1
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Desai SA. Novel Ion Channel Genes in Malaria Parasites. Genes (Basel) 2024; 15:296. [PMID: 38540355 PMCID: PMC10970509 DOI: 10.3390/genes15030296] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2024] [Revised: 02/19/2024] [Accepted: 02/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
Ion channels serve many cellular functions including ion homeostasis, volume regulation, signaling, nutrient acquisition, and developmental progression. Although the complex life cycles of malaria parasites necessitate ion and solute flux across membranes, the whole-genome sequencing of the human pathogen Plasmodium falciparum revealed remarkably few orthologs of known ion channel genes. Contrasting with this, biochemical studies have implicated the channel-mediated flux of ions and nutritive solutes across several membranes in infected erythrocytes. Here, I review advances in the cellular and molecular biology of ion channels in malaria parasites. These studies have implicated novel parasite genes in the formation of at least two ion channels, with additional ion channels likely present in various membranes and parasite stages. Computational approaches that rely on homology to known channel genes from higher organisms will not be very helpful in identifying the molecular determinants of these activities. Given their unusual properties, novel molecular and structural features, and essential roles in pathogen survival and development, parasite channels should be promising targets for therapy development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sanjay A Desai
- Laboratory of Malaria and Vector Research, National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
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2
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Bailey AJ, Ukegbu CV, Giorgalli M, Besson TRB, Christophides GK, Vlachou D. Intracellular Plasmodium aquaporin 2 is important for sporozoite production in the mosquito vector and malaria transmission. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2023; 120:e2304339120. [PMID: 37883438 PMCID: PMC10622946 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.2304339120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Accepted: 09/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Malaria remains a devastating disease and, with current measures failing to control its transmission, there is a need for novel interventions. A family of proteins that have long been pursued as potential intervention targets are aquaporins, which are channels facilitating the movement of water and other solutes across membranes. We identify an aquaporin in malaria parasites and demonstrate that it is important for completion of Plasmodium development in the mosquito vector. Disruption of AQP2 in the human parasite Plasmodium falciparum and the rodent parasite Plasmodium berghei blocks sporozoite production inside oocysts established on mosquito midguts, greatly limiting parasite infection of salivary glands and transmission to a new host. In vivo epitope tagging of AQP2 in P. berghei, combined with immunofluorescence assays, reveals that the protein is localized in vesicle-like organelles found in the cytoplasm of gametocytes, ookinetes, and sporozoites. The number of these organelles varies between individual parasites and lifecycle stages suggesting that they are likely part of a dynamic endomembrane system. Phylogenetic analysis confirms that AQP2 is unique to malaria and closely related parasites and most closely resembles intracellular aquaporins. Structure prediction analyses identify several unusual features, including a large accessory extracellular loop and an arginine-to-phenylalanine substitution in the selectivity filter principally determining pore function, a unique feature among known aquaporins. This in conjunction with the importance of AQP2 for malaria transmission suggests that AQP2 may be a fruitful target of antimalarial interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander J. Bailey
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, LondonSW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | | | - Maria Giorgalli
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, LondonSW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Dina Vlachou
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, LondonSW7 2AZ, United Kingdom
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3
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Liu M, Liao MJ, Fisher CJ, Vicetti Miguel RD, Cherpes TL. Methodology to streamline flow cytometric-based detection of early stage Plasmodium parasitemia in mice. J Microbiol Methods 2022; 195:106439. [PMID: 35248600 PMCID: PMC9007886 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2022.106439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2021] [Revised: 03/01/2022] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Murine infection models are needed to develop therapeutics and vaccines to combat the Plasmodium parasites causing malaria. Herein, we describe an easy to perform flow cytometry-based methodology for detecting green fluorescent protein-expressing Plasmodium berghei in the peripheral red blood cells (RBC) of mice. This methodology uses one-step staining and simplified gating strategies to streamline the process of Plasmodium quantification and can detect parasitemia at an earlier time point after infection compared to traditional light microscopy-based techniques.
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4
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Kreutzfeld O, Grützke J, Ingmundson A, Müller K, Matuschewski K. Absence of PEXEL-Dependent Protein Export in Plasmodium Liver Stages Cannot Be Restored by Gain of the HSP101 Protein Translocon ATPase. Front Genet 2021; 12:742153. [PMID: 34956312 PMCID: PMC8693896 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2021.742153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2021] [Accepted: 10/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Host cell remodeling is critical for successful Plasmodium replication inside erythrocytes and achieved by targeted export of parasite-encoded proteins. In contrast, during liver infection the malarial parasite appears to avoid protein export, perhaps to limit exposure of parasite antigens by infected liver cells. HSP101, the force-generating ATPase of the protein translocon of exported proteins (PTEX) is the only component that is switched off during early liver infection. Here, we generated transgenic Plasmodium berghei parasite lines that restore liver stage expression of HSP101. HSP101 expression in infected hepatocytes was achieved by swapping the endogenous promoter with the ptex150 promoter and by inserting an additional copy under the control of the elongation one alpha (ef1α) promoter. Both promoters drive constitutive and, hence, also pre-erythrocytic expression. Transgenic parasites were able to complete the life cycle, but failed to export PEXEL-proteins in early liver stages. Our results suggest that PTEX-dependent early liver stage export cannot be restored by addition of HSP101, indicative of alternative export complexes or other functions of the PTEX core complex during liver infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oriana Kreutzfeld
- Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology/Faculty for Life Sciences, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Josephine Grützke
- Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology/Faculty for Life Sciences, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Biological Safety, Federal Institute for Risk Assessment, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alyssa Ingmundson
- Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology/Faculty for Life Sciences, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Katja Müller
- Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology/Faculty for Life Sciences, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology/Faculty for Life Sciences, Humboldt Universität zu Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
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5
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Korbmacher F, Drepper B, Sanderson T, Martin P, Stach T, Maier AG, Matuschewski K, Matz JM. An apicoplast-resident folate transporter is essential for sporogony of malaria parasites. Cell Microbiol 2021; 23:e13266. [PMID: 32975363 PMCID: PMC7616068 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.13266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/04/2020] [Revised: 08/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Malaria parasites are fast replicating unicellular organisms and require substantial amounts of folate for DNA synthesis. Despite the central role of this critical co-factor for parasite survival, only little is known about intraparasitic folate trafficking in Plasmodium. Here, we report on the expression, subcellular localisation and function of the parasite's folate transporter 2 (FT2) during life cycle progression in the murine malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei. Using live fluorescence microscopy of genetically engineered parasites, we demonstrate that FT2 localises to the apicoplast. In invasive P. berghei stages, a fraction of FT2 is also observed at the apical end. Upon genetic disruption of FT2, blood and liver infection, gametocyte production and mosquito colonisation remain unaltered. But in the Anopheles vector, FT2-deficient parasites develop inflated oocysts with unusual pulp formation consisting of numerous single-membrane vesicles, which ultimately fuse to form large cavities. Ultrastructural analysis suggests that this defect reflects aberrant sporoblast formation caused by abnormal vesicular traffic. Complete sporogony in FT2-deficient oocysts is very rare, and mutant sporozoites fail to establish hepatocyte infection, resulting in a complete block of parasite transmission. Our findings reveal a previously unrecognised organellar folate transporter that exerts critical roles for pathogen maturation in the arthropod vector.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francois Korbmacher
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Benjamin Drepper
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Theo Sanderson
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
| | - Peer Martin
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Thomas Stach
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Alexander G. Maier
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Joachim M. Matz
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
- Malaria Biochemistry Laboratory, The Francis Crick Institute, London, UK
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6
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Govindasamy K, Bhanot P. Overlapping and distinct roles of CDPK family members in the pre-erythrocytic stages of the rodent malaria parasite, Plasmodium berghei. PLoS Pathog 2020; 16:e1008131. [PMID: 32866196 PMCID: PMC7485973 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1008131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2019] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Invasion of hepatocytes by Plasmodium sporozoites initiates the pre-erythrocytic step of a malaria infection. Subsequent development of the parasite within hepatocytes and exit from them is essential for starting the disease-causing erythrocytic cycle. Identification of signaling pathways that operate in pre-erythrocytic stages provides insight into a critical step of infection and potential targets for chemoprotection from malaria. We demonstrate that P. berghei homologs of Calcium Dependent Protein Kinase 1 (CDPK1), CDPK4 and CDPK5 play overlapping but distinct roles in sporozoite invasion and parasite egress from hepatocytes. All three kinases are expressed in sporozoites. All three are required for optimal motility of sporozoites and consequently their invasion of hepatocytes. Increased cGMP can compensate for the functional loss of CDPK1 and CDPK5 during sporozoite invasion but cannot overcome loss of CDPK4. CDPK1 and CDPK5 expression is downregulated after sporozoite invasion. CDPK5 reappears in a subset of late stage liver stages and is present in all merosomes. Chemical inhibition of CDPK4 and depletion of CDPK5 in liver stages implicate these kinases in the formation and/or release of merosomes from mature liver stages. Furthermore, depletion of CDPK5 in merosomes significantly delays initiation of the erythrocytic cycle without affecting infectivity of hepatic merozoites. These data suggest that CDPK5 may be required for the rupture of merosomes. Our work provides evidence that sporozoite invasion requires CDPK1 and CDPK5, and suggests that CDPK5 participates in the release of hepatic merozoites. The malaria-parasite Plasmodium begins its mammalian cycle by infecting hepatocytes in the liver. A single parasite differentiates into tens of thousands of hepatic merozoites which exit the host cell in vesicles called merosomes. Hepatic merozoites initiate the first round of erythrocytic infection that eventually causes disease. We show that optimal invasion of liver cells by Plasmodium requires the action of three closely-related parasite kinases, CDPK1, 4 and 5. Loss of any of the three enzymes in the parasite significantly reduces infection of liver cells. Furthermore, CDPK5 is likely required for release of hepatic merozoites from merosomes and therefore for initiation of the erythrocytic cycle. A better understanding of how these kinases function could lead to drugs that prevent malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kavitha Govindasamy
- Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
| | - Purnima Bhanot
- Rutgers New Jersey Medical School, Department of Microbiology, Biochemistry and Molecular Genetics, Newark, New Jersey, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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7
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Kenthirapalan S, Tran PN, Kooij TWA, Ridgway MC, Rauch M, Brown SHJ, Mitchell TW, Matuschewski K, Maier AG. Distinct adaptations of a gametocyte ABC transporter to murine and human Plasmodium parasites and its incompatibility in cross-species complementation. Int J Parasitol 2020; 50:511-522. [PMID: 32445722 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpara.2020.03.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Parasites of the genus Plasmodium infect a wide range of mammalian hosts including humans, primates, bats and arboreal rodents. A hallmark of Plasmodium spp. is the very narrow host range, indicative of matching parasite-host coevolution. Accordingly, their respective genomes harbour many unique genes and gene families that typically encode proteins involved in host cell recognition and remodelling. Whether and to what extent conserved proteins that are shared across Plasmodium spp. also exert distinct species-specific roles remains largely untested. Here, we present detailed functional profiling of the female gametocyte-specific ATP-binding cassette transporter gABCG2 in the murine parasite Plasmodium berghei and compare our findings with data from the orthologous gene in the human parasite Plasmodium falciparum. We show that P. berghei gABCG2 is female-specific and continues to be expressed in zygotes and ookinetes. In contrast to a distinct localization to Iipid-rich gametocyte-specific spots as observed in P. falciparum, the murine malaria parasite homolog is found at the parasite plasma membrane. Plasmodium berghei lacking gABCG2 displays fast asexual blood-stage replication and increased proportions of female gametocytes, consistent with the corresponding P. falciparum knock-out phenotype. Strikingly, cross-species replacement of gABCG2 in either the murine or the human parasite did not restore normal growth rates. The lack of successful complementation despite high conservation across Plasmodium spp. is an indicator of distinct adaptations and tight parasite-host coevolution. Hence, incompatibility of conserved genes in closely related Plasmodium spp. might be more common than previously anticipated.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Phuong N Tran
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
| | - Taco W A Kooij
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, 6500 HB Nijmegen, The Netherlands
| | - Melanie C Ridgway
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia
| | - Manuel Rauch
- Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, 10117 Berlin, Germany; Dept. of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115 Berlin, Germany
| | - Simon H J Brown
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Todd W Mitchell
- Illawarra Health and Medical Research Institute, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia; School of Medicine, University of Wollongong, Wollongong, NSW 2522, Australia
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, 10117 Berlin, Germany; Dept. of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Alexander G Maier
- Research School of Biology, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory 2601, Australia.
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8
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Chen LY. Application of the Brown dynamics fluctuation-dissipation theorem to the study of Plasmodium berghei transporter protein PbAQP. FRONTIERS IN PHYSICS 2020; 8:119. [PMID: 32457897 PMCID: PMC7250396 DOI: 10.3389/fphy.2020.00119] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
In this article, the Brownian dynamics fluctuation-dissipation theorem (BD-FDT) is applied to the study of transport of neutral solutes across the cellular membrane of Plasmodium berghei (Pb), a disease-causing parasite. Pb infects rodents and causes symptoms in laboratory mice that are comparable to human malaria caused by Plasmodium falciparum (Pf). Due to the relative ease of its genetic engineering, P. berghei has been exploited as a model organism for the study of human malaria. P. berghei expresses one type of aquaporin (AQP), PbAQP, and, in parallel, P. falciparum expresses PfAQP. Either PbAQP or PfAQP is a multifunctional channel protein in the plasma membrane of the rodent/human malarial parasite for homeostasis of water, uptake of glycerol, and excretion of some metabolic wastes across the cell membrane. This FDT-study of the channel protein PbAQP is to elucidate how and how strongly it interacts with water, glycerol, and erythritol. It is found that erythritol, which binds deep inside the conducting pore of PbAQP/PfAQP, inhibits the channel protein's functions of conducting water, glycerol etc. This points to the possibility that erythritol, a sugar substitute, may inhibit the malarial parasites in rodents and in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liao Y Chen
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, The University of Texas at San Antonio, San Antonio, Texas, USA
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9
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Matz JM, Watanabe M, Falade M, Tohge T, Hoefgen R, Matuschewski K. Plasmodium Para-Aminobenzoate Synthesis and Salvage Resolve Avoidance of Folate Competition and Adaptation to Host Diet. Cell Rep 2020; 26:356-363.e4. [PMID: 30625318 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.12.062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2018] [Revised: 11/26/2018] [Accepted: 12/14/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Folate metabolism is essential for DNA synthesis and a validated drug target in fast-growing cell populations, including tumors and malaria parasites. Genome data suggest that Plasmodium has retained its capacity to generate folates de novo. However, the metabolic plasticity of folate uptake and biosynthesis by the malaria parasite remains unresolved. Here, we demonstrate that Plasmodium uses an aminodeoxychorismate synthase and an aminodeoxychorismate lyase to promote the biogenesis of the central folate precursor para-aminobenzoate (pABA) in the cytoplasm. We show that the parasite depends on de novo folate synthesis only when dietary intake of pABA by the mammalian host is restricted and that only pABA, rather than fully formed folate, is taken up efficiently. This adaptation, which readily adjusts infection to highly variable pABA levels in the mammalian diet, is specific to blood stages and may have evolved to avoid folate competition between the parasite and its host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Michael Matz
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115 Berlin, Germany; Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute of Infection Biology, 10117 Berlin, Germany.
| | - Mutsumi Watanabe
- Department of Molecular Physiology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany; Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Plant Secondary Metabolism, 8916-5 Takayama-cho, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan
| | | | - Takayuki Tohge
- Department of Molecular Physiology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany; Nara Institute of Science and Technology, Graduate School of Biological Sciences, Plant Secondary Metabolism, 8916-5 Takayama-cho, Ikoma, Nara 630-0192, Japan
| | - Rainer Hoefgen
- Department of Molecular Physiology, Max Planck Institute of Molecular Plant Physiology, 14476 Potsdam-Golm, Germany
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115 Berlin, Germany; Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute of Infection Biology, 10117 Berlin, Germany
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10
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Linzke M, Yan SLR, Tárnok A, Ulrich H, Groves MR, Wrenger C. Live and Let Dye: Visualizing the Cellular Compartments of the Malaria Parasite Plasmodium falciparum. Cytometry A 2019; 97:694-705. [PMID: 31738009 DOI: 10.1002/cyto.a.23927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2019] [Revised: 10/03/2019] [Accepted: 10/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Malaria remains one of the deadliest diseases worldwide and it is caused by the protozoan parasite Plasmodium spp. Parasite visualization is an important tool for the correct detection of malarial cases but also to understand its biology. Advances in visualization techniques promote new insights into the complex life cycle and biology of Plasmodium parasites. Live cell imaging by fluorescence microscopy or flow cytometry are the foundation of the visualization technique for malaria research. In this review, we present an overview of possibilities in live cell imaging of the malaria parasite. We discuss some of the state-of-the-art techniques to visualize organelles and processes of the parasite and discuss limitation and advantages of each technique. © 2019 International Society for Advancement of Cytometry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marleen Linzke
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Sun Liu Rei Yan
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Attila Tárnok
- Institute for Medical Informatics, Statistics and Epidemiology, Medical Faculty, University Leipzig, D-04107, Härtelstraße 16-18, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Henning Ulrich
- Department of Biochemistry, Institute of Chemistry, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 748, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-900, Brazil
| | - Matthew R Groves
- Structural Biology Unit, Department of Pharmacy, Faculty of Science and Engineering, University of Groningen, 9713AV, Antonius Deusinglaan 1, AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Carsten Wrenger
- Unit for Drug Discovery, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, Avenida Professor Lineu Prestes 1374, São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
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11
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Martin RE. The transportome of the malaria parasite. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2019; 95:305-332. [PMID: 31701663 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12565] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2019] [Revised: 10/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Membrane transport proteins, also known as transporters, control the movement of ions, nutrients, metabolites, and waste products across the membranes of a cell and are central to its biology. Proteins of this type also serve as drug targets and are key players in the phenomenon of drug resistance. The malaria parasite has a relatively reduced transportome, with only approximately 2.5% of its genes encoding transporters. Even so, assigning functions and physiological roles to these proteins, and ascertaining their contributions to drug action and drug resistance, has been very challenging. This review presents a detailed critique and synthesis of the disruption phenotypes, protein subcellular localisations, protein functions (observed or predicted), and links to antimalarial drug resistance for each of the parasite's transporter genes. The breadth and depth of the gene disruption data are particularly impressive, with at least one phenotype determined in the parasite's asexual blood stage for each transporter gene, and multiple phenotypes available for 76% of the genes. Analysis of the curated data set revealed there to be relatively little redundancy in the Plasmodium transportome; almost two-thirds of the parasite's transporter genes are essential or required for normal growth in the asexual blood stage of the parasite, and this proportion increased to 78% when the disruption phenotypes available for the other parasite life stages were included in the analysis. These observations, together with the finding that 22% of the transportome is implicated in the parasite's resistance to existing antimalarials and/or drugs within the development pipeline, indicate that transporters are likely to serve, or are already serving, as drug targets. Integration of the different biological and bioinformatic data sets also enabled the selection of candidates for transport processes known to be essential for parasite survival, but for which the underlying proteins have thus far remained undiscovered. These include potential transporters of pantothenate, isoleucine, or isopentenyl diphosphate, as well as putative anion-selective channels that may serve as the pore component of the parasite's 'new permeation pathways'. Other novel insights into the parasite's biology included the identification of transporters for the potential development of antimalarial treatments, transmission-blocking drugs, prophylactics, and genetically attenuated vaccines. The syntheses presented herein set a foundation for elucidating the functions and physiological roles of key members of the Plasmodium transportome and, ultimately, to explore and realise their potential as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rowena E Martin
- Research School of Biology, Australian National University, Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
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12
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Matz JM, Goosmann C, Matuschewski K, Kooij TWA. An Unusual Prohibitin Regulates Malaria Parasite Mitochondrial Membrane Potential. Cell Rep 2019; 23:756-767. [PMID: 29669282 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2018.03.088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2017] [Revised: 02/16/2018] [Accepted: 03/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Proteins of the stomatin/prohibitin/flotillin/HfIK/C (SPFH) family are membrane-anchored and perform diverse cellular functions in different organelles. Here, we investigate the SPFH proteins of the murine malaria model parasite Plasmodium berghei, the conserved prohibitin 1, prohibitin 2, and stomatin-like protein and an unusual prohibitin-like protein (PHBL). The SPFH proteins localize to the parasite mitochondrion. While the conserved family members could not be deleted from the Plasmodium genome, PHBL was successfully ablated, resulting in impaired parasite fitness and attenuated virulence in the mammalian host. Strikingly, PHBL-deficient parasites fail to colonize the Anopheles vector because of complete arrest during ookinete development in vivo. We show that this arrest correlates with depolarization of the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨmt). Our results underline the importance of SPFH proteins in the regulation of core mitochondrial functions and suggest that fine-tuning of ΔΨmt in malarial parasites is critical for colonization of the definitive host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Michael Matz
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany; Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany; Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
| | - Christian Goosmann
- Microscopy Core Facility, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Philippstraße 13, 10115 Berlin, Germany; Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Charitéplatz 1, 10117 Berlin, Germany
| | - Taco Wilhelmus Antonius Kooij
- Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands; Center for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics and Radboud Center for Mitochondrial Medicine, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Center, PO Box 9101, 6500 HB Nijmegen, the Netherlands.
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13
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Matz JM, Matuschewski K. An in silico down-scaling approach uncovers novel constituents of the Plasmodium-containing vacuole. Sci Rep 2018; 8:14055. [PMID: 30232409 PMCID: PMC6145888 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-32471-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
During blood stage development the malaria parasite resides in a membrane-bound compartment, termed the parasitophorous vacuole (PV). The reasons for this intravacuolar life style and the molecular functions of this parasite-specific compartment remain poorly defined, which is mainly due to our limited knowledge about the molecular make-up of this unique niche. We used an in silico down-scaling approach to select for Plasmodium-specific candidates that harbour signatures of PV residency. Live co-localisation of five endogenously tagged proteins confirmed expression in the PV of Plasmodium berghei blood and liver stages. ER retention was ruled out by addition of the respective carboxyterminal tetrapeptides to a secreted reporter protein. Although all five PV proteins are highly expressed, four proved to be dispensable for parasite development in the mammalian and mosquito host, as revealed by targeted gene deletion. In good agreement with their redundant roles, the knockout parasites displayed no detectable deficiencies in protein export, sequestration, or PV morphology. Together, our approach improved the catalogue of the Plasmodium PV proteome and provides experimental genetics evidence for functional redundancy of several PV proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joachim Michael Matz
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115, Berlin, Germany. .,Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, 10117, Berlin, Germany.
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Department of Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, 10115, Berlin, Germany.,Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, 10117, Berlin, Germany
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14
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Soga A, Ko‐ketsu M, Fukumoto S. Development of a
bsd
‐blasticidin selection system in
Plasmodium berghei. FEBS Lett 2018; 592:1847-1855. [DOI: 10.1002/1873-3468.13100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Revised: 05/07/2018] [Accepted: 05/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Akira Soga
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine Japan
| | - Mami Ko‐ketsu
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine Japan
| | - Shinya Fukumoto
- National Research Center for Protozoan Diseases Obihiro University of Agriculture and Veterinary Medicine Japan
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15
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Aquaglyceroporin PbAQP is required for efficient progression through the liver stage of Plasmodium infection. Sci Rep 2018; 8:655. [PMID: 29330527 PMCID: PMC5766620 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18987-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2017] [Accepted: 12/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The discovery of aquaglyceroporins (AQP) has highlighted a new mechanism of membrane solute transport that may hold therapeutic potential for controlling parasitic infections, including malaria. Plasmodium parasites express a single AQP at the plasma membrane that functions as a channel for water, nutrients and waste into and out cells. We previously demonstrated that Plasmodium berghei targeted for PbAQP deletion are deficient in glycerol import and less virulent than wild-type parasites during the blood developmental stage. Here, we have examined the contribution of PbAQP to the infectivity of P. berghei in the liver. PbAQP is expressed in the sporozoite mosquito stage and is detected at low levels in intrahepatic parasites at the onset of hepatocyte infection. As the parasites progress to late hepatic stages, PbAQP transcription increases and PbAQP localizes to the plasma membrane of hepatic merozoites. Compared to wild-type parasites, PbAQP-null sporozoites exhibit a delay in blood stage infection due to slower replication in hepatocytes, resulting in retardation of merosome production. Furthermore, PbAQP disruption results in a significant reduction in erythrocyte infectivity by hepatocyte-derived merozoites. Hepatic merozoites incorporate exogenous glycerol into glycerophospholipids and PbAQP-null merozoites contain less phosphatidylcholine than wild-type merozoites, underlining the contribution of Plasmodium AQP to phospholipid syntheses.
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16
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Hughes KR, Waters AP. Rapid inducible protein displacement in Plasmodiumin vivo and in vitro using knocksideways technology. Wellcome Open Res 2017; 2:18. [PMID: 28428983 PMCID: PMC5395084 DOI: 10.12688/wellcomeopenres.11005.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023] Open
Abstract
A deeper understanding of the biology of the
Plasmodium parasite is essential in order to identify targets for interventions, with the ultimate aim of eliminating malaria. Determining the function(s) of essential proteins in
Plasmodium has, until recently, been hampered by the lack of efficient conditional systems to abrogate proteins. We report the adaptation of a conditional technology, knocksideways (KS), for use in
Plasmodium berghei, which can potentially rapidly inactivate proteins of interest through relocalisation. The system is induced using rapamycin, which allows for KS both
in vitro and
in vivo and is effective more rapidly than any other reported system. KS utilises pairs of fluorescent tags that facilitate live imaging and allows for rapid confirmation of efficient protein redistribution on live parasites, allowing for streamlined workflows. We demonstrate the characteristics of the system using transgenically expressed cytoplasmic GFP and provide proof of principle by inducibly redistributing a number of proteins with different native, subcellular locations. We also demonstrate that KS can be applied to both mammalian and insect stages of
Plasmodium. KS expands the range of (conditional) technologies for genetic manipulation of malaria parasites and offers the potential to be further developed for medium throughput phenotype screens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katie R Hughes
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Andy P Waters
- Wellcome Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
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17
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Distinct Prominent Roles for Enzymes of Plasmodium berghei Heme Biosynthesis in Sporozoite and Liver Stage Maturation. Infect Immun 2016; 84:3252-3262. [PMID: 27600503 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00148-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2016] [Accepted: 08/29/2016] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Malarial parasites have evolved complex regulation of heme supply and disposal to adjust to heme-rich and -deprived host environments. In addition to its own pathway for heme biosynthesis, Plasmodium likely harbors mechanisms for heme scavenging from host erythrocytes. Elaborate compartmentalization of de novo heme synthesis into three subcellular locations, including the vestigial plastid organelle, indicates critical roles in life cycle progression. In this study, we systematically profile the essentiality of heme biosynthesis by targeted gene deletion of enzymes in early steps of this pathway. We show that disruption of endogenous heme biosynthesis leads to a first detectable defect in oocyst maturation and sporogony in the Anopheles vector, whereas blood stage propagation, colonization of mosquito midguts, or initiation of oocyst development occurs indistinguishably from that of wild-type parasites. Although sporozoites are produced by parasites lacking an intact pathway for heme biosynthesis, they are absent from mosquito salivary glands, indicative of a vital role for heme biosynthesis only in sporozoite maturation. Rescue of the first defect in sporogony permitted analysis of potential roles in liver stages. We show that liver stage parasites benefit from but do not strictly depend upon their own aminolevulinic acid synthase and that they can scavenge aminolevulinic acid from the host environment. Together, our experimental genetics analysis of Plasmodium enzymes for heme biosynthesis exemplifies remarkable shifts between the use of endogenous and host resources during life cycle progression.
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18
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Weiner J, Kooij TWA. Phylogenetic profiles of all membrane transport proteins of the malaria parasite highlight new drug targets. MICROBIAL CELL 2016; 3:511-521. [PMID: 28357319 PMCID: PMC5348985 DOI: 10.15698/mic2016.10.534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
In order to combat the on-going malaria epidemic, discovery of new drug targets
remains vital. Proteins that are essential to survival and specific to malaria
parasites are key candidates. To survive within host cells, the parasites need
to acquire nutrients and dispose of waste products across multiple membranes.
Additionally, like all eukaryotes, they must redistribute ions and organic
molecules between their various internal membrane bound compartments. Membrane
transport proteins mediate all of these processes and are considered important
mediators of drug resistance as well as drug targets in their own right.
Recently, using advanced experimental genetic approaches and streamlined life
cycle profiling, we generated a large collection of Plasmodium
berghei gene deletion mutants and assigned essential gene
functions, highlighting potential targets for prophylactic, therapeutic, and
transmission-blocking anti-malarial drugs. Here, we present a comprehensive
orthology assignment of all Plasmodium falciparum putative
membrane transport proteins and provide a detailed overview of the associated
essential gene functions obtained through experimental genetics studies in human
and murine model parasites. Furthermore, we discuss the phylogeny of selected
potential drug targets identified in our functional screen. We extensively
discuss the results in the context of the functional assignments obtained using
gene targeting available to date.
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Affiliation(s)
- January Weiner
- Department of Immunology, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Taco W A Kooij
- Department of Medical Microbiology & Centre for Molecular and Biomolecular Informatics, Radboud Institute for Molecular Life Sciences, Radboud University Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands
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19
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Efficient monitoring of the blood-stage infection in a malaria rodent model by the rotating-crystal magneto-optical method. Sci Rep 2016; 6:23218. [PMID: 26983695 PMCID: PMC4794716 DOI: 10.1038/srep23218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2015] [Accepted: 02/26/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Intense research efforts have been focused on the improvement of the efficiency and sensitivity of malaria diagnostics, especially in resource-limited settings for the detection of asymptomatic infections. Our recently developed magneto-optical (MO) method allows the accurate quantification of malaria pigment crystals (hemozoin) in blood by their magnetically induced rotation. First evaluations of the method using β-hematin crystals and in vitro P. falciparum cultures implied its potential for high-sensitivity malaria diagnosis. To further investigate this potential, here we study the performance of the method in monitoring the in vivo onset and progression of the blood-stage infection in a rodent malaria model. Our results show that the MO method can detect the first generation of intraerythrocytic P. berghei parasites 66–76 hours after sporozoite injection, demonstrating similar sensitivity to Giesma-stained light microscopy and exceeding that of flow cytometric techniques. Magneto-optical measurements performed during and after the treatment of P. berghei infections revealed that both the follow up under treatment and the detection of later reinfections are feasible with this new technique. The present study demonstrates that the MO method – besides being label and reagent-free, automated and rapid – has a high in vivo sensitivity and is ready for in-field evaluation.
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20
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Functional profiles of orphan membrane transporters in the life cycle of the malaria parasite. Nat Commun 2016; 7:10519. [PMID: 26796412 PMCID: PMC4736113 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms10519] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 12/15/2015] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Assigning function to orphan membrane transport proteins and prioritizing candidates for detailed biochemical characterization remain fundamental challenges and are particularly important for medically relevant pathogens, such as malaria parasites. Here we present a comprehensive genetic analysis of 35 orphan transport proteins of Plasmodium berghei during its life cycle in mice and Anopheles mosquitoes. Six genes, including four candidate aminophospholipid transporters, are refractory to gene deletion, indicative of essential functions. We generate and phenotypically characterize 29 mutant strains with deletions of individual transporter genes. Whereas seven genes appear to be dispensable under the experimental conditions tested, deletion of any of the 22 other genes leads to specific defects in life cycle progression in vivo and/or host transition. Our study provides growing support for a potential link between heavy metal homeostasis and host switching and reveals potential targets for rational design of new intervention strategies against malaria. The functions of many putative membrane transport proteins of malaria parasites are unknown. Here, Kenthirapalan et al. use mutant strains carrying targeted gene deletions to study the functions of 35 such proteins during the life cycle of Plasmodium berghei in mosquito and mouse hosts.
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21
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The Plasmodium berghei translocon of exported proteins reveals spatiotemporal dynamics of tubular extensions. Sci Rep 2015. [PMID: 26219962 PMCID: PMC4518229 DOI: 10.1038/srep12532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The erythrocyte is an extraordinary host cell for intracellular pathogens and requires extensive remodelling to become permissive for infection. Malaria parasites modify their host red blood cells through protein export to acquire nutrients and evade immune responses. Endogenous fluorescent tagging of three signature proteins of the Plasmodium berghei translocon of exported proteins (PTEX), heat shock protein 101, exported protein 2 (EXP2), and PTEX88, revealed motile, tubular extensions of the parasitophorous vacuole that protrude from the parasite far into the red blood cell. EXP2 displays a more prominent presence at the periphery of the parasite, consistent with its proposed role in pore formation. The tubular compartment is most prominent during trophozoite growth. Distinct spatiotemporal expression of individual PTEX components during sporogony and liver-stage development indicates additional functions and tight regulation of the PTEX translocon during parasite life cycle progression. Together, live cell imaging and correlative light and electron microscopy permitted previously unrecognized spatiotemporal and subcellular resolution of PTEX-containing tubules in murine malaria parasites. These findings further refine current models for Plasmodium-induced erythrocyte makeover.
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22
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Philip N, Waters AP. Conditional Degradation of Plasmodium Calcineurin Reveals Functions in Parasite Colonization of both Host and Vector. Cell Host Microbe 2015; 18:122-31. [PMID: 26118994 PMCID: PMC4509507 DOI: 10.1016/j.chom.2015.05.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2014] [Revised: 04/29/2015] [Accepted: 05/27/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Functional analysis of essential genes in the malarial parasite, Plasmodium, is hindered by lack of efficient strategies for conditional protein regulation. We report the development of a rapid, specific, and inducible chemical-genetic tool in the rodent malaria parasite, P. berghei, in which endogenous proteins engineered to contain the auxin-inducible degron (AID) are selectively degraded upon adding auxin. Application of AID to the calcium-regulated protein phosphatase, calcineurin, revealed functions in host and vector stages of parasite development. Whereas depletion of calcineurin in late-stage schizonts demonstrated its critical role in erythrocyte attachment and invasion in vivo, stage-specific depletion uncovered roles in gamete development, fertilization, and ookinete-to-oocyst and sporozoite-to-liver stage transitions. Furthermore, AID technology facilitated concurrent generation and phenotyping of transgenic lines, allowing multiple lines to be assessed simultaneously with significant reductions in animal use. This study highlights the broad applicability of AID for functional analysis of proteins across the Plasmodium life cycle. Calcineurin regulates colonization of host cells across the Plasmodium life cycle Calcineurin regulates male gametogenesis AID technology is broadly applicable to study protein function in Plasmodium Multiplexing of AID technology results in substantially reduced animal use
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Affiliation(s)
- Nisha Philip
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.
| | - Andrew P Waters
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary & Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK.
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23
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Matz JM, Kooij TWA. Towards genome-wide experimental genetics in the in vivo malaria model parasite Plasmodium berghei. Pathog Glob Health 2015; 109:46-60. [PMID: 25789828 DOI: 10.1179/2047773215y.0000000006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium berghei was identified as a parasite of thicket rats (Grammomys dolichurus) and Anopheles dureni mosquitoes in African highland forests. Successful adaptation to a range of rodent and mosquito species established P. berghei as a malaria model parasite. The introduction of stable transfection technology, permitted classical reverse genetics strategies and thus systematic functional profiling of the gene repertoire. In the past 10 years following the publication of the P. berghei genome sequence, many new tools for experimental genetics approaches have been developed and existing ones have been improved. The infection of mice is the principal limitation towards a genome-wide repository of mutant parasite lines. In the past few years, there have been some promising and most welcome developments that allow rapid selection and isolation of recombinant parasites while simultaneously minimising animal usage. Here, we provide an overview of all the currently available tools and methods.
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24
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Risco-Castillo V, Topçu S, Son O, Briquet S, Manzoni G, Silvie O. CD81 is required for rhoptry discharge during host cell invasion by Plasmodium yoelii sporozoites. Cell Microbiol 2014; 16:1533-48. [PMID: 24798694 DOI: 10.1111/cmi.12309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/29/2014] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium sporozoites are transmitted by Anopheles mosquitoes and first infect the liver of their mammalian host, where they develop as liver stages before the onset of erythrocytic infection and malaria symptoms. Sporozoite entry into hepatocytes is an attractive target for anti-malarial prophylactic strategies but remains poorly understood at the molecular level. Apicomplexan parasites invade host cells by forming a parasitophorous vacuole that is essential for parasite development, a process that involves secretion of apical organelles called rhoptries. We previously reported that the host membrane protein CD81 is required for infection by Plasmodium falciparum and Plasmodium yoelii sporozoites. CD81 acts at an early stage of infection, possibly at the entry step, but the mechanisms involved are still unknown. To investigate the role of CD81 during sporozoite entry, we generated transgenic P. yoelii parasites expressing fluorescent versions of three known rhoptry proteins, RON2, RON4 and RAP2/3. We observed that RON2 and RON4 are lost following rhoptry discharge during merozoite and sporozoite entry. In contrast, our data indicate that RAP2/3 is secreted into the parasitophorous vacuole during infection. We further show that sporozoite rhoptry discharge occurs only in the presence of CD81, providing the first direct evidence for a role of CD81 during sporozoite productive invasion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veronica Risco-Castillo
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, UMRS CR7, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), F-75013, Paris, France; INSERM, U1135, CIMI-Paris, F-75013, Paris, France; CNRS, ERL 8255, CIMI-Paris, F-75013, Paris, France
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25
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Manzoni G, Briquet S, Risco-Castillo V, Gaultier C, Topçu S, Ivănescu ML, Franetich JF, Hoareau-Coudert B, Mazier D, Silvie O. A rapid and robust selection procedure for generating drug-selectable marker-free recombinant malaria parasites. Sci Rep 2014; 4:4760. [PMID: 24755823 PMCID: PMC3996467 DOI: 10.1038/srep04760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2013] [Accepted: 04/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Experimental genetics have been widely used to explore the biology of the malaria parasites. The rodent parasites Plasmodium berghei and less frequently P. yoelii are commonly utilised, as their complete life cycle can be reproduced in the laboratory and because they are genetically tractable via homologous recombination. However, due to the limited number of drug-selectable markers, multiple modifications of the parasite genome are difficult to achieve and require large numbers of mice. Here we describe a novel strategy that combines positive-negative drug selection and flow cytometry-assisted sorting of fluorescent parasites for the rapid generation of drug-selectable marker-free P. berghei and P. yoelii mutant parasites expressing a GFP or a GFP-luciferase cassette, using minimal numbers of mice. We further illustrate how this new strategy facilitates phenotypic analysis of genetically modified parasites by fluorescence and bioluminescence imaging of P. berghei mutants arrested during liver stage development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giulia Manzoni
- 1] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CR7, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), 75013, Paris, France [2] INSERM, U1135, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [3] CNRS, ERL 8255, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [4]
| | - Sylvie Briquet
- 1] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CR7, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), 75013, Paris, France [2] INSERM, U1135, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [3] CNRS, ERL 8255, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [4]
| | - Veronica Risco-Castillo
- 1] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CR7, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), 75013, Paris, France [2] INSERM, U1135, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [3] CNRS, ERL 8255, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Charlotte Gaultier
- 1] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CR7, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), 75013, Paris, France [2] INSERM, U1135, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [3] CNRS, ERL 8255, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [4]
| | - Selma Topçu
- 1] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CR7, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), 75013, Paris, France [2] INSERM, U1135, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [3] CNRS, ERL 8255, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Maria Larisa Ivănescu
- 1] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CR7, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), 75013, Paris, France [2] INSERM, U1135, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [3] CNRS, ERL 8255, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Jean-François Franetich
- 1] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CR7, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), 75013, Paris, France [2] INSERM, U1135, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [3] CNRS, ERL 8255, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France
| | - Bénédicte Hoareau-Coudert
- Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, Plateforme de Cytométrie en Flux CyPS, site Pitié-Salpêtrière, Paris, France
| | - Dominique Mazier
- 1] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CR7, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), 75013, Paris, France [2] INSERM, U1135, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [3] CNRS, ERL 8255, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [4] Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Hôpitaux Universitaires La Pitié Salpêtrière - Charles Foix, Service de Parasitologie-Mycologie, Paris, France
| | - Olivier Silvie
- 1] Sorbonne Universités, UPMC Univ Paris 06, CR7, Centre d'Immunologie et des Maladies Infectieuses (CIMI-Paris), 75013, Paris, France [2] INSERM, U1135, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France [3] CNRS, ERL 8255, CIMI-Paris, 75013, Paris, France
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26
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Egarter S, Andenmatten N, Jackson AJ, Whitelaw JA, Pall G, Black JA, Ferguson DJP, Tardieux I, Mogilner A, Meissner M. The toxoplasma Acto-MyoA motor complex is important but not essential for gliding motility and host cell invasion. PLoS One 2014; 9:e91819. [PMID: 24632839 PMCID: PMC3954763 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0091819] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2013] [Accepted: 02/13/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Apicomplexan parasites are thought to actively invade the host cell by gliding motility. This movement is powered by the parasite's own actomyosin system, and depends on the regulated polymerisation and depolymerisation of actin to generate the force for gliding and host cell penetration. Recent studies demonstrated that Toxoplasma gondii can invade the host cell in the absence of several core components of the invasion machinery, such as the motor protein myosin A (MyoA), the microneme proteins MIC2 and AMA1 and actin, indicating the presence of alternative invasion mechanisms. Here the roles of MyoA, MLC1, GAP45 and Act1, core components of the gliding machinery, are re-dissected in detail. Although important roles of these components for gliding motility and host cell invasion are verified, mutant parasites remain invasive and do not show a block of gliding motility, suggesting that other mechanisms must be in place to enable the parasite to move and invade the host cell. A novel, hypothetical model for parasite gliding motility and invasion is presented based on osmotic forces generated in the cytosol of the parasite that are converted into motility.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saskia Egarter
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Nicole Andenmatten
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Allison J. Jackson
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Jamie A. Whitelaw
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Gurman Pall
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Jennifer Ann Black
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - David J. P. Ferguson
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Laboratory Science, Oxford University, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Isabelle Tardieux
- Institut Cochin, University of Paris Descartes, INSERM U-1016, CNRS UMR-8104, Paris, France
| | - Alex Mogilner
- Department of Neurobiology, Physiology, and Behavior and Department of Mathematics, University of California Davis, Davis, California, United States of America
| | - Markus Meissner
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
- * E-mail:
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27
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Abstract
As it grows and replicates within the erythrocytes of its host the malaria parasite takes up nutrients from the extracellular medium, exports metabolites and maintains a tight control over its internal ionic composition. These functions are achieved via membrane transport proteins, integral membrane proteins that mediate the passage of solutes across the various membranes that separate the biochemical machinery of the parasite from the extracellular environment. Proteins of this type play a key role in antimalarial drug resistance, as well as being candidate drug targets in their own right. This review provides an overview of recent work on the membrane transport biology of the malaria parasite-infected erythrocyte, encompassing both the parasite-induced changes in the membrane transport properties of the host erythrocyte and the cell physiology of the intracellular parasite itself.
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Haussig JM, Matuschewski K, Kooij TWA. Identification of vital and dispensable sulfur utilization factors in the Plasmodium apicoplast. PLoS One 2014; 9:e89718. [PMID: 24586983 PMCID: PMC3931816 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0089718] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/19/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron-sulfur [Fe-S] clusters are ubiquitous and critical cofactors in diverse biochemical processes. They are assembled by distinct [Fe-S] cluster biosynthesis pathways, typically in organelles of endosymbiotic origin. Apicomplexan parasites, including Plasmodium, the causative agent of malaria, harbor two separate [Fe-S] cluster biosynthesis pathways in the their mitochondrion and apicoplast. In this study, we systematically targeted the five nuclear-encoded sulfur utilization factors (SUF) of the apicoplast [Fe-S] cluster biosynthesis pathway by experimental genetics in the murine malaria model parasite Plasmodium berghei. We show that four SUFs, namely SUFC, D, E, and S are refractory to targeted gene deletion, validating them as potential targets for antimalarial drug development. We achieved targeted deletion of SUFA, which encodes a potential [Fe-S] transfer protein, indicative of a dispensable role during asexual blood stage growth in vivo. Furthermore, no abnormalities were observed during Plasmodium life cycle progression in the insect and mammalian hosts. Fusion of a fluorescent tag to the endogenous P. berghei SUFs demonstrated that all loci were accessible to genetic modification and that all five tagged SUFs localize to the apicoplast. Together, our experimental genetics analysis identifies the key components of the SUF [Fe-S] cluster biosynthesis pathway in the apicoplast of a malarial parasite and shows that absence of SUFC, D, E, or S is incompatible with Plasmodium blood infection in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana M. Haussig
- Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
| | - Taco W. A. Kooij
- Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Kenthirapalan S, Waters AP, Matuschewski K, Kooij TWA. Copper-transporting ATPase is important for malaria parasite fertility. Mol Microbiol 2013; 91:315-25. [PMID: 24237419 PMCID: PMC4016742 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12461] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/13/2013] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Homeostasis of the trace element copper is essential to all eukaryotic life. Copper serves as a cofactor in metalloenzymes and catalyses electron transfer reactions as well as the generation of potentially toxic reactive oxygen species. Here, we describe the functional characterization of an evolutionarily highly conserved, predicted copper-transporting P-type ATPase (CuTP) in the murine malaria model parasite Plasmodium berghei. Live imaging of a parasite line expressing a fluorescently tagged CuTP demonstrated that CuTP is predominantly located in vesicular bodies of the parasite. A P. berghei loss-of-function mutant line was readily obtained and showed no apparent defect in in vivo blood stage growth. Parasite transmission through the mosquito vector was severely affected, but not entirely abolished. We show that male and female gametocytes are abundant in cutp− parasites, but activation of male microgametes and exflagellation were strongly impaired. This specific defect could be mimicked by addition of the copper chelator neocuproine to wild-type gametocytes. A cross-fertilization assay demonstrated that female fertility was also severely abrogated. In conclusion, we provide experimental genetic and pharmacological evidence that a healthy copper homeostasis is critical to malaria parasite fertility of both genders of gametocyte and, hence, to transmission to the mosquito vector.
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Matz JM, Matuschewski K, Kooij TW. Two putative protein export regulators promote Plasmodium blood stage development in vivo. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2013; 191:44-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2013.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 09/13/2013] [Accepted: 09/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Hliscs M, Nahar C, Frischknecht F, Matuschewski K. Expression profiling of Plasmodium berghei HSP70 genes for generation of bright red fluorescent parasites. PLoS One 2013; 8:e72771. [PMID: 24013507 PMCID: PMC3754930 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0072771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2013] [Accepted: 07/11/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Live cell imaging of recombinant malarial parasites encoding fluorescent probes provides critical insights into parasite-host interactions and life cycle progression. In this study, we generated a red fluorescent line of the murine malarial parasite Plasmodium berghei. To allow constitutive and abundant expression of the mCherry protein we profiled expression of all members of the P. berghei heat shock protein 70 (HSP70) family. We identified PbHSP70/1, an invariant ortholog of Plasmodium falciparum HSP70-1, as the protein with the highest expression levels during Plasmodium blood, mosquito, and liver infection. Stable allelic insertion of a mCherry expression cassette into the PbHsp70/1 locus created constitutive red fluorescent P. berghei lines, termed Pbred. We show that these parasites can be used for live imaging of infected host cells and organs, including hepatocytes, erythrocytes, and whole Anopheles mosquitoes. Quantification of the fluorescence intensity of several Pbred parasite stages revealed significantly enhanced signal intensities in comparison to GFP expressed under the control of the constitutive EF1alpha promoter. We propose that systematic transcript profiling permits generation of reporter parasites, such as the Pbred lines described herein.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marion Hliscs
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Parasitology Unit, Berlin, Germany
- Bio21 Molecular Science and Biotechnology Institute, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Australia
| | - Carolin Nahar
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Parasitology Unit, Berlin, Germany
| | - Friedrich Frischknecht
- Parasitology, Department of Infectious Diseases, University of Heidelberg Medical School, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Parasitology Unit, Berlin, Germany
- Institute of Biology, Humboldt University, Berlin, Germany
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Haussig JM, Matuschewski K, Kooij TWA. Experimental Genetics of Plasmodium berghei NFU in the Apicoplast Iron-Sulfur Cluster Biogenesis Pathway. PLoS One 2013; 8:e67269. [PMID: 23805304 PMCID: PMC3689711 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0067269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 05/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Eukaryotic pathogens of the phylum Apicomplexa contain a non-photosynthetic plastid, termed apicoplast. Within this organelle distinct iron-sulfur [Fe-S] cluster proteins are likely central to biosynthesis pathways, including generation of isoprenoids and lipoic acid. Here, we targeted a nuclear-encoded component of the apicoplast [Fe-S] cluster biosynthesis pathway by experimental genetics in the murine malaria parasite Plasmodium berghei. We show that ablation of the gene encoding a nitrogen fixation factor U (NifU)-like domain containing protein (NFUapi) resulted in parasites that were able to complete the entire life cycle indicating redundant or non-essential functions. nfu– parasites displayed reduced merosome formation in vitro, suggesting that apicoplast NFUapi plays an auxiliary role in establishing a blood stage infection. NFUapi fused to a combined fluorescent protein-epitope tag delineates the Plasmodium apicoplast and was tested to revisit inhibition of liver stage development by azithromycin and fosmidomycin. We show that the branched apicoplast signal is entirely abolished by azithromycin treatment, while fosmidomycin had no effect on apicoplast morphology. In conclusion, our experimental genetics analysis supports specialized and/or redundant role(s) for NFUapi in the [Fe-S] cluster biosynthesis pathway in the apicoplast of a malarial parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joana M. Haussig
- Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Kai Matuschewski
- Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
| | - Taco W. A. Kooij
- Parasitology Unit, Max Planck Institute for Infection Biology, Berlin, Germany
- * E-mail:
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