1
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Brochu HN, Song K, Zhang Q, Zeng Q, Shafi A, Robinson M, Humphrey J, Croy B, Peavy L, Perera M, Parker S, Pruitt J, Munroe J, Ghatti R, Urban TJ, Harris AB, Alfego D, Norvell B, Levandoski M, Krueger B, Williams JD, Boles D, Nye MB, Dale SE, Sapeta M, Petropoulos CJ, Meltzer J, Eisenberg M, Cohen O, Letovsky S, Iyer LK. A program for real-time surveillance of SARS-CoV-2 genetics. Sci Rep 2024; 14:20249. [PMID: 39215120 PMCID: PMC11364650 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-70697-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 08/20/2024] [Indexed: 09/04/2024] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic brought forth an urgent need for widespread genomic surveillance for rapid detection and monitoring of emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants. It necessitated design, development, and deployment of a nationwide infrastructure designed for sequestration, consolidation, and characterization of patient samples that disseminates de-identified information to public authorities in tight turnaround times. Here, we describe our development of such an infrastructure, which sequenced 594,832 high coverage SARS-CoV-2 genomes from isolates we collected in the United States (U.S.) from March 13th 2020 to July 3rd 2023. Our sequencing protocol ('Virseq') utilizes wet and dry lab procedures to generate mutation-resistant sequencing of the entire SARS-CoV-2 genome, capturing all major lineages. We also characterize 379 clinically relevant SARS-CoV-2 multi-strain co-infections and ensure robust detection of emerging lineages via simulation. The modular infrastructure, sequencing, and analysis capabilities we describe support the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention national surveillance program and serve as a model for rapid response to emerging pandemics at a national scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hayden N Brochu
- Labcorp Center for Excellence in Data Science, AI and Bioinformatics, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Kuncheng Song
- Labcorp Center for Excellence in Data Science, AI and Bioinformatics, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Qimin Zhang
- Labcorp Center for Excellence in Data Science, AI and Bioinformatics, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Qiandong Zeng
- Labcorp Center for Excellence in Data Science, AI and Bioinformatics, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Adib Shafi
- Labcorp Center for Excellence in Data Science, AI and Bioinformatics, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Matthew Robinson
- Labcorp Center for Excellence in Data Science, AI and Bioinformatics, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Jake Humphrey
- Labcorp Center for Excellence in Data Science, AI and Bioinformatics, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Bobbi Croy
- Labcorp Information Technology, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Lydia Peavy
- Labcorp Research and Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Minoli Perera
- Labcorp Research and Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Scott Parker
- Labcorp Research and Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - John Pruitt
- Labcorp Research and Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Jason Munroe
- Labcorp Consumer Genetics Department, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | | | - Thomas J Urban
- Labcorp Research and Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Ayla B Harris
- Labcorp Research and Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - David Alfego
- Labcorp Center for Excellence in Data Science, AI and Bioinformatics, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Brian Norvell
- Labcorp Research and Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Michael Levandoski
- Labcorp Research and Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
- Q2 Solutions, an IQVIA Business, Durham, NC, 27703, USA
| | - Brian Krueger
- Labcorp Research and Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
- BaseX Scientific, LLC, Chapel Hill, NC, 27516, USA
| | | | - Deborah Boles
- Labcorp Research and Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Melinda B Nye
- Labcorp Center for Esoteric Testing, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Suzanne E Dale
- Labcorp Center for Esoteric Testing, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Michael Sapeta
- Labcorp Center for Esoteric Testing, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | | | | | | | - Oren Cohen
- Labcorp Drug Development, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
- Fortrea Inc, Durham, NC, 27703, USA
| | - Stanley Letovsky
- Labcorp Center for Excellence in Data Science, AI and Bioinformatics, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA
| | - Lakshmanan K Iyer
- Labcorp Center for Excellence in Data Science, AI and Bioinformatics, Burlington, NC, 27215, USA.
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2
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Janssen R, Cuypers L, Laenen L, Keyaerts E, Beuselinck K, Janssenswillen S, Slechten B, Bode J, Wollants E, Van Laethem K, Rector A, Bloemen M, Sijmons A, de Schaetzen N, Capron A, Van Baelen K, Pascal T, Vermeiren C, Bureau F, Vandesompele J, De Smet P, Uten W, Malonne H, Kerkhofs P, De Cock J, Matheeussen V, Verhasselt B, Gillet L, Detry G, Bearzatto B, Degosserie J, Henin C, Pairoux G, Maes P, Van Ranst M, Lagrou K, Dequeker E, André E. Nationwide quality assurance of high-throughput diagnostic molecular testing during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic: role of the Belgian National Reference Centre. Virol J 2024; 21:40. [PMID: 38341597 PMCID: PMC10858549 DOI: 10.1186/s12985-024-02308-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2023] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 02/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Since the onset of the coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic in Belgium, UZ/KU Leuven has played a crucial role as the National Reference Centre (NRC) for respiratory pathogens, to be the first Belgian laboratory to develop and implement laboratory developed diagnostic assays for SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2) and later to assess the quality of commercial kits. To meet the growing demand for decentralised testing, both clinical laboratories and government-supported high-throughput platforms were gradually deployed across Belgium. Consequently, the role of the NRC transitioned from a specialised testing laboratory to strengthening capacity and coordinating quality assurance. Here, we outline the measures taken by the NRC, the national public health institute Sciensano and the executing clinical laboratories to ensure effective quality management of molecular testing throughout the initial two years of the pandemic (March 2020 to March 2022).
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Affiliation(s)
- Reile Janssen
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium.
| | - Lize Cuypers
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lies Laenen
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Els Keyaerts
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kurt Beuselinck
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sunita Janssenswillen
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bram Slechten
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Jannes Bode
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Elke Wollants
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kristel Van Laethem
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Annabel Rector
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Mandy Bloemen
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anke Sijmons
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Nathalie de Schaetzen
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Arnaud Capron
- Quality of Laboratories Unit, Scientific Directorate of Biological Health Risks, Sciensano, 1000, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Kurt Van Baelen
- Janssen Pharmaceutica N.V, Johnson & Johnson, 2340, Beerse, Belgium
| | | | | | - Fabrice Bureau
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Immunology, GIGA Institute, University of Liège, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Jo Vandesompele
- Biogazelle, a CellCarta Company, Technologiepark Zwijnaarde, 9052, Zwijnaarde, Belgium
| | | | | | - Hugues Malonne
- Federal Agency for Medicines and Health Products (FAGG-AFMPS), 1210, Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Pharmacology, Pharmacotherapy and Pharmaceutical Care, Faculty of Pharmacy, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1070, Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Namur Research Institute for Life Sciences, University of Namur, 5000, Namur, Belgium
| | - Pierre Kerkhofs
- Federal Public Service Public Health, Safety of the Food Chain and the Environment, 1210, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jo De Cock
- National Institute for Health and Disability Insurance (RIZIV/INAMI), 1150, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Veerle Matheeussen
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, University Hospitals Antwerp, 2650, Edegem, Belgium
| | - Bruno Verhasselt
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Ghent University and Ghent University Hospital, 9000, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Laurent Gillet
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, University of Liège, 4000, Liège, Belgium
| | - Gautier Detry
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, Laboratory of Clinical Biology, Pole Hospitalier Jolimont, 7100, La Louvière, Belgium
| | - Bertrand Bearzatto
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, Centre Des Technologies Moléculaires Appliquées (CTMA), Institute of Experimental and Clinical Research (IREC), Cliniques Universitaires Saint-Luc and Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Jonathan Degosserie
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, Department of Laboratory Medicine, CHU UCL Namur, 5530, Yvoir, Belgium
| | - Coralie Henin
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1070, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Gregor Pairoux
- Quality of Laboratories Unit, Scientific Directorate of Biological Health Risks, Sciensano, 1000, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Piet Maes
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Marc Van Ranst
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute for Medical Research, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Katrien Lagrou
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Elisabeth Dequeker
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
- Biomedical Quality Assurance Research Unit, Department of Public Health and Primary Care, University of Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Emmanuel André
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, 3000, Leuven, Belgium
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3
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Trémeaux P, Latour J, Ranger N, Ferrer V, Harter A, Carcenac R, Boyer P, Demmou S, Nicot F, Raymond S, Izopet J. SARS-CoV-2 Co-Infections and Recombinations Identified by Long-Read Single-Molecule Real-Time Sequencing. Microbiol Spectr 2023; 11:e0049323. [PMID: 37260377 PMCID: PMC10434069 DOI: 10.1128/spectrum.00493-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Co-infection with at least 2 strains of virus is the prerequisite for recombination, one of the means of genetic diversification. Little is known about the prevalence of these events in SARS-CoV-2, partly because it is difficult to detect them. We used long-read PacBio single-molecule real-time (SMRT) sequencing technology to sequence whole genomes and targeted regions for haplotyping. We identified 17 co-infections with SARS-CoV-2 strains belonging to different clades in 6829 samples sequenced between January and October, 2022 (prevalence 0.25%). There were 3 Delta/Omicron co-infections and 14 Omicron/Omicron co-infections (4 cases of 21K/21L, 1 case of 21L/22A, 2 cases of 21L/22B, 4 cases of 22A/22B, 2 cases of 22B/22C and 1 case of 22B/22E). Four of these patients (24%) also harbored recombinant minor haplotypes, including one with a recombinant virus that was selected in the viral quasispecies over the course of his chronic infection. While co-infections remain rare among SARS-CoV-2-infected individuals, long-read SMRT sequencing is a useful tool for detecting them as well as recombinant events, providing the basis for assessing their clinical impact, and a precise indicator of epidemic evolution. IMPORTANCE SARS-CoV-2 variants have been responsible for the successive waves of infection over the 3 years of pandemic. While co-infection followed by recombination is one driver of virus evolution, there have been few reports of co-infections, mainly between Delta and Omicron variants or between the first 2 Omicron variants 21K_BA.1 and 21L_BA.2. The 17 co-infections we detected during 2022 included cases with the recent clades of Omicron 22A, 22B, 22C, and 22E; 24% harbored recombinant variants. This study shows that long-read SMRT sequencing is well suited to SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pauline Trémeaux
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Justine Latour
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Noémie Ranger
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Vénicia Ferrer
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Agnès Harter
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Romain Carcenac
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Pauline Boyer
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Sofia Demmou
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Florence Nicot
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
| | - Stéphanie Raymond
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
- INSERM UMR 1291 – CNRS UMR 5051, Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), Toulouse, France
| | - Jacques Izopet
- Virology Laboratory, Toulouse University Hospital, Toulouse, France
- INSERM UMR 1291 – CNRS UMR 5051, Toulouse Institute for Infectious and Inflammatory Diseases (INFINITy), Toulouse, France
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4
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Peñas-Utrilla D, Pérez-Lago L, Molero-Salinas A, Estévez A, Sanz A, Herranz M, Martínez-Laperche C, Andrés-Zayas C, Veintimilla C, Catalán P, Alonso R, Muñoz P, García de Viedma D. Systematic genomic analysis of SARS-CoV-2 co-infections throughout the pandemic and segregation of the strains involved. Genome Med 2023; 15:57. [PMID: 37488638 PMCID: PMC10367318 DOI: 10.1186/s13073-023-01198-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2023] [Accepted: 05/30/2023] [Indexed: 07/26/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND SARS-CoV-2 recombinants involving the divergent Delta and Omicron lineages have been described, and one of them, "Kraken" (XBB.1.5), has recently been a matter of concern. Recombination requires the coexistence of two SARS-CoV-2 strains in the same individual. Only a limited number of studies have focused on the identification of co-infections and are restricted to co-infections involving the Delta/Omicron lineages. METHODS We performed a systematic identification of SARS-CoV-2 co-infections throughout the pandemic (7609 different patients sequenced), not biassed towards the involvement of highly divergent lineages. Through a comprehensive set of validations based on the distribution of allelic frequencies, phylogenetic consistency, re-sequencing, host genetic analysis and contextual epidemiological analysis, these co-infections were robustly assigned. RESULTS Fourteen (0.18%) co-infections with ≥ 8 heterozygous calls (8-85 HZs) were identified. Co-infections were identified throughout the pandemic and involved an equal proportion of strains from different lineages/sublineages (including pre-Alpha variants, Delta and Omicron) or strains from the same lineage. Co-infected cases were mainly unvaccinated, with mild or asymptomatic clinical presentation, and most were at risk of overexposure associated with the healthcare environment. Strain segregation enabled integration of sequences to clarify nosocomial outbreaks where analysis had been impaired due to co-infection. CONCLUSIONS Co-infection cases were identified throughout the pandemic, not just in the time periods when highly divergent lineages were co-circulating. Co-infections involving different lineages or strains from the same lineage were occurring in the same proportion. Most cases were mild, did not require medical assistance and were not vaccinated, and a large proportion were associated with the hospital environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Peñas-Utrilla
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
- Escuela de Doctorado, Universidad de Alcalá, Plaza de San Diego, S/N, Alcalá de Henares, Madrid, 28801, Spain
| | - Laura Pérez-Lago
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain.
| | - Andrea Molero-Salinas
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Agustín Estévez
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Amadeo Sanz
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Marta Herranz
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Carolina Martínez-Laperche
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
- Servicio de Oncohematología, Gregorio Marañón General University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Andrés-Zayas
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
- Genomics Unit, Gregorio Marañón General University Hospital, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cristina Veintimilla
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Pilar Catalán
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Roberto Alonso
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
| | - Patricia Muñoz
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Departamento de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain
| | - Darío García de Viedma
- Servicio de Microbiología Clínica y Enfermedades Infecciosas, Hospital General Universitario Gregorio Marañón, C/Dr. Esquerdo 46, Madrid, 28007, Spain.
- Instituto de Investigación Sanitaria Gregorio Marañón (IiSGM), Madrid, Spain.
- CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
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5
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Zhang Z, Zhou J, Ni P, Hu B, Jolicoeur N, Deng S, Xiao Q, He Q, Li G, Xia Y, Liu M, Wang C, Fang Z, Xia N, Zhang ZR, Zhang B, Cai K, Xu Y, Liu B. PF-D-Trimer, a protective SARS-CoV-2 subunit vaccine: immunogenicity and application. NPJ Vaccines 2023; 8:38. [PMID: 36922524 PMCID: PMC10015519 DOI: 10.1038/s41541-023-00636-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2022] [Accepted: 02/27/2023] [Indexed: 03/18/2023] Open
Abstract
The COVID-19 pandemic, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, has had and continues to have a significant impact on global public health. One of the characteristics of SARS-CoV-2 is a surface homotrimeric spike protein, which is primarily responsible for the host immune response upon infection. Here we present the preclinical studies of a broadly protective SARS-CoV-2 subunit vaccine developed from our trimer domain platform using the Delta spike protein, from antigen design through purification, vaccine evaluation and manufacturability. The pre-fusion trimerized Delta spike protein, PF-D-Trimer, was highly expressed in Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cells, purified by a rapid one-step anti-Trimer Domain monoclonal antibody immunoaffinity process and prepared as a vaccine formulation with an adjuvant. Immunogenicity studies have shown that this vaccine candidate induces robust immune responses in mouse, rat and Syrian hamster models. It also protects K18-hACE2 transgenic mice in a homologous viral challenge. Neutralizing antibodies induced by this vaccine show cross-reactivity against the ancestral WA1, Delta and several Omicrons, including BA.5.2. The formulated PF-D Trimer is stable for up to six months without refrigeration. The Trimer Domain platform was proven to be a key technology in the rapid production of PF-D-Trimer vaccine and may be crucial to accelerate the development and accessibility of updated versions of SARS-CoV-2 vaccines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhihao Zhang
- National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), Hubei Provincial Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China.,Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Jinhu Zhou
- Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Peng Ni
- Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Bing Hu
- Institute of Health Inspection and Testing, Hubei Provincial Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (Hubei CDC), Wuhan, Hubei, China
| | | | - Shuang Deng
- Nova Biologiques Inc. Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Qian Xiao
- Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Qian He
- Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China.,School of Pharmacy, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xian Ning, China
| | - Gai Li
- Nova Biologiques Inc. Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Yan Xia
- Nova Biologiques Inc. Montréal, Québec, Canada
| | - Mei Liu
- National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), Hubei Provincial Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China.,Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Cong Wang
- Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhizheng Fang
- Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Nan Xia
- Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China
| | - Zhe-Rui Zhang
- Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China
| | - Bo Zhang
- Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China. .,Wuhan Institute of Virology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Wuhan, China.
| | - Kun Cai
- Institute of Health Inspection and Testing, Hubei Provincial Centre for Disease Control and Prevention (Hubei CDC), Wuhan, Hubei, China.
| | - Yan Xu
- Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China. .,Nova Biologiques Inc. Montréal, Québec, Canada.
| | - Binlei Liu
- National "111" Center for Cellular Regulation and Molecular Pharmaceutics, Key Laboratory of Fermentation Engineering (Ministry of Education), Hubei Provincial Cooperative Innovation Center of Industrial Fermentation, Hubei Key Laboratory of Industrial Microbiology, Hubei University of Technology, Wuhan, Hubei, China. .,Wuhan Binhui Biopharmaceutical Co., Ltd, Wuhan, China. .,School of Pharmacy, Hubei University of Science and Technology, Xian Ning, China.
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6
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Farahat RA, Abdelaal A, Umar TP, El-Sakka AA, Benmelouka AY, Albakri K, Ali I, Al-Ahdal T, Abdelazeem B, Sah R, Rodriguez-Morales AJ. The emergence of SARS-CoV-2 Omicron subvariants: current situation and future trends. LE INFEZIONI IN MEDICINA 2022; 30:480-494. [PMID: 36482957 PMCID: PMC9714996 DOI: 10.53854/liim-3004-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The SARS-CoV-2 Omicron variant (B.1.1.529) has been the most recent variant of concern (VOC) established by the World Health Organization (WHO). Because of its greater infectivity and immune evasion, this variant quickly became the dominant type of circulating SARS-CoV-2 worldwide. Our literature review thoroughly explains the current state of Omicron emergence, particularly by comparing different omicron subvariants, including BA.2, BA.1, and BA.3. Such elaboration would be based on structural variations, mutations, clinical manifestation, transmissibility, pathogenicity, and vaccination effectiveness. The most notable difference between the three subvariants is the insufficiency of deletion (Δ69-70) in the spike protein, which results in a lower detection rate of the spike (S) gene target known as (S) gene target failure (SGTF). Furthermore, BA.2 had a stronger affinity to the human Angiotensin-converting Enzyme (hACE2) receptor than other Omicron sub-lineages. Regarding the number of mutations, BA.1.1 has the most (40), followed by BA.1, BA.3, and BA.3 with 39, 34, and 31 mutations, respectively. In addition, BA.2 and BA.3 have greater transmissibility than other sub-lineages (BA.1 and BA.1.1). These characteristics are primarily responsible for Omicron's vast geographical spread and high contagiousness rates, particularly BA.2 sub-lineages.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Abdelaziz Abdelaal
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA,
USA,Boston University, MA,
USA,General Practitioner, Tanta University Hospitals,
Egypt
| | | | | | | | - Khaled Albakri
- Faculty of Medicine, The Hashemite University, Zarqa,
Jordan
| | - Iftikhar Ali
- Department of Pharmacy, Paraplegic Center, Peshawar,
Pakistan
| | - Tareq Al-Ahdal
- Institute of Global Health (HIGH), Heidelberg University, Heidelberg,
Germany
| | - Basel Abdelazeem
- Department of Internal Medicine, McLaren Health Care, Flint, Michigan,
USA,Department of Internal Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan,
USA
| | - Ranjit Sah
- Department of Microbiology, Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital, Institute of Medicine, Kathmandu,
Nepal,Dr. D.Y Patil Medical College, Hospital and Research Centre, Dr. D.Y. Patil Vidyapeeth, Pune, Maharashtra,
India
| | - Alfonso J. Rodriguez-Morales
- Grupo de Investigación Biomedicina, Faculty of Medicine, Fundación Universitaria Autónoma de Las Américas, Pereira, Risaralda,
Colombia,Faculty of Medicine, Institución Universitaria Vision de Las Americas, Pereira, Risaralda,
Colombia,Gilbert and Rose-Marie Chagoury School of Medicine, Lebanese American University, Beirut P.O. Box 36,
Lebanon,Master of Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Universidad Científica del Sur, Lima,
Perú
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7
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Valenzuela-Fernández A, Cabrera-Rodriguez R, Ciuffreda L, Perez-Yanes S, Estevez-Herrera J, González-Montelongo R, Alcoba-Florez J, Trujillo-González R, García-Martínez de Artola D, Gil-Campesino H, Díez-Gil O, Lorenzo-Salazar JM, Flores C, Garcia-Luis J. Nanomaterials to combat SARS-CoV-2: Strategies to prevent, diagnose and treat COVID-19. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:1052436. [PMID: 36507266 PMCID: PMC9732709 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.1052436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and the associated coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), which severely affect the respiratory system and several organs and tissues, and may lead to death, have shown how science can respond when challenged by a global emergency, offering as a response a myriad of rapid technological developments. Development of vaccines at lightning speed is one of them. SARS-CoV-2 outbreaks have stressed healthcare systems, questioning patients care by using standard non-adapted therapies and diagnostic tools. In this scenario, nanotechnology has offered new tools, techniques and opportunities for prevention, for rapid, accurate and sensitive diagnosis and treatment of COVID-19. In this review, we focus on the nanotechnological applications and nano-based materials (i.e., personal protective equipment) to combat SARS-CoV-2 transmission, infection, organ damage and for the development of new tools for virosurveillance, diagnose and immune protection by mRNA and other nano-based vaccines. All the nano-based developed tools have allowed a historical, unprecedented, real time epidemiological surveillance and diagnosis of SARS-CoV-2 infection, at community and international levels. The nano-based technology has help to predict and detect how this Sarbecovirus is mutating and the severity of the associated COVID-19 disease, thereby assisting the administration and public health services to make decisions and measures for preparedness against the emerging variants of SARS-CoV-2 and severe or lethal COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Agustín Valenzuela-Fernández
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Celular y Viral, Unidad de Farmacología, Sección de Medicina, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - Romina Cabrera-Rodriguez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Celular y Viral, Unidad de Farmacología, Sección de Medicina, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - Laura Ciuffreda
- Research Unit, Hospital Universitario N. S. de Candelaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Silvia Perez-Yanes
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Celular y Viral, Unidad de Farmacología, Sección de Medicina, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | - Judith Estevez-Herrera
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Celular y Viral, Unidad de Farmacología, Sección de Medicina, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
| | | | - Julia Alcoba-Florez
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario N. S. de Candelaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Rodrigo Trujillo-González
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Celular y Viral, Unidad de Farmacología, Sección de Medicina, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
- Departamento de Análisis Matemático, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de La Laguna, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | | | - Helena Gil-Campesino
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario N. S. de Candelaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Oscar Díez-Gil
- Servicio de Microbiología, Hospital Universitario N. S. de Candelaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - José M. Lorenzo-Salazar
- Genomics Division, Instituto Tecnológico y de Energías Renovables, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
| | - Carlos Flores
- Research Unit, Hospital Universitario N. S. de Candelaria, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
- Genomics Division, Instituto Tecnológico y de Energías Renovables, Santa Cruz de Tenerife, Spain
- CIBER de Enfermedades Respiratorias, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Fernando Pessoa Canarias, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Jonay Garcia-Luis
- Laboratorio de Inmunología Celular y Viral, Unidad de Farmacología, Sección de Medicina, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de La Laguna, San Cristóbal de La Laguna, Spain
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8
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Cuypers L, Dellicour S, Hong SL, Potter BI, Verhasselt B, Vereecke N, Lambrechts L, Durkin K, Bours V, Klamer S, Bayon-Vicente G, Vael C, Ariën KK, De Mendonca R, Soetens O, Michel C, Bearzatto B, Naesens R, Gras J, Vankeerberghen A, Matheeussen V, Martens G, Obbels D, Lemmens A, Van den Poel B, Van Even E, De Rauw K, Waumans L, Reynders M, Degosserie J, Maes P, André E, Baele G. Two Years of Genomic Surveillance in Belgium during the SARS-CoV-2 Pandemic to Attain Country-Wide Coverage and Monitor the Introduction and Spread of Emerging Variants. Viruses 2022; 14:2301. [PMID: 36298856 PMCID: PMC9612291 DOI: 10.3390/v14102301] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/17/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
An adequate SARS-CoV-2 genomic surveillance strategy has proven to be essential for countries to obtain a thorough understanding of the variants and lineages being imported and successfully established within their borders. During 2020, genomic surveillance in Belgium was not structurally implemented but performed by individual research laboratories that had to acquire the necessary funds themselves to perform this important task. At the start of 2021, a nationwide genomic surveillance consortium was established in Belgium to markedly increase the country's genomic sequencing efforts (both in terms of intensity and representativeness), to perform quality control among participating laboratories, and to enable coordination and collaboration of research projects and publications. We here discuss the genomic surveillance efforts in Belgium before and after the establishment of its genomic sequencing consortium, provide an overview of the specifics of the consortium, and explore more details regarding the scientific studies that have been published as a result of the increased number of Belgian SARS-CoV-2 genomes that have become available.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lize Cuypers
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Simon Dellicour
- Spatial Epidemiology Lab (SpELL), Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Samuel L. Hong
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Barney I. Potter
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Bruno Verhasselt
- Department of Diagnostic Sciences, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Nick Vereecke
- PathoSense BV, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Laurens Lambrechts
- HIV Cure Research Center, Department of Internal Medicine and Pediatrics, Ghent University Hospital, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
- BioBix, Department of Data Analysis and Mathematical Modelling, Faculty of Bioscience Engineering, Ghent University, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Keith Durkin
- Laboratory of Human Genetics, GIGA Research Institute, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Vincent Bours
- Laboratory of Human Genetics, GIGA Research Institute, 4000 Liège, Belgium
- Department of Human Genetics, University Hospital of Liège, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Sofieke Klamer
- Scientific Directorate of Epidemiology and Public Health, Sciensano, 1050 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Guillaume Bayon-Vicente
- Department of Proteomic and Microbiology, Research Institute for Biosciences, University of Mons, 7000 Mons, Belgium
| | - Carl Vael
- Clinical Laboratory, AZ Klina, 2930 Brasschaat, Belgium
| | - Kevin K. Ariën
- Virology Unit, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Institute of Tropical Medicine Antwerp, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
- Faculty of Pharmaceutical, Biomedical and Veterinary Sciences, Department of Biomedical Sciences, University of Antwerp, 2000 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Ricardo De Mendonca
- Department of Microbiology, CUB-Hôpital Erasme, Université Libre de Bruxelles, 1000 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Oriane Soetens
- Department of Microbiology and Infection Control, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, 1090 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Charlotte Michel
- Department of Microbiology, Laboratoire Hospitalier Universitaire de Bruxelles (LHUB-ULB), 1000 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Bertrand Bearzatto
- Center for Applied Molecular Technologies (CTMA), Institut de Recherche Expérimentale et Clinique (IREC), Université Catholique de Louvain (UCLouvain), 1000 Brussels, Belgium
| | - Reinout Naesens
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Ziekenhuis Netwerk Antwerpen, 2020 Antwerp, Belgium
| | - Jeremie Gras
- Institute of Pathology and Genetics (IPG), 6041 Gosselies, Belgium
| | - Anne Vankeerberghen
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, Campus Aalst-Asse-Ninove, Onze-Lieve-Vrouwziekenhuis, 9300 Aalst, Belgium
| | - Veerle Matheeussen
- Laboratory of Medical Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Vaccine & Infectious Disease Institute (VAXINFECTIO), University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Geert Martens
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, AZ Delta General Hospital, 8800 Roeselare, Belgium
| | - Dagmar Obbels
- Clinical Laboratory, Imelda Hospital, 2820 Bonheiden, Belgium
| | - Ann Lemmens
- Laboratory of Clinical Biology, AZ Sint-Maarten Hospital, 2800 Mechelen, Belgium
| | - Bea Van den Poel
- Clinical Laboratory, General Hospital Jan Portaels, 1800 Vilvoorde, Belgium
| | - Ellen Van Even
- Clinical Laboratory of Microbiology, HH Hospital Lier, 2500 Lier, Belgium
| | - Klara De Rauw
- Laboratory of Clinical Biology, AZ Sint Lucas Hospital, 9000 Ghent, Belgium
| | - Luc Waumans
- Clinical Laboratory, Jessa Hospital, 3500 Hasselt, Belgium
| | - Marijke Reynders
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Medical Microbiology, AZ Sint-Jan Bruges-Ostend AV, 8000 Bruges, Belgium
| | - Jonathan Degosserie
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, Department of Laboratory Medicine, CHU UCL Namur, 5530 Yvoir, Belgium
- Next Generation Sequencing Platform, Molecular Diagnostic Center, CHU UCL Namur, 5530 Yvoir, Belgium
| | - Piet Maes
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Emmanuel André
- National Reference Centre for Respiratory Pathogens, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Federal Testing Platform COVID-19, Department of Laboratory Medicine, University Hospitals Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
- Laboratory of Clinical Microbiology, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Guy Baele
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, Rega Institute, KU Leuven, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
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9
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Vanhulle E, D’huys T, Provinciael B, Stroobants J, Camps A, Noppen S, Schols D, Van Damme EJM, Maes P, Stevaert A, Vermeire K. Carbohydrate-binding protein from stinging nettle as fusion inhibitor for SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:989534. [PMID: 36111239 PMCID: PMC9468479 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.989534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2022] [Accepted: 08/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Urtica dioica agglutinin (UDA) is a carbohydrate-binding small monomeric protein isolated from stinging nettle rhizomes. It inhibits replication of a broad range of viruses, including coronaviruses, in multiple cell types, with appealing selectivity. In this work, we investigated the potential of UDA as a broad-spectrum antiviral agent against SARS-CoV-2. UDA potently blocks transduction of pseudotyped SARS-CoV-2 in A549.ACE2+-TMPRSS2 cells, with IC50 values ranging from 0.32 to 1.22 µM. Furthermore, UDA prevents viral replication of the early Wuhan-Hu-1 strain in Vero E6 cells (IC50 = 225 nM), but also the replication of SARS-CoV-2 variants of concern, including Alpha, Beta and Gamma (IC50 ranging from 115 to 171 nM). In addition, UDA exerts antiviral activity against the latest circulating Delta and Omicron variant in U87.ACE2+ cells (IC50 values are 1.6 and 0.9 µM, respectively). Importantly, when tested in Air-Liquid Interface (ALI) primary lung epithelial cell cultures, UDA preserves antiviral activity against SARS-CoV-2 (20A.EU2 variant) in the nanomolar range. Surface plasmon resonance (SPR) studies demonstrated a concentration-dependent binding of UDA to the viral spike protein of SARS-CoV-2, suggesting interference of UDA with cell attachment or subsequent virus entry. Moreover, in additional mechanistic studies with cell-cell fusion assays, UDA inhibited SARS-CoV-2 spike protein-mediated membrane fusion. Finally, pseudotyped SARS-CoV-2 mutants with N-glycosylation deletions in the S2 subunit of the spike protein remained sensitive to the antiviral activity of UDA. In conclusion, our data establish UDA as a potent fusion inhibitor for the current variants of SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emiel Vanhulle
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Thomas D’huys
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Becky Provinciael
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Joren Stroobants
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Anita Camps
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Sam Noppen
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Dominique Schols
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Els J. M. Van Damme
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Glycobiology, Department of Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium
| | - Piet Maes
- Laboratory of Clinical and Epidemiological Virology, Rega Institute, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Annelies Stevaert
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Kurt Vermeire
- Laboratory of Virology and Chemotherapy, Rega Institute, Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Transplantation, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
- *Correspondence: Kurt Vermeire,
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