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), which is severely toxic to humans and animals. In this study, Aspergillus niger RAF106 could effectively degrade AFB1 when cultivated in Sabouraud dextrose broth (SDB) with contents of AFB1 ranging from 0.1 to 4 μg/mL. Treatment with yeast extract as a nitrogen source stimulated the degradation, but treatment with NaNO3 and NaNO2 as nitrogen sources and lactose and sucrose as carbon sources suppressed the degradation. Moreover, A. niger RAF106 still degraded AFB1 at initial pH values that ranged from 4 to 10 and at cultivation temperatures that ranged from 25 to 45 °C. In addition, intracellular enzymes or proteins with excellent thermotolerance were verified as being able to degrade AFB1 into metabolites with low or no mutagenicity. Furthermore, genomic sequence analysis indicated that the fungus was considered to be safe owing to the absence of virulence genes and the gene clusters for the synthesis of mycotoxins. These results indicate that A. niger RAF106 and its intracellular enzymes or proteins have a promising potential to be applied commercially in the processing and industry of food and feed to detoxify AFB1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qian’an Fang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.F.); (M.D.); (J.C.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (Z.L.); (Q.Z.); (L.W.)
| | - Minru Du
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.F.); (M.D.); (J.C.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (Z.L.); (Q.Z.); (L.W.)
| | - Jianwen Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.F.); (M.D.); (J.C.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (Z.L.); (Q.Z.); (L.W.)
| | - Tong Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.F.); (M.D.); (J.C.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (Z.L.); (Q.Z.); (L.W.)
| | - Yong Zheng
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.F.); (M.D.); (J.C.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (Z.L.); (Q.Z.); (L.W.)
| | - Zhenlin Liao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.F.); (M.D.); (J.C.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (Z.L.); (Q.Z.); (L.W.)
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Qingping Zhong
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.F.); (M.D.); (J.C.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (Z.L.); (Q.Z.); (L.W.)
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Li Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.F.); (M.D.); (J.C.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (Z.L.); (Q.Z.); (L.W.)
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
| | - Xiang Fang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.F.); (M.D.); (J.C.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (Z.L.); (Q.Z.); (L.W.)
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Correspondence: (X.F.); (J.W.)
| | - Jie Wang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Food Quality and Safety, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Q.F.); (M.D.); (J.C.); (T.L.); (Y.Z.); (Z.L.); (Q.Z.); (L.W.)
- Lingnan Guangdong Laboratory of Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, China
- Guangdong Open Laboratory of Applied Microbiology, Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China
- Correspondence: (X.F.); (J.W.)
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15
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Transcriptomic Insights into the Antifungal Effects of Magnolol on the Growth and Mycotoxin Production of Alternaria alternata. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100665. [PMID: 33092244 PMCID: PMC7594048 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Alternaria alternata is an important phytopathogen causing fruit black rot and also producing a variety of mycotoxins, such as alternariol (AOH) and alternariol monomethyl ether (AME) as two main contaminants. This could lead to economic losses of agricultural products as well as human health risks. In this study, magnolol extracted from the traditional Chinese herb, Mangnolia officinalis, exhibited an obvious antifungal property and could completely suppress the mycelial growth at 100 μM. Morphological differences of A. alternata were observed to be significantly shrunk and wrinkled after the exposure to magnolol. Furthermore, AOH and AME were no longer produced in response to 50 μM of magnolol. To uncover the antifungal and antimycotoxigenic mechanisms, the transcriptomic profiles of A. alternata—treated with or without magnolol—were evaluated. The clustered genes responsible for AOH and AME biosynthesis were obviously less transcribed under magnolol stress and this was further confirmed by qRT-PCR. The global regulators of carbon and nitrogen utilization, such as CreA and NmrA, were significantly down-regulated and this possibly caused the reduction in mycotoxins. In addition, fatty acid β-oxidation was regarded to contribute to polyketide mycotoxin production for the supply of precursor acetyl-CoA while the expression of these related genes was inhibited. The response to magnolol led to the marked alteration of oxidative stress and the down-expression of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) signaling pathway from the transcriptome data and the determination of peroxidase (POD), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) assays. This above might be the very reason for the growth supression and mycotoxin production of A. alternata by magnolol. This study provides new insights into its potential as an important active ingredient for the control of A. alternata and its mycotoxins in fruits and their products.
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16
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Berestetskiy AO, Dalinova AA, Volosatova NS. Metabolite Profiles and Biological Activity of Extracts from Alternaria sonchi S-102 Culture Grown by Different Fermentation Methods. APPL BIOCHEM MICRO+ 2019. [DOI: 10.1134/s0003683819030049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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17
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Chen Y, Zhang X, Zheng G, Gao S. Preparation of the enantiomerically enriched precursor of lamivudine (3TC™) via asymmetric catalysis mediated by Klebsiella oxytoca. Process Biochem 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.procbio.2019.03.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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18
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Stange S, Steudler S, Delenk H, Werner A, Walther T, Wagenführ A. Influence of the Nutrients on the Biomass and Pigment Production of Chlorociboria aeruginascens. J Fungi (Basel) 2019; 5:jof5020040. [PMID: 31100858 PMCID: PMC6617353 DOI: 10.3390/jof5020040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2019] [Revised: 05/13/2019] [Accepted: 05/14/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The blue-green pigment xylindein, produced by the soft rot fungus Chlorociboria aeruginascens, is of considerable interest for various applications such as the veneer industry or organic semiconductors. The studies presented were performed in order to understand the fungal growth as well as the pigment production of C. aeruginascens. Therefore, various nutrient compositions were investigated. As a result, observations of the formation of xylindein through C. aeruginascens decoupling from growth were made. In the primary metabolism the uncolored biomass is formed. Various carbohydrates were determined as nutrients for the fungus and as a nitrogen source it was observed that the fungus prefers the complex organic nitrogen source, that being yeast extract. Furthermore, it was discovered that the ratio between carbohydrate and nitrogen sources encourages the switch of the metabolism and therewith the production of the blue-green pigment xylindein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Stange
- Faculty of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Wood Technology and Fibre Materials Technology, 01069 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Susanne Steudler
- Faculty of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, 01069 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Hubertus Delenk
- Faculty of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Wood Technology and Fibre Materials Technology, 01069 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Anett Werner
- Faculty of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, 01069 Dresden, Germany.
| | - Thomas Walther
- Faculty of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Bioprocess Engineering, 01069 Dresden, Germany.
| | - André Wagenführ
- Faculty of Mechanical Science and Engineering, Institute of Natural Materials Technology, Technische Universität Dresden, Chair of Wood Technology and Fibre Materials Technology, 01069 Dresden, Germany.
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19
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Greeff-Laubscher MR, Beukes I, Marais GJ, Jacobs K. Mycotoxin production by three different toxigenic fungi genera on formulated abalone feed and the effect of an aquatic environment on fumonisins. Mycology 2019; 11:105-117. [PMID: 32923019 PMCID: PMC7448847 DOI: 10.1080/21501203.2019.1604575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by various filamentous fungi, of which Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium are the three main genera. Fusarium verticillioides is one of the most dominant toxigenic fungal species, associated with fumonisin contamination in grain-based feeds, such as compound abalone feed. Mycotoxin production is influenced by temperature and available nutrients. In this study the aims were: to determine if abalone feed as growth substrate favours mycotoxin production for toxigenic fungi; to determine the most effective temperature for fumonisin production by F. verticillioides on abalone feed; and to assess the effect of the aquatic environment on fumonisin-contaminated abalone feed. A total of 93 fungal isolates were inoculated onto abalone feed, including species belonging to the genera Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium. Feed inoculated with F. verticillioides were incubated at two different temperatures and fumonisin-contaminated feed was submerged into seawater for 24 h. Results showed that mycotoxins were produced when abalone feed was inoculated with toxigenic fungi, and that F. verticillioides produced higher concentrations of fumonisins at a lower temperature. Submerging fumonisin-contaminated feed in seawater showed that this toxin leached into the seawater, lowering the risk of fumonisins to be consumed by abalone.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ilze Beukes
- Department of Plant Pathology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
| | - Gert Johannes Marais
- Department of Plant Sciences, University of the Free State, Bloemfontein South Africa
| | - Karin Jacobs
- Department of Microbiology, Stellenbosch University, Stellenbosch, South Africa
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20
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Siciliano I, Franco Ortega S, Gilardi G, Bosio P, Garibaldi A, Gullino ML. Molecular phylogeny and characterization of secondary metabolite profile of plant pathogenic Alternaria species isolated from basil. Food Microbiol 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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21
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Sandoval-Contreras T, Villarruel-López A, Torres-Vitela R, Garciglia-Mercado C, Gómez-Anduro G, Velázquez-Lizárraga A, Sierra-Beltran A, Ascencio F. Mycotoxigenic potential of phytopathogenic moulds isolated from citrus fruits from different states of Mexico. QUALITY ASSURANCE AND SAFETY OF CROPS & FOODS 2018. [DOI: 10.3920/qas2016.0890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- T. Sandoval-Contreras
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz, BCS, 23096, Mexico
| | - A. Villarruel-López
- Centro Universitario de Ciencias Exactas e Ingenierías, Universidad de Guadalajara, Marcelino García Barragán #1421 Guadalajara, Jal. 44430, Mexico
| | - R. Torres-Vitela
- Centro Universitario de Ciencias Exactas e Ingenierías, Universidad de Guadalajara, Marcelino García Barragán #1421 Guadalajara, Jal. 44430, Mexico
| | - C. Garciglia-Mercado
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz, BCS, 23096, Mexico
| | - G. Gómez-Anduro
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz, BCS, 23096, Mexico
| | - A.E. Velázquez-Lizárraga
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz, BCS, 23096, Mexico
| | - A. Sierra-Beltran
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz, BCS, 23096, Mexico
| | - F. Ascencio
- Centro de Investigaciones Biológicas del Noroeste, Instituto Politécnico Nacional 195, Playa Palo de Santa Rita Sur, La Paz, BCS, 23096, Mexico
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Nguyen TTT, Kim J, Jeon SJ, Lee CW, Magan N, Lee HB. Mycotoxin production of Alternaria strains isolated from Korean barley grains determined by LC-MS/MS. Int J Food Microbiol 2018; 268:44-52. [PMID: 29328967 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2018.01.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2017] [Revised: 12/28/2017] [Accepted: 01/02/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Twenty-four Alternaria strains were isolated from barley grain samples. These strains were screened for the production of mycotoxins on rice medium using thin layer chromatography. All 24 strains produced at least one of the five mycotoxins (ALT, AOH, ATX-I, AME, and TeA). Three representative strains, namely EML-BLDF1-4, EML-BLDF1-14, and EML-BLDF1-18, were further analyzed using a new LC-MS/MS-based mycotoxin quantification method. This method was used to detect and quantify Alternaria mycotoxins. We used positive ion electrospray mass spectrometry with multiple reaction mode (MRM) for the simultaneous quantification of various Alternaria mycotoxins produced by these strains. Five Alternaria toxins (ALT, ATX-I, AOH, AME, and TeA) were detected and quantified. Sample preparation included methanol extraction, concentration, and injection into LC-MS/MS. Limit of detection ranged from 0.13 to 4μg/mL and limit of quantification ranged from 0.25 to 8μg/mL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thuong T T Nguyen
- Division of Food Technology, Biotechnology & Agrochemistry, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea
| | - Jueun Kim
- Department of Chemistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea
| | - Sun Jeong Jeon
- Division of Food Technology, Biotechnology & Agrochemistry, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea
| | - Chul Won Lee
- Department of Chemistry, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea
| | - Naresh Magan
- Applied Mycology Group, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedford MK43 0AL, UK
| | - Hyang Burm Lee
- Division of Food Technology, Biotechnology & Agrochemistry, College of Agriculture & Life Sciences, Chonnam National University, Gwangju 61186, South Korea.
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Estiarte N, Crespo-Sempere A, Marín S, Sanchis V, Ramos A. Exploring polyamine metabolism of Alternaria alternata to target new substances to control the fungal infection. Food Microbiol 2017; 65:193-204. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2017.02.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 01/18/2017] [Accepted: 02/01/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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24
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Influence of Environmental Factors on the Production of Penitrems A-F by Penicillium crustosum. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:toxins9070210. [PMID: 28671569 PMCID: PMC5535157 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9070210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Revised: 06/15/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Filamentous fungi produce a multitude of secondary metabolites, some of them known as mycotoxins, which are toxic to vertebrates and other animal groups in low concentrations. Among them, penitrems, which belong to the group of indole-diterpene mycotoxins, are synthesized by Penicillium and Aspergillus genera and exhibit potent tremorgenic effects. This is the first complex study of the penitrems A-F production under the influence of different abiotic factors, e.g., media, incubation time, temperature, pH, light, water activity, and carbon and nitrogen source as well as oxidative and salt stress. For this purpose, penitrems A-F were isolated from Penicillium crustosum cultures and used as analytical standards. Among the carbon sources, glucose supplemented to the media at the concentration of 50 g/L, showed the strongest inducing effect on the biosynthesis of penitrems. Among nitrogen sources, glutamate was found to be the most favorable supplement, significantly increasing production of these secondary metabolites. CuSO4-promoted oxidative stress was also shown to remarkably stimulate biosynthesis of all penitrems. In contrast, the salt stress, caused by the elevated concentrations of NaCl, showed an inhibitory effect on the penitrem biosynthesis. Finally, cheese model medium elicited exceptionally high production of all members of the penitrems family. Obtained results give insides into the biosynthesis of toxicologically relevant penitrems A-F under different environmental factors and can be utilized to prevent food contamination.
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Shi W, Tan Y, Wang S, Gardiner DM, De Saeger S, Liao Y, Wang C, Fan Y, Wang Z, Wu A. Mycotoxigenic Potentials of Fusarium Species in Various Culture Matrices Revealed by Mycotoxin Profiling. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 9:E6. [PMID: 28035973 PMCID: PMC5308239 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9010006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2016] [Revised: 12/19/2016] [Accepted: 12/21/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study, twenty of the most common Fusarium species were molecularly characterized and inoculated on potato dextrose agar (PDA), rice and maize medium, where thirty three targeted mycotoxins, which might be the secondary metabolites of the identified fungal species, were detected by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Statistical analysis was performed with principal component analysis (PCA) to characterize the mycotoxin profiles for the twenty fungi, suggesting that these fungi species could be discriminated and divided into three groups as follows. Group I, the fusaric acid producers, were defined into two subgroups, namely subgroup I as producers of fusaric acid and fumonisins, comprising of F. proliferatum, F. verticillioides, F. fujikuroi and F. solani, and subgroup II considered to only produce fusaric acid, including F. temperatum, F. subglutinans, F. musae, F. tricinctum, F. oxysporum, F. equiseti, F. sacchari, F. concentricum, F. andiyazi. Group II, as type A trichothecenes producers, included F. langsethiae, F. sporotrichioides, F. polyphialidicum, while Group III were found to mainly produce type B trichothecenes, comprising of F. culmorum, F. poae, F. meridionale and F. graminearum. A comprehensive picture, which presents the mycotoxin-producing patterns by the selected fungal species in various matrices, is obtained for the first time, and thus from an application point of view, provides key information to explore mycotoxigenic potentials of Fusarium species and forecast the Fusarium infestation/mycotoxins contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wen Shi
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
| | - Yanglan Tan
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Institute for Nutritional Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 294 Taiyuan Road, Shanghai 200031, China.
| | - Shuangxia Wang
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Institute for Nutritional Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 294 Taiyuan Road, Shanghai 200031, China.
| | - Donald M Gardiner
- Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO), 306 Carmody Road, St Lucia QLD 4067, Australia.
| | - Sarah De Saeger
- Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, Gent 9000, Belgium.
| | - Yucai Liao
- College of Plant Science and Technology, Huazhong Agricultural University, Wuhan 430000, China.
| | - Cheng Wang
- Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Urumqi), Ministry of Agriculture, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 403 Nanchang Road, Urumqi 830091, China.
| | - Yingying Fan
- Institute of Quality Standards & Testing Technology for Agro-Products, Laboratory of Quality and Safety Risk Assessment for Agro-Products (Urumqi), Ministry of Agriculture, Xinjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, 403 Nanchang Road, Urumqi 830091, China.
| | - Zhouping Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi 214122, China.
| | - Aibo Wu
- SIBS-UGENT-SJTU Joint Laboratory of Mycotoxin Research, Key Laboratory of Food Safety Research, Institute for Nutritional Sciences, Shanghai Institutes for Biological Sciences, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, 294 Taiyuan Road, Shanghai 200031, China.
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Siciliano I, Ortu G, Gilardi G, Gullino ML, Garibaldi A. Mycotoxin production in liquid culture and on plants infected with Alternaria spp. isolated from rocket and cabbage. Toxins (Basel) 2015; 7:743-54. [PMID: 25751147 PMCID: PMC4379522 DOI: 10.3390/toxins7030743] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2015] [Revised: 02/23/2015] [Accepted: 02/25/2015] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi belonging to the genus Alternaria are common pathogens of fruit and vegetables with some species able to produce secondary metabolites dangerous to human health. Twenty-eight Alternaria isolates from rocket and cabbage were investigated for their mycotoxin production. Five different Alternaria toxins were extracted from synthetic liquid media and from plant material (cabbage, cultivated rocket, cauliflower). A modified Czapek-Dox medium was used for the in vitro assay. Under these conditions, more than 80% of the isolates showed the ability to produce at least one mycotoxin, generally with higher levels for tenuazonic acid. However, the same isolates analyzed in vivo seemed to lose their ability to produce tenuazonic acid. For the other mycotoxins; alternariol, alternariol monomethyl ether, altenuene and tentoxin a good correlation between in vitro and in vivo production was observed. In vitro assay is a useful tool to predict the possible mycotoxin contamination under field and greenhouse conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilenia Siciliano
- Agroinnova-Centre of Competence for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, Turin 10095, Italy.
| | - Giuseppe Ortu
- Agroinnova-Centre of Competence for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, Turin 10095, Italy.
| | - Giovanna Gilardi
- Agroinnova-Centre of Competence for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, Turin 10095, Italy.
| | - Maria Lodovica Gullino
- Agroinnova-Centre of Competence for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, Turin 10095, Italy.
- DISAFA-Dipartimento di Scienze Agrarie, Forestali e Alimentari, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, Turin 10095, Italy.
| | - Angelo Garibaldi
- Agroinnova-Centre of Competence for the Innovation in the Agro-Environmental Sector, University of Turin, Largo Paolo Braccini 2, Grugliasco, Turin 10095, Italy.
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Tudzynski B. Nitrogen regulation of fungal secondary metabolism in fungi. Front Microbiol 2014; 5:656. [PMID: 25506342 PMCID: PMC4246892 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2014.00656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 170] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2014] [Accepted: 11/13/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Fungi occupy diverse environments where they are constantly challenged by stressors such as extreme pH, temperature, UV exposure, and nutrient deprivation. Nitrogen is an essential requirement for growth, and the ability to metabolize a wide variety of nitrogen sources enables fungi to colonize different environmental niches and survive nutrient limitations. Favored nitrogen sources, particularly ammonium and glutamine, are used preferentially, while the expression of genes required for the use of various secondary nitrogen sources is subject to a regulatory mechanism called nitrogen metabolite repression. Studies on gene regulation in response to nitrogen availability were carried out first in Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Aspergillus nidulans, and Neurospora crassa. These studies revealed that fungi respond to changes in nitrogen availability with physiological and morphological alterations and activation of differentiation processes. In all fungal species studied, the major GATA transcription factor AreA and its co-repressor Nmr are central players of the nitrogen regulatory network. In addition to growth and development, the quality and quantity of nitrogen also affects the formation of a broad range of secondary metabolites (SMs). Recent studies, mainly on species of the genus Fusarium, revealed that AreA does not only regulate a large set of nitrogen catabolic genes, but can also be involved in regulating production of SMs. Furthermore, several other regulators, e.g., a second GATA transcription factor, AreB, that was proposed to negatively control nitrogen catabolic genes by competing with AreA for binding to GATA elements, was shown to act as activator of some nitrogen-repressed as well as nitrogen-induced SM gene clusters. This review highlights our latest understanding of canonical (AreA-dependent) and non-canonical nitrogen regulation mechanisms by which fungi may regulate biosynthesis of certain SMs in response to nitrogen availability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Tudzynski
- Institute of Biology and Biotechnology of Plants, Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster Muenster, Germany
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28
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Screening a strain of Aspergillus niger and optimization of fermentation conditions for degradation of aflatoxin B₁. Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:3157-72. [PMID: 25401962 PMCID: PMC4247255 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6113157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2014] [Revised: 10/23/2014] [Accepted: 11/05/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxin B₁, a type of highly toxic mycotoxin produced by some species belonging to the Aspergillus genus, such as Aspergillus flavus and Aspergillus parasiticus, is widely distributed in feed matrices. Here, coumarin was used as the sole carbon source to screen microorganism strains that were isolated from types of feed ingredients. Only one isolate (ND-1) was able to degrade aflatoxin B₁ after screening. ND-1 isolate, identified as a strain of Aspergillus niger using phylogenetic analysis on the basis of 18S rDNA, could remove 26.3% of aflatoxin B₁ after 48 h of fermentation in nutrient broth (NB). Optimization of fermentation conditions for aflatoxin B₁ degradation by selected Aspergillus niger was also performed. These results showed that 58.2% of aflatoxin B₁ was degraded after 24 h of culture under the optimal fermentation conditions. The aflatoxin B₁ degradation activity of Aspergillus niger supernatant was significantly stronger than cells and cell extracts. Furthermore, effects of temperature, heat treatment, pH, and metal ions on aflatoxin B₁ degradation by the supernatant were examined. Results indicated that aflatoxin B₁ degradation of Aspergillus niger is enzymatic and this process occurs in the extracellular environment.
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AMATULLI MT, FANELLI F, MORETTI A, MULE G, LOGRIECO AF. Alternaria species and mycotoxins associated to black point of cereals. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.2520/myco.63.39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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30
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Saha D, Fetzner R, Burkhardt B, Podlech J, Metzler M, Dang H, Lawrence C, Fischer R. Identification of a polyketide synthase required for alternariol (AOH) and alternariol-9-methyl ether (AME) formation in Alternaria alternata. PLoS One 2012; 7:e40564. [PMID: 22792370 PMCID: PMC3391263 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040564] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2012] [Accepted: 06/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Alternaria alternata produces more than 60 secondary metabolites, among which alternariol (AOH) and alternariol-9-methyl ether (AME) are important mycotoxins. Whereas the toxicology of these two polyketide-based compounds has been studied, nothing is known about the genetics of their biosynthesis. One of the postulated core enzymes in the biosynthesis of AOH and AME is polyketide synthase (PKS). In a draft genome sequence of A. alternata we identified 10 putative PKS-encoding genes. The timing of the expression of two PKS genes, pksJ and pksH, correlated with the production of AOH and AME. The PksJ and PksH proteins are predicted to be 2222 and 2821 amino acids in length, respectively. They are both iterative type I reducing polyketide synthases. PksJ harbors a peroxisomal targeting sequence at the C-terminus, suggesting that the biosynthesis occurs at least partly in these organelles. In the vicinity of pksJ we found a transcriptional regulator, altR, involved in pksJ induction and a putative methyl transferase, possibly responsible for AME formation. Downregulation of pksJ and altR caused a large decrease of alternariol formation, suggesting that PksJ is the polyketide synthase required for the postulated Claisen condensations during the biosynthesis. No other enzymes appeared to be required. PksH downregulation affected pksJ expression and thus caused an indirect effect on AOH production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Debjani Saha
- Department of Microbiology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Ramona Fetzner
- Department of Microbiology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Britta Burkhardt
- Department of Food Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Joachim Podlech
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Institute of Organic Chemistry, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Manfred Metzler
- Department of Food Chemistry, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Ha Dang
- Virginia Bioinformatics Institute, Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Christopher Lawrence
- Virginia Bioinformatics Institute, Department of Biological Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, Virginia, United States of America
| | - Reinhard Fischer
- Department of Microbiology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) - South Campus, Institute for Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Brzonkalik K, Hümmer D, Syldatk C, Neumann A. Influence of pH and carbon to nitrogen ratio on mycotoxin production by Alternaria alternata in submerged cultivation. AMB Express 2012; 2:28. [PMID: 22608165 PMCID: PMC3441619 DOI: 10.1186/2191-0855-2-28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2012] [Accepted: 05/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Production of the Alternaria mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethylether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TA) by Alternaria alternata DSM 12633 was influenced by pH and carbon to nitrogen (C:N) ratio of the growth medium both in shaking flasks and bioreactor cultivation. The impact of medium pH on mycotoxin production was studied in the range of pH 3.5 - 8. pH values above 5.5 led to a decreased mycotoxin production or inhibited mycotoxin formation completely whereas an acidic pH in the range of 4.0-4.5 was optimal for mycotoxin production. The influence of the C:N ratio was evaluated over the range of 24 to 96. Glucose was used as carbon source and its concentration was altered while nitrogen concentration was kept constant. Growth kinetics and mycotoxin production parameters were studied depending on different C:N ratios. With increasing initial glucose concentration fungal biomass did increase but the maximum specific growth rate was not influenced. The optimal initial C:N ratio for attaining highest mycotoxin concentrations was 72. A higher C:N ratio did not further enhance mycotoxin production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Brzonkalik
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Dominik Hümmer
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christoph Syldatk
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Anke Neumann
- Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, 76131, Karlsruhe, Germany
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Brzonkalik K, Herrling T, Syldatk C, Neumann A. Process development for the elucidation of mycotoxin formation in Alternaria alternata. AMB Express 2011; 1:27. [PMID: 21970547 PMCID: PMC3222323 DOI: 10.1186/2191-0855-1-27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2011] [Accepted: 10/04/2011] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The black mould Alternaria alternata produces a wide diversity of mycotoxins which are of particular health concern. Since no maximum allowable limits are set for Alternaria toxins in food and feed, prevention of Alternaria infestations and mycotoxin spoilage is the only way to avoid health risks. Thus, the understanding of mycotoxin biosynthesis is essential. For that purpose, a reliable batch process in a 2 L bioreactor was established which enables the study of several parameters influencing the production of the mycotoxins alternariol (AOH), alternariol monomethylether (AME) and tenuazonic acid (TA) by A. alternata DSM 12633. Modified Czapek-Dox medium was used with glucose as carbon source and ammonium and nitrate as nitrogen sources. Consumption of carbon and nitrogen sources as well as formation of the three mycotoxins were monitored; the average data of five independent fermentations was plotted and fitted using a logistic equation with four parameters. Maximum mycotoxin concentrations of 3.49 ± 0.12 mg/L AOH, 1.62 ± 0.14 mg/L AME and 38.28 ± 0.1 mg/L TA were obtained.In this system the effect of different aeration rates (0.53 vvm-0.013 vvm) was tested which exerted a great influence on mycotoxin production. The use of the semi-synthetic Czapek-Dox medium allowed the exchange of carbon and nitrogen sources for acetate and aspartic acid. The use of acetate instead of glucose resulted in the sole production of alternariol whereas the exchange of ammonium and nitrate for aspartate enhanced the production of both AOH and AME while TA production was not affected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katrin Brzonkalik
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Tanja Herrling
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christoph Syldatk
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Anke Neumann
- Institute of Process Engineering in Life Sciences, Section II: Technical Biology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology, Engler-Bunte-Ring 1, D-76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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33
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Assessing the mycotoxigenic threat of necrotrophic pathogens of wheat. Mycotoxin Res 2011; 27:231-7. [DOI: 10.1007/s12550-011-0108-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2011] [Revised: 07/26/2011] [Accepted: 07/27/2011] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
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