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Rinaldi G, Paz Meseguer C, Cantacessi C, Cortés A. Form and Function in the Digenea, with an Emphasis on Host-Parasite and Parasite-Bacteria Interactions. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 1454:3-45. [PMID: 39008262 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-60121-7_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/16/2024]
Abstract
This review covers the general aspects of the anatomy and physiology of the major body systems in digenetic trematodes, with an emphasis on new knowledge of the area acquired since the publication of the second edition of this book in 2019. In addition to reporting on key recent advances in the morphology and physiology of tegumentary, sensory, neuromuscular, digestive, excretory, and reproductive systems, and their roles in host-parasite interactions, this edition includes a section discussing the known and putative roles of bacteria in digenean biology and physiology. Furthermore, a brief discussion of current trends in the development of novel treatment and control strategies based on a better understanding of the trematode body systems and associated bacteria is provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriel Rinaldi
- Department of Life Sciences, Edward Llwyd Building, Aberystwyth University, Aberystwyth, UK
| | - Carla Paz Meseguer
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Parasitology, School of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain
| | - Cinzia Cantacessi
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Alba Cortés
- Department of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Technology and Parasitology, School of Pharmacy and Food Sciences, Universitat de València, Valencia, Spain.
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2
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Tolstenkov O, Chatzigeorgiou M, Gorbushin A. Neuronal gene expression in two generations of the marine parasitic worm, Cryptocotyle lingua. Commun Biol 2023; 6:1279. [PMID: 38110640 PMCID: PMC10728431 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05675-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/04/2023] [Indexed: 12/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Trematodes, or flukes, undergo intricate anatomical and behavioral transformations during their life cycle, yet the functional changes in their nervous system remain poorly understood. We investigated the molecular basis of nervous system function in Cryptocotyle lingua, a species of relevance for fisheries. Transcriptomic analysis revealed a streamlined molecular toolkit with the absence of key signaling pathways and ion channels. Notably, we observed the loss of nitric oxide synthase across the Platyhelminthes. Furthermore, we identified upregulated neuronal genes in dispersal larvae, including those involved in aminergic pathways, synaptic vesicle trafficking, TRPA channels, and surprisingly nitric oxide receptors. Using neuronal markers and in situ hybridization, we hypothesized their functional relevance to larval adaptations and host-finding strategies. Additionally, employing a behavior quantification toolkit, we assessed cercaria motility, facilitating further investigations into the behavior and physiology of parasitic flatworms. This study enhances our understanding of trematode neurobiology and provides insights for targeted antiparasitic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Alexander Gorbushin
- Sechenov Institute of Evolutionary Physiology and Biochemistry, St Petersburg, Russia
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3
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Cwiklinski K, Dalton JP. Omics tools enabling vaccine discovery against fasciolosis. Trends Parasitol 2022; 38:1068-1079. [PMID: 36270885 DOI: 10.1016/j.pt.2022.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2022] [Revised: 09/21/2022] [Accepted: 09/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
In the past decade significant advances in our understanding of liver fluke biology have been made through in-depth interrogation and analysis of evolving Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica omics datasets. This information is crucial for developing novel control strategies, particularly vaccines necessitated by the global spread of anthelmintic resistance. Distilling them down to a manageable number of testable vaccines requires combined rational, empirical, and collaborative approaches. Despite a lack of clear outstanding vaccine candidate(s), we must continue to identify salient parasite-host interacting molecules, likely in the secretory products, tegument, or extracellular vesicles, and perform robust trials especially in livestock, using present and emerging vaccinology technologies to discover that elusive liver fluke vaccine. Omics tools are bringing this prospect ever closer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Krystyna Cwiklinski
- Institute of Infection, Veterinary and Ecological Sciences, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, UK.
| | - John P Dalton
- Molecular Parasitology Laboratory, Centre for One Health (MPL), Ryan Institute, School of Natural Science, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland
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4
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Crooks BA, Mckenzie D, Cadd LC, McCoy CJ, McVeigh P, Marks NJ, Maule AG, Mousley A, Atkinson LE. Pan-phylum In Silico Analyses of Nematode Endocannabinoid Signalling Systems Highlight Novel Opportunities for Parasite Drug Target Discovery. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2022; 13:892758. [PMID: 35846343 PMCID: PMC9283691 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2022.892758] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The endocannabinoid signalling (ECS) system is a complex lipid signalling pathway that modulates diverse physiological processes in both vertebrate and invertebrate systems. In nematodes, knowledge of endocannabinoid (EC) biology is derived primarily from the free-living model species Caenorhabditis elegans, where ECS has been linked to key aspects of nematode biology. The conservation and complexity of nematode ECS beyond C. elegans is largely uncharacterised, undermining the understanding of ECS biology in nematodes including species with key importance to human, veterinary and plant health. In this study we exploited publicly available omics datasets, in silico bioinformatics and phylogenetic analyses to examine the presence, conservation and life stage expression profiles of EC-effectors across phylum Nematoda. Our data demonstrate that: (i) ECS is broadly conserved across phylum Nematoda, including in therapeutically and agriculturally relevant species; (ii) EC-effectors appear to display clade and lifestyle-specific conservation patterns; (iii) filarial species possess a reduced EC-effector complement; (iv) there are key differences between nematode and vertebrate EC-effectors; (v) life stage-, tissue- and sex-specific EC-effector expression profiles suggest a role for ECS in therapeutically relevant parasitic nematodes. To our knowledge, this study represents the most comprehensive characterisation of ECS pathways in phylum Nematoda and inform our understanding of nematode ECS complexity. Fundamental knowledge of nematode ECS systems will seed follow-on functional studies in key nematode parasites to underpin novel drug target discovery efforts.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Louise E. Atkinson
- Microbes & Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
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5
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Preza M, Van Bael S, Temmerman L, Guarnaschelli I, Castillo E, Koziol U. Global analysis of neuropeptides in cestodes identifies Attachin, a SIFamide homolog, as a stimulant of parasite motility and attachment. J Neurochem 2022; 162:467-482. [PMID: 35689626 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15654] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Many anthelmintics target the neuromuscular system, in particular by interfering with signaling mediated by classical neurotransmitters. Although peptidergic signaling has been proposed as a novel target for anthelmintics, current knowledge of the neuropeptide complement of many helminth groups is still limited, especially for parasitic flatworms (cestodes, trematodes, and monogeneans). In this work, we have characterized the neuropeptide complement of the model cestode Hymenolepis microstoma. Peptidomic characterization of adults of H. microstoma validated many of the neuropeptide precursor (npp) genes previously predicted in silico, and identified novel neuropeptides that are conserved in parasitic flatworms. Most neuropeptides from parasitic flatworms lack significant similarity to those from other animals, confirming the uniqueness of their peptidergic signaling. Analysis of gene expression of ten npp genes by in situ hybridization confirmed that all of them are expressed in the nervous system and identified cryptic features, including the first evidence of dorsoventral asymmetry, as well as a new population of peripheral peptidergic cells that appears to be conserved in the trematode Schistosoma mansoni. Finally, we characterized in greater detail Attachin, an SIFamide homolog. Although its expression is largely restricted to the longitudinal nerve cords and cerebral commissure in H. microstoma, it shows widespread localization in the larval nervous system of Echinococcus multilocularis and Mesocestoides corti. Exogenous addition of a peptide corresponding to the highly conserved C-terminus of Attachin stimulated motility and attachment of M. corti larvae. Altogether, this work provides a robust experimental foothold for the characterization of peptidergic signaling in parasitic flatworms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matías Preza
- Sección Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Sven Van Bael
- Animal Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
| | - Liesbet Temmerman
- Animal Physiology and Neurobiology, University of Leuven (KU Leuven), Leuven, Belgium
| | - Inés Guarnaschelli
- Sección Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Estela Castillo
- Laboratorio de Biología Parasitaria, Instituto de Higiene, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Uriel Koziol
- Sección Biología Celular, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
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6
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Kaur R, Arora N, Nair MG, Prasad A. The interplay of helminthic neuropeptides and proteases in parasite survival and host immunomodulation. Biochem Soc Trans 2022; 50:107-118. [PMID: 35076687 PMCID: PMC9042389 DOI: 10.1042/bst20210405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2021] [Revised: 12/22/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Neuropeptides comprise a diverse and broad group of neurotransmitters in vertebrates and invertebrates, with critical roles in neuronal signal transduction. While their role in controlling learning and memory in the brains of mammals is known, their extra-synaptic function in infection and inflammation with effects on distinct tissues and immune cells is increasingly recognized. Helminth infections especially of the central nervous system (CNS), such as neurocysticercosis, induce neuropeptide production by both host and helminth, but their role in host-parasite interplay or host inflammatory response is unclear. Here, we review the neurobiology of helminths, and discuss recent studies on neuropeptide synthesis and function in the helminth as well as the host CNS and immune system. Neuropeptides are summarized according to structure and function, and we discuss the complex enzyme processing for mature neuropeptides, focusing on helminth enzymes as potential targets for novel anthelminthics. We next describe known immunomodulatory effects of mammalian neuropeptides discovered from mouse infection models and draw functional parallels with helminth neuropeptides. Last, we discuss the anti-microbial properties of neuropeptides, and how they may be involved in host-microbiota changes in helminth infection. Overall, a better understanding of the biology of helminth neuropeptides, and whether they affect infection outcomes could provide diagnostic and therapeutic opportunities for helminth infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rimanpreet Kaur
- School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh 175005, India
| | - Naina Arora
- School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh 175005, India
| | - Meera G. Nair
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California Riverside, Riverside, CA 92521, U.S.A
| | - Amit Prasad
- School of Basic Sciences, Indian Institute of Technology Mandi, Mandi, Himachal Pradesh 175005, India
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7
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Atkinson LE, Liu Y, McKay F, Vandewyer E, Viau C, Irvine A, Rosa BA, Li Z, Liang Q, Marks NJ, Maule AG, Mitreva M, Beets I, Li L, Mousley A. Ascaris suum Informs Extrasynaptic Volume Transmission in Nematodes. ACS Chem Neurosci 2021; 12:3176-3188. [PMID: 34347433 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.1c00281] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Neural circuit synaptic connectivities (the connectome) provide the anatomical foundation for our understanding of nematode nervous system function. However, other nonsynaptic routes of communication are known in invertebrates including extrasynaptic volume transmission (EVT), which enables short- and/or long-range communication in the absence of synaptic connections. Although EVT has been highlighted as a facet of Caenorhabditis elegans neurosignaling, no experimental evidence identifies body cavity fluid (pseudocoelomic fluid; PCF) as a vehicle for either neuropeptide or biogenic amine transmission. In the parasitic nematode Ascaris suum, FMRFamide-like peptides encoded on flp-18 potently stimulate female reproductive organs but are expressed in cells that are anatomically distant from the reproductive organ, with no known synaptic connections to this tissue. Here we investigate nonsynaptic neuropeptide signaling in nematodes mediated by the body cavity fluid. Our data show that (i) A. suum PCF (As-PCF) contains a catalog of neuropeptides including FMRFamide-like peptides and neuropeptide-like proteins, (ii) the A. suum FMRFamide-like peptide As-FLP-18A dominates the As-PCF peptidome, (iii) As-PCF potently modulates nematode reproductive muscle function ex vivo, mirroring the effects of synthetic FLP-18 peptides, (iv) As-PCF activates the C. elegans FLP-18 receptors NPR-4 and -5, (v) As-PCF alters C. elegans behavior, and (vi) FLP-18 and FLP-18 receptors display pan-phylum distribution in nematodes. This study provides the first direct experimental evidence to support an extrasynaptic volume route for neuropeptide transmission in nematodes. These data indicate nonsynaptic signaling within the nematode functional connectome and are particularly pertinent to receptor deorphanization approaches underpinning drug discovery programs for nematode pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise E Atkinson
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, U.K
| | - Yang Liu
- School of Pharmacy and Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| | - Fiona McKay
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, U.K
| | - Elke Vandewyer
- Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 59, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Charles Viau
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, U.K
| | - Allister Irvine
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, U.K
| | - Bruce A Rosa
- McDonnell Genome Institute, and Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63108, United States
| | - Zihui Li
- School of Pharmacy and Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| | - Qingxiao Liang
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, U.K
| | - Nikki J Marks
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, U.K
| | - Aaron G Maule
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, U.K
| | - Makedonka Mitreva
- McDonnell Genome Institute, and Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Missouri 63108, United States
| | - Isabel Beets
- Department of Biology, KU Leuven, Naamsestraat 59, 3000 Leuven, Belgium
| | - Lingjun Li
- School of Pharmacy and Department of Chemistry, University of Wisconsin-Madison, Madison, Wisconsin 53705, United States
| | - Angela Mousley
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT9 5DL, U.K
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8
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Kreshchenko N, Terenina N, Ermakov A. Serotonin Signalling in Flatworms: An Immunocytochemical Localisation of 5-HT 7 Type of Serotonin Receptors in Opisthorchis felineus and Hymenolepis diminuta. Biomolecules 2021; 11:1212. [PMID: 34439878 PMCID: PMC8394519 DOI: 10.3390/biom11081212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2021] [Revised: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 08/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The study is dedicated to the investigation of serotonin (5-hydroxytryptamine, 5-HT) and 5-HT7 type serotonin receptor of localisation in larvae of two parasitic flatworms Opisthorchis felineus (Rivolta, 1884) Blanchard, 1895 and Hymenolepis diminuta Rudolphi, 1819, performed using the immunocytochemical method and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). Using whole mount preparations and specific antibodies, a microscopic analysis of the spatial distribution of 5-HT7-immunoreactivity(-IR) was revealed in worm tissue. In metacercariae of O. felineus 5-HT7-IR was observed in the main nerve cords and in the head commissure connecting the head ganglia. The presence of 5-HT7-IR was also found in several structures located on the oral sucker. 5-HT7-IR was evident in the round glandular cells scattered throughout the larva body. In cysticercoids of H. diminuta immunostaining to 5-HT7 was found in flame cells of the excretory system. Weak staining to 5-HT7 was observed along the longitudinal and transverse muscle fibres comprising the body wall and musculature of suckers, in thin longitudinal nerve cords and a connective commissure of the central nervous system. Available publications on serotonin action in flatworms and serotonin receptors identification were reviewed. Own results and the published data indicate that the muscular structures of flatworms are deeply supplied by 5-HT7-IR elements. It suggests that the 5-HT7 type receptor can mediate the serotonin action in the investigated species and is an important component of the flatworm motor control system. The study of the neurochemical basis of parasitic flatworms can play an important role in the solution of fundamental problems in early development of the nervous system and the evolution of neuronal signalling components.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Kreshchenko
- Institute of Cell Biophysics of Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia
| | - Nadezhda Terenina
- Center of Parasitology A.N. Severtsov Institute of Ecology and Evolution of Russian Academy of Sciences, 119071 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Artem Ermakov
- Institute of Theoretical and Experimental Biophysics Russian Academy of Sciences, 142290 Pushchino, Russia;
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9
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Caña-Bozada V, Chapa-López M, Díaz-Martín RD, García-Gasca A, Huerta-Ocampo JÁ, de Anda-Jáuregui G, Morales-Serna FN. In silico identification of excretory/secretory proteins and drug targets in monogenean parasites. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2021; 93:104931. [PMID: 34023509 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104931] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2021] [Revised: 05/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The Excretory/Secretory (ES) proteins of parasites are involved in invasion and colonization of their hosts. In addition, since ES proteins circulate in the extracellular space, they can be more accessible to drugs than other proteins, which makes ES proteins optimal targets for the development of new and better pharmacological strategies. Monogeneans are a group of parasitic Platyhelminthes that includes some pathogenic species problematic for finfish aquaculture. In the present study, 8297 putative ES proteins from four monogenean species which genomic resources are publicly available were identified and functionally annotated by bioinformatic tools. Additionally, for comparative purposes, ES proteins in other parasitic and free-living platyhelminths were identified. Based on data from the monogenean Gyrodactylus salaris, 15 ES proteins are considered potential drug targets. One of them showed homology to 10 cathepsins with known 3D structure. A docking molecular analysis uncovered that the anthelmintic emodepside shows good affinity to these cathepsins suggesting that emodepside can be experimentally tested as a monogenean's cathepsin inhibitor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Víctor Caña-Bozada
- Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Mazatlán 82112, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | - Martha Chapa-López
- Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Mazatlán 82112, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | - Rubén D Díaz-Martín
- Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Mazatlán 82112, Sinaloa, Mexico
| | | | - José Ángel Huerta-Ocampo
- Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Hermosillo 83304, Sonora, Mexico; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - Guillermo de Anda-Jáuregui
- Computational Genomics Division, National Institute of Genomic Medicine, Mexico City, Mexico; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT), Ciudad de México, Mexico
| | - F Neptalí Morales-Serna
- Centro de Investigación en Alimentación y Desarrollo, Mazatlán 82112, Sinaloa, Mexico; Consejo Nacional de Ciencia y Tecnología (CONACyT), Ciudad de México, Mexico; Instituto de Ciencias del Mar y Limnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mazatlán 82040, Sinaloa, Mexico.
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10
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Kahl A, von Samson-Himmelstjerna G, Krücken J, Ganter M. Chronic Wasting Due to Liver and Rumen Flukes in Sheep. Animals (Basel) 2021; 11:549. [PMID: 33669891 PMCID: PMC7923292 DOI: 10.3390/ani11020549] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2020] [Revised: 02/12/2021] [Accepted: 02/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Grazing sheep and goats are constantly exposed to helminth infections in many parts of the world, including several trematode species that causes a range of clinical diseases. The clinical picture of flukes is dependent upon the organs in which they develop and the tissues they damage within the respective organs. Accordingly, infections with the common liver fluke Fasciola hepatica, which, as juvenile worm migrates through the liver parenchyma for several weeks, may be associated with hepatic disorders such as impairment of carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism, followed by chronic wasting. In contrast, the lancet fluke Dicrocoelium dendriticum, which does not exhibit tissue migration and thus does not lead to major tissue damage and bleeding, also does not lead to significant clinical symptoms. Rumen flukes such as Cotylophoron daubneyi cause catarrhal inflammation during their migration through the intestinal and abomasal epithelium during its juvenile stages. Depending on the infection intensity this may result in a range of clinical symptoms including diarrhoea, inappetence or emaciation. In this review, we aim to provide an update on the current knowledge on flukes particularly concerning the clinical relevance of the most important fluke species in sheep.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexandra Kahl
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany; (G.v.S.-H.); (J.K.)
| | - Georg von Samson-Himmelstjerna
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany; (G.v.S.-H.); (J.K.)
| | - Jürgen Krücken
- Institute for Parasitology and Tropical Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Robert-von-Ostertag-Str. 7-13, 14163 Berlin, Germany; (G.v.S.-H.); (J.K.)
| | - Martin Ganter
- Clinic for Swine and Small Ruminants, Forensic Medicine and Ambulatory Service, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Foundation, Bischofsholer Damm 15, 30173 Hannover, Germany;
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11
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Atkinson LE, McCoy CJ, Crooks BA, McKay FM, McVeigh P, McKenzie D, Irvine A, Harrington J, Rosa BA, Mitreva M, Marks NJ, Maule AG, Mousley A. Phylum-Spanning Neuropeptide GPCR Identification and Prioritization: Shaping Drug Target Discovery Pipelines for Nematode Parasite Control. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2021; 12:718363. [PMID: 34659113 PMCID: PMC8515059 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2021.718363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Nematode parasites undermine human health and global food security. The frontline anthelmintic portfolio used to treat parasitic nematodes is threatened by the escalation of anthelmintic resistance, resulting in a demand for new drug targets for parasite control. Nematode neuropeptide signalling pathways represent an attractive source of novel drug targets which currently remain unexploited. The complexity of the nematode neuropeptidergic system challenges the discovery of new targets for parasite control, however recent advances in parasite 'omics' offers an opportunity for the in silico identification and prioritization of targets to seed anthelmintic discovery pipelines. In this study we employed Hidden Markov Model-based searches to identify ~1059 Caenorhabditis elegans neuropeptide G-protein coupled receptor (Ce-NP-GPCR) encoding gene homologs in the predicted protein datasets of 10 key parasitic nematodes that span several phylogenetic clades and lifestyles. We show that, whilst parasitic nematodes possess a reduced complement of Ce-NP-GPCRs, several receptors are broadly conserved across nematode species. To prioritize the most appealing parasitic nematode NP-GPCR anthelmintic targets, we developed a novel in silico nematode parasite drug target prioritization pipeline that incorporates pan-phylum NP-GPCR conservation, C. elegans-derived reverse genetics phenotype, and parasite life-stage specific expression datasets. Several NP-GPCRs emerge as the most attractive anthelmintic targets for broad spectrum nematode parasite control. Our analyses have also identified the most appropriate targets for species- and life stage- directed chemotherapies; in this context we have identified several NP-GPCRs with macrofilaricidal potential. These data focus functional validation efforts towards the most appealing NP-GPCR targets and, in addition, the prioritization strategy employed here provides a blueprint for parasitic nematode target selection beyond NP-GPCRs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise E. Atkinson
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Ciaran J. McCoy
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Bethany A. Crooks
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona M. McKay
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Paul McVeigh
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Darrin McKenzie
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Allister Irvine
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - John Harrington
- Boehringer Ingelheim Animal Health, Athens, GA, United States
| | - Bruce A. Rosa
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
- McDonnell Genome Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Makedonka Mitreva
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
- McDonnell Genome Institute, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, United States
| | - Nikki J. Marks
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Aaron G. Maule
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
| | - Angela Mousley
- Microbes and Pathogen Biology, The Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queen’s University Belfast, Belfast, United Kingdom
- *Correspondence: Angela Mousley,
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Yañez-Guerra LA, Elphick MR. Evolution and Comparative Physiology of Luqin-Type Neuropeptide Signaling. Front Neurosci 2020; 14:130. [PMID: 32132900 PMCID: PMC7041311 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2020.00130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Luqin is a neuropeptide that was discovered and named on account of its expression in left upper quadrant cells of the abdominal ganglion in the mollusc Aplysia californica. Subsequently, luqin-type peptides were identified as cardio-excitatory neuropeptides in other molluscs and a cognate receptor was discovered in the pond snail Lymnaea stagnalis. Phylogenetic analyses have revealed that orthologs of molluscan luqin-type neuropeptides occur in other phyla; these include neuropeptides in ecdysozoans (arthropods, nematodes) that have a C-terminal RYamide motif (RYamides) and neuropeptides in ambulacrarians (echinoderms, hemichordates) that have a C-terminal RWamide motif (RWamides). Furthermore, precursors of luqin-type neuropeptides typically have a conserved C-terminal motif containing two cysteine residues, although the functional significance of this is unknown. Consistent with the orthology of the neuropeptides and their precursors, phylogenetic and pharmacological studies have revealed that orthologous G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs) mediate effects of luqin-type neuropeptides in spiralians, ecdysozoans, and ambulacrarians. Luqin-type signaling originated in a common ancestor of the Bilateria as a paralog of tachykinin-type signaling but, unlike tachykinin-type signaling, luqin-type signaling was lost in chordates. This may largely explain why luqin-type signaling has received less attention than many other neuropeptide signaling systems. However, insights into the physiological actions of luqin-type neuropeptides (RYamides) in ecdysozoans have been reported recently, with roles in regulation of feeding and diuresis revealed in insects and roles in regulation of feeding, egg laying, locomotion, and lifespan revealed in the nematode Caenorhabditis elegans. Furthermore, characterization of a luqin-type neuropeptide in the starfish Asterias rubens (phylum Echinodermata) has provided the first insights into the physiological roles of luqin-type signaling in a deuterostome. In conclusion, although luqin was discovered in Aplysia over 30 years ago, there is still much to be learnt about luqin-type neuropeptide signaling. This will be facilitated in the post-genomic era by the emerging opportunities for experimental studies on a variety of invertebrate taxa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luis Alfonso Yañez-Guerra
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Maurice R Elphick
- School of Biological and Chemical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Queen Mary University of London, London, United Kingdom
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13
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Choi YJ, Fontenla S, Fischer PU, Le TH, Costábile A, Blair D, Brindley PJ, Tort JF, Cabada MM, Mitreva M. Adaptive Radiation of the Flukes of the Family Fasciolidae Inferred from Genome-Wide Comparisons of Key Species. Mol Biol Evol 2020; 37:84-99. [PMID: 31501870 DOI: 10.1093/molbev/msz204] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Liver and intestinal flukes of the family Fasciolidae cause zoonotic food-borne infections that impact both agriculture and human health throughout the world. Their evolutionary history and the genetic basis underlying their phenotypic and ecological diversity are not well understood. To close that knowledge gap, we compared the whole genomes of Fasciola hepatica, Fasciola gigantica, and Fasciolopsis buski and determined that the split between Fasciolopsis and Fasciola took place ∼90 Ma in the late Cretaceous period, and that between 65 and 50 Ma an intermediate host switch and a shift from intestinal to hepatic habitats occurred in the Fasciola lineage. The rapid climatic and ecological changes occurring during this period may have contributed to the adaptive radiation of these flukes. Expansion of cathepsins, fatty-acid-binding proteins, protein disulfide-isomerases, and molecular chaperones in the genus Fasciola highlights the significance of excretory-secretory proteins in these liver-dwelling flukes. Fasciola hepatica and Fasciola gigantica diverged ∼5 Ma near the Miocene-Pliocene boundary that coincides with reduced faunal exchange between Africa and Eurasia. Severe decrease in the effective population size ∼10 ka in Fasciola is consistent with a founder effect associated with its recent global spread through ruminant domestication. G-protein-coupled receptors may have key roles in adaptation of physiology and behavior to new ecological niches. This study has provided novel insights about the genome evolution of these important pathogens, has generated genomic resources to enable development of improved interventions and diagnosis, and has laid a solid foundation for genomic epidemiology to trace drug resistance and to aid surveillance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Young-Jun Choi
- McDonnell Genome Institute at Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO
| | - Santiago Fontenla
- Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Peter U Fischer
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Thanh Hoa Le
- Immunology Department, Institute of Biotechnology, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam
| | - Alicia Costábile
- Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - David Blair
- College of Science and Engineering, James Cook University, Townsville, QLD, Australia
| | - Paul J Brindley
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Tropical Medicine, and Research Center for Neglected Diseases of Poverty, School of Medicine & Health Sciences, George Washington University, Washington, DC
| | - Jose F Tort
- Departamento de Genética, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad de la República, Montevideo, Uruguay
| | - Miguel M Cabada
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, School of Medicine, University of Texas Medical Branch, Galveston, TX
| | - Makedonka Mitreva
- McDonnell Genome Institute at Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO.,Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
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Elucidating the molecular and developmental biology of parasitic nematodes: Moving to a multiomics paradigm. ADVANCES IN PARASITOLOGY 2020; 108:175-229. [PMID: 32291085 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apar.2019.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
In the past two decades, significant progress has been made in the sequencing, assembly, annotation and analyses of genomes and transcriptomes of parasitic worms of socioeconomic importance. This progress has somewhat improved our knowledge and understanding of these pathogens at the molecular level. However, compared with the free-living nematode Caenorhabditis elegans, the areas of functional genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and metabolomics of parasitic nematodes are still in their infancy, and there are major gaps in our knowledge and understanding of the molecular biology of parasitic nematodes. The information on signalling molecules, molecular pathways and microRNAs (miRNAs) that are known to be involved in developmental processes in C. elegans and the availability of some molecular resources (draft genomes, transcriptomes and some proteomes) for selected parasitic nematodes provide a basis to start exploring the developmental biology of parasitic nematodes. Indeed, some studies have identified molecules and pathways that might associate with developmental processes in related, parasitic nematodes, such as Haemonchus contortus (barber's pole worm). However, detailed information is often scant and 'omics resources are limited, preventing a proper integration of 'omic data sets and comprehensive analyses. Moreover, little is known about the functional roles of pheromones, hormones, signalling pathways and post-transcriptional/post-translational regulations in the development of key parasitic nematodes throughout their entire life cycles. Although C. elegans is an excellent model to assist molecular studies of parasitic nematodes, its use is limited when it comes to explorations of processes that are specific to parasitism within host animals. A deep understanding of parasitic nematodes, such as H. contortus, requires substantially enhanced resources and the use of integrative 'omics approaches for analyses. The improved genome and well-established in vitro larval culture system for H. contortus provide unprecedented opportunities for comprehensive studies of the transcriptomes (mRNA and miRNA), proteomes (somatic, excretory/secretory and phosphorylated proteins) and lipidomes (e.g., polar and neutral lipids) of this nematode. Such resources should enable in-depth explorations of its developmental biology at a level, not previously possible. The main aims of this review are (i) to provide a background on the development of nematodes, with a particular emphasis on the molecular aspects involved in the dauer formation and exit in C. elegans; (ii) to critically appraise the current state of knowledge of the developmental biology of parasitic nematodes and identify key knowledge gaps; (iii) to cover salient aspects of H. contortus, with a focus on the recent advances in genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics and lipidomics as well as in vitro culturing systems; (iv) to review recent advances in our knowledge and understanding of the molecular and developmental biology of H. contortus using an integrative multiomics approach, and discuss the implications of this approach for detailed explorations of signalling molecules, molecular processes and pathways likely associated with nematode development, adaptation and parasitism, and for the identification of novel intervention targets against these pathogens. Clearly, the multiomics approach established recently is readily applicable to exploring a wide range of interesting and socioeconomically significant parasitic worms (including also trematodes and cestodes) at the molecular level, and to elucidate host-parasite interactions and disease processes.
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Zhang XX, Cwiklinski K, Hu RS, Zheng WB, Sheng ZA, Zhang FK, Elsheikha HM, Dalton JP, Zhu XQ. Complex and dynamic transcriptional changes allow the helminth Fasciola gigantica to adjust to its intermediate snail and definitive mammalian hosts. BMC Genomics 2019; 20:729. [PMID: 31606027 PMCID: PMC6790025 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-019-6103-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2019] [Accepted: 09/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The tropical liver fluke, Fasciola gigantica causes fasciolosis, an important disease of humans and livestock. We characterized dynamic transcriptional changes associated with the development of the parasite in its two hosts, the snail intermediate host and the mammalian definitive host. RESULTS Differential gene transcription analysis revealed 7445 unigenes transcribed by all F. gigantica lifecycle stages, while the majority (n = 50,977) exhibited stage-specific expression. Miracidia that hatch from eggs are highly transcriptionally active, expressing a myriad of genes involved in pheromone activity and metallopeptidase activity, consistent with snail host finding and invasion. Clonal expansion of rediae within the snail correlates with increased expression of genes associated with transcription, translation and repair. All intra-snail stages (miracidia, rediae and cercariae) require abundant cathepsin L peptidases for migration and feeding and, as indicated by their annotation, express genes putatively involved in the manipulation of snail innate immune responses. Cercariae emerge from the snail, settle on vegetation and become encysted metacercariae that are infectious to mammals; these remain metabolically active, transcribing genes involved in regulation of metabolism, synthesis of nucleotides, pH and endopeptidase activity to assure their longevity and survival on pasture. Dramatic growth and development following infection of the mammalian host are associated with high gene transcription of cell motility pathways, and transport and catabolism pathways. The intra-mammalian stages temporally regulate key families of genes including the cathepsin L and B proteases and their trans-activating peptidases, the legumains, during intense feeding and migration through the intestine, liver and bile ducts. While 70% of the F. gigantica transcripts share homology with genes expressed by the temperate liver fluke Fasciola hepatica, gene expression profiles of the most abundantly expressed transcripts within the comparable lifecycle stages implies significant species-specific gene regulation. CONCLUSIONS Transcriptional profiling of the F. gigantica lifecycle identified key metabolic, growth and developmental processes the parasite undergoes as it encounters vastly different environments within two very different hosts. Comparative analysis with F. hepatica provides insight into the similarities and differences of these parasites that diverged > 20 million years ago, crucial for the future development of novel control strategies against both species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiao-Xuan Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, Shandong Province, 266109, People's Republic of China
| | - Krystyna Cwiklinski
- National Centre for Biomedical and Engineering Science (NCBES), School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
| | - Rui-Si Hu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Wen-Bin Zheng
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Zhao-An Sheng
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Guangxi University, Nanning, Guangxi Zhuang Autonomous Region, 530005, People's Republic of China
| | - Fu-Kai Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China
| | - Hany M Elsheikha
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
| | - John P Dalton
- National Centre for Biomedical and Engineering Science (NCBES), School of Natural Sciences, National University of Ireland, Galway, Ireland.
| | - Xing-Quan Zhu
- State Key Laboratory of Veterinary Etiological Biology, Key Laboratory of Veterinary Parasitology of Gansu Province, Lanzhou Veterinary Research Institute, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Lanzhou, Gansu Province, 730046, People's Republic of China.
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Li S, Song JH, Kim TI, Yoo WG, Won MH, Dai F, Hong SJ. Chemotactic migration of newly excysted juvenile Clonorchis sinensis is suppressed by neuro-antagonists. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007573. [PMID: 31408466 PMCID: PMC6691982 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007573] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2019] [Accepted: 06/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
The metacercariae of the Clonorchis sinensis liver fluke excyst in the duodenum of mammalian hosts, and the newly excysted juveniles (CsNEJs) migrate along the bile duct via bile chemotaxis. Cholic acid is a major component of bile that induces this migration. We investigated the neuronal control of chemotactic behavior of CsNEJs toward cholic acid. The migration of CsNEJs was strongly inhibited at sub-micromolar concentration by dopamine D1 (LE-300 and SKF-83566), D2 (spiramide, nemonapride, and sulpiride), and D3 (GR-103691 and NGB-2904) receptor antagonists, as well as a dopamine reuptake inhibitor (BTCP). Neuropeptides, FMRFamide, peptide YY, and neuropeptide Y were also potent inhibitors of chemotaxis. Meanwhile, serotonergic, glutamatergic, and cholinergic inhibitors did not affect chemotaxis, with the exception of fluoxetine and CNQX. Confocal immunofluorescence analysis indicated that dopaminergic and cholinergic neurons were colocalized in the somatic muscle tissues of adult C. sinensis. Our findings suggest that dopaminergic neurons and neuropeptides play a major role in the chemotactic migration of CsNEJs to bile, and their inhibitors or modulators could be utilized to prevent their migration from the bile duct.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shunyu Li
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Jin-Ho Song
- Department of Pharmacology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Tae Im Kim
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Division of Planning and Management, Nakdong-gang National Institute of Biological Resources, Sangju, Gyeongsangbuk-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Won Gi Yoo
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | - Moo-Ho Won
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Medicine, Kangwon National University, Chuncheon, Gangwon-do, Republic of Korea
| | - Fuhong Dai
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- Department of Parasitology, Medical College of Soochow University, Suzhou Industrial Park, Suzhou, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Sung-Jong Hong
- Department of Medical Environmental Biology, Chung-Ang University College of Medicine, Seoul, Republic of Korea
- * E-mail:
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Form and Function in the Digenea. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2019; 1154:3-20. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-18616-6_1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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