Drug delivery to inflamed colon by nanoparticles: comparison of different strategies

Nanoparticle-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Inflammatory Bowel Disease Treatment

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic, non-specific inflammatory condition characterized by recurring inflammation of the intestinal mucosa. However, the existing IBD treatments are ineffective and have serious side effects. The etiology of IBD is multifactorial and encompasses immune, genetic, environmental, dietary, and microbial factors. The nanoparticles (NPs) developed based on specific targeting methodologies exhibit great potential as nanotechnology advances. Nanoparticles are defined as particles between 1 and 100 nm in size. Depending on their size and surface functionality, NPs exhibit different properties. A variety of nanoparticle types have been employed as drug carriers for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), with encouraging outcomes observed in experimental models. They increase the bioavailability of drugs and enable targeted drug delivery, promoting localized treatment and thus enhancing efficacy. Nevertheless, numerous challenges persist in the translation from nanomedicine to clinical application, including enhanced formulations and preparation techniques, enhanced drug safety profiles, and so forth. In the future, it will be necessary for scientists and clinicians to collaborate in order to study disease mechanisms, develop new drug delivery strategies, and screen new nanomedicines. Nevertheless, numerous challenges persist in the translation from nanomedicine to clinical application, including enhanced formulations and preparation techniques, enhanced drug safety profiles, and so forth. In the future, it will be necessary for scientists and clinicians to collaborate in order to study disease mechanisms, develop new drug delivery strategies, and screen new nanomedicines.

Nanomedicine for colon-targeted drug delivery: strategies focusing on inflammatory bowel disease and colon cancer

The nanostructured drug-delivery systems for colon-targeted drug delivery are a promising field of research for localized diseases particularly influencing the colonic region, in other words, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, and colorectal cancer. There are various drug-delivery approaches designed for effective colonic disease treatment, including stimulus-based formulations (enzyme-triggered systems, pH-sensitive systems) and magnetically driven drug-delivery systems. In addition, targeted drug delivery by means of overexpressed receptors also offers site specificity and reduces drug resistance. It also covers GI tract-triggered emulsifying systems, nontoxic plant-derived nanoformulations as advanced drug-delivery techniques as well as nanotechnology-based clinical trials toward colonic diseases. This review gives insight into advancements in colon-targeted drug delivery to meet site specificity or targeted drug-delivery requirements.

Current Advances of Nanomaterial-Based Oral Drug Delivery for Colorectal Cancer Treatment

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a common malignant tumor, and traditional treatments include surgical resection and radiotherapy. However, local recurrence, distal metastasis, and intestinal obstruction are significant problems. Oral nano-formulation is a promising treatment strategy for CRC. This study introduces physiological and environmental factors, the main challenges of CRC treatment, and the need for a novel oral colon-targeted drug delivery system (OCDDS). This study reviews the research progress of controlled-release, responsive, magnetic, targeted, and other oral nano-formulations in the direction of CRC treatment, in addition to the advantages of oral colon-targeted nano-formulations and concerns about the oral delivery of related therapeutic agents to inspire related research.

Active nanoparticle targeting of MUC5AC ameliorates therapeutic outcome in experimental colitis

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBDs), which include Crohn's disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), are chronic inflammatory diseases of the gastrointestinal tract and are characterized by chronic recurrent ulceration of the bowels. Colon-targeted drug delivery systems (DDS) have received significant attention for their potential to treat IBD by improving the inflamed tissue selectivity. Herein, antiMUC5AC-decorated drug loaded nanoparticles (NP) are suggested for active epithelial targeting and selective adhesion to the inflamed tissue in experimental colitis. NPs conjugated with antiMUC5AC (anti-MUC5) were tested for their degree of bioadhesion with HT29-MTX cells by comparison with non-targeted BSA-NP conjugates. In vivo, the selectivity of bioadhesion and the influence of ligand density in bioadhesion efficiency as well as the therapeutic benefit for glucocorticoid loaded anti-MUC5-NP were studied in a murine colitis model. Quantitative adhesion analyses showed that anti-MUC5-conjugated NP exhibited a much higher binding and selectivity to inflamed tissue compared to PNA-, IgG1- and BSA-NP conjugates used as controls. This bioadhesion efficiency was found to be dependent on the ligand density, present at the NP surface. The binding specificity between anti-MUC5 ligand and inflamed tissues was confirmed by fluorescence imaging. Both anti-MUC5-NP and all other glucocorticoid containing formulations led to a significant mitigation of the experimental colitis, as became evident from the substantial reduction of myeloperoxidase activity and pro-inflammatory cytokine concentrations (TNF-α, IL-1β). Targeted NP by using anti-MUC5 appears to be a very promising tool in future treatment of various types of local disorders affecting the gastro-intestinal tract but not limited to colitis.

Circular and Circulating DNA in Inflammatory Bowel Disease: From Pathogenesis to Potential Molecular Therapies

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD), including Crohn's Disease (CD) and Ulcerative Colitis (UC) are chronic multifactorial disorders which affect the gastrointestinal tract with variable extent. Despite extensive research, their etiology and exact pathogenesis are still unknown. Cell-free DNAs (cfDNAs) are defined as any DNA fragments which are free from the origin cell and able to circulate into the bloodstream with or without microvescicles. CfDNAs are now being increasingly studied in different human diseases, like cancer or inflammatory diseases. However, to date it is unclear how IBD etiology is linked to cfDNAs in plasma. Extrachromosomal circular DNA (eccDNA) are non-plasmidic, nuclear, circular and closed DNA molecules found in all eukaryotes tested. CfDNAs appear to play an important role in autoimmune diseases, inflammatory processes, and cancer; recently, interest has also grown in IBD, and their role in the pathogenesis of IBD has been suggested. We now suggest that eccDNAs also play a role in IBD. In this review, we have comprehensively collected available knowledge in literature regarding cfDNA, eccDNA, and structures involving them such as neutrophil extracellular traps and exosomes, and their role in IBD. Finally, we focused on old and novel potential molecular therapies and drug delivery systems, such as nanoparticles, for IBD treatment.

Use of Poly Lactic-co-glycolic Acid Nano and Micro Particles in the Delivery of Drugs Modulating Different Phases of Inflammation

Chronic inflammation contributes to the pathogenesis of many diseases, including apparently unrelated conditions such as metabolic disorders, cardiovascular diseases, neurodegenerative diseases, osteoporosis, and tumors, but the use of conventional anti-inflammatory drugs to treat these diseases is generally not very effective given their adverse effects. In addition, some alternative anti-inflammatory medications, such as many natural compounds, have scarce solubility and stability, which are associated with low bioavailability. Therefore, encapsulation within nanoparticles (NPs) may represent an effective strategy to enhance the pharmacological properties of these bioactive molecules, and poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA) NPs have been widely used because of their high biocompatibility and biodegradability and possibility to finely tune erosion time, hydrophilic/hydrophobic nature, and mechanical properties by acting on the polymer's composition and preparation technique. Many studies have been focused on the use of PLGA-NPs to deliver immunosuppressive treatments for autoimmune and allergic diseases or to elicit protective immune responses, such as in vaccination and cancer immunotherapy. By contrast, this review is focused on the use of PLGA NPs in preclinical in vivo models of other diseases in which a key role is played by chronic inflammation or unbalance between the protective and reparative phases of inflammation, with a particular focus on intestinal bowel disease; cardiovascular, neurodegenerative, osteoarticular, and ocular diseases; and wound healing.

Surface engineering of chitosan nanosystems and the impact of functionalized groups on the permeability of model drug across intestinal tissue

Surface attributes of nanocarriers are crucial to determine their fate in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. Herein, we have functionalized chitosan with biochemical moieties including rhamnolipid (RL), curcumin (Cur) and mannose (M). FTIR spectra of functionalized chitosan nanocarriers (FCNCs) demonstrated successful conjugation of M, Cur and RL. The functional moieties influenced the entrapment of model drug i.e., coumarin-6 (C6) in FCNCs with payload-hosting and non-leaching behavior i.e., >91 ± 2.5 % with negligible cumulative release of <2 % for 5 h in KREB, which was further verified in the simulated gastric and intestinal fluids. Consequently, substantial difference in the size and zeta potential was observed for FCNCs with different biochemical moieties. Scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy of FCNCs displayed well-dispersed and spherical morphology. In addition, in vitro cytotoxicity results of FCNCs confirmed their hemocompatibility. In the ex-vivo rat intestinal models, FCNCs displayed a time-dependent-phenomenon in cellular-uptake and adherence. However, apparent-permeability-coefficient and flux values were in the order of C6-RL-FCNCs > C6-M-FCNCs > C6-Cur-FCNCs = C6-CNCs > Free-C6. Furthermore, the transepithelial electrical resistance revealed the FCNCs mediated recovery of membrane-integrity with reversible tight junctions opening. Thus, FCNCs have the potential to overcome the poor solubility and/or permeability issues of active pharmaceutical ingredients and transform the impact of functionalized-nanomedicines in the biomedical industry.

Preparation and Characterization of a Novel Multiparticulate Dosage Form Carrying Budesonide-Loaded Chitosan Nanoparticles to Enhance the Efficiency of Pellets in the Colon

An attempt was made to conquer the limitation of orally administered nanoparticles for the delivery of budesonide to the colon. The ionic gelation technique was used to load budesonide on chitosan nanoparticles. The nanoparticles were investigated in terms of size, zeta potential, encapsulation efficiency, shape and drug release. Then, nanoparticles were pelletized using the extrusion-spheronization method and were investigated for their size, mechanical properties, and drug release. Pellets were subsequently coated with a polymeric solution composed of two enteric (eudragit L and S) and time-dependent polymers (eudragit RS) for colon-specific delivery. All formulations were examined for their anti-inflammatory effect in rats with induced colitis and the relapse of the colitis after discontinuation of treatment was also followed. The size of nanoparticles ranged between 288 ± 7.5 and 566 ± 7.7 nm and zeta potential verified their positive charged surface. The drug release from nanoparticles showed an initial burst release followed by a continuous release. Pelletized nanoparticles showed proper mechanical properties and faster drug release in acidic pH compared with alkaline pH. It was interesting to note that pelletized budesonide nanoparticles released the drug throughout the GIT in a sustained fashion, and had long-lasting anti-inflammatory effects while rapid relapse was observed for those treated with conventional budesonide pellets. It seems that there is a synergistic effect of nanoformulation of budesonide and the encapsulation of pelletized nanoparticles in a proper coating system for colon delivery that could result in a significant and long-lasting anti-inflammatory effect.

Annexin A1 based inflammation resolving mediators and nanomedicines for inflammatory bowel disease therapy

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) such as Crohn's Disease (CD) and Ulcerative Colitis (UC) are chronic, progressive, and relapsing disorders of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), characterised by intestinal epithelial injury and inflammation. Current research shows that in addition to traditional anti-inflammatory therapy, resolution of inflammation and repair of the epithelial barrier are key biological requirements in combating IBD. Resolution mediators include endogenous lipids that are generated during inflammation, e.g., lipoxins, resolvins, protectins, maresins; and proteins such as Annexin A1 (ANXA1). Nanoparticles can specifically deliver these potent inflammation resolving mediators in a spatiotemporal manner to IBD lesions, effectively resolve inflammation, and promote a return to homoeostasis with minimal collateral damage. We discuss these exciting and timely concepts in this review.

Nanomedicine based potentially transformative strategies for colon targeting of peptides: State-of-the-art

Recently, peptides have attracted tremendous attention among researchers attributed to their high target specificity and efficacy compared to conventional therapeutics. The ease of self-administration and non-invasiveness confers oral as the most desirable route. However, numerous challenges associated with peptide delivery through the oral route like harsh gastrointestinal environment, enzymatic degradation, and absorption barriers hinder its clinical translation. Protease activity is more pronounced in the proximal segments of the gastrointestinal tract (GIT). Distal segments like the colon possess lower proteolytic activity, enhanced retention time, etc. which could facilitate easy absorption. However, traversing of the upper segments to reach the colon requires the circumvention of the pitfalls of the GIT. The advent of nanomedicine strategies could help in overcoming the said challenges associated with oral delivery, colon-specific targeting, and improving stability and bioavailability at the active site. Furthermore, the classification of peptides and various nanomedicine strategies for oral delivery of peptides to the colon has been conveyed. Regulatory hurdles and ways to accomplish clinical translation have been addressed.

Current Advances in Chitosan Nanoparticles Based Oral Drug Delivery for Colorectal Cancer Treatment

As per the WHO, colorectal cancer (CRC) caused around 935,173 deaths worldwide in 2020 in both sexes and at all ages. The available anticancer therapies including chemotherapy, radiotherapy and anticancer drugs are all associated with limited therapeutic efficacy, adverse effects and low chances. This has urged to emerge several novel therapeutic agents as potential therapies for CRC including synthetic and natural materials. Orally administrable and targeted drug delivery systems are attractive strategies for CRC therapy as they minimize the side effects, enhance the efficacy of anticancer drugs. Nevertheless, oral drug delivery till today faces several challenges like poor drug solubility, stability, and permeability. Various oral nano-based approaches and targeted drug delivery systems have been developed recently, as a result of the ability of nanoparticles to control the release of the encapsulant, drug targeting and reduce the number of dosages administered. The unique physicochemical properties of chitosan polymer assist to overcome oral drug delivery barriers and target the colon tumour cells. Chitosan-based nanocarriers offered additional improvements by enhancing the stability, targeting and bioavailability of several anti-colorectal cancer agents. Modified chitosan derivatives also facilitated CRC targeting through strengthening the protection of encapsulant against acidic and enzyme degradation of gastrointestinal track (GIT). This review aims to provide an overview of CRC pathology, therapy and the barriers against oral drug delivery. It also emphasizes the role of nanotechnology in oral drug targeted delivery system and the growing interest towards chitosan and its derivatives. The present review summarizes the relevant works to date that have studied the potential applications of chitosan-based nanocarrier towards CRC treatment.

Nanoparticles for oral delivery: targeted therapy for inflammatory bowel disease

As a group of chronic and idiopathic gastrointestinal (GI) disorders, inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is characterized by recurrent intestinal mucosal inflammation. Oral administration is critical for the treatment of IBD. Unfortunately, it is difficult to target the bowel located in the GI tract due to multiple physical barriers. The unique physicochemical properties of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems (DDSs) and their enhanced permeability and retention effects in the inflamed bowel, render nanomedicines to be used to implement precise drug delivery at diseased sites in IBD therapy. In this review, we described the pathophysiological features of IBD, and designed strategies to exploit these features for intestinal targeting. In addition, we introduced the types of currently developed nano-targeted carriers, including synthetic nanoparticle-based and emerging naturally derived nanoparticles (e.g., extracellular vesicles and plant-derived nanoparticles). Moreover, recent developments in targeted oral nanoparticles for IBD therapy were also highlighted. Finally, we presented challenges associated with nanotechnology and potential directions for future IBD treatment.

Plant-Derived Exosomes as A Drug-Delivery Approach for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease and Colitis-Associated Cancer

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic recurrent intestinal disease and includes Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC). Due to the complex etiology of colitis, the current treatments of IBD are quite limited and are mainly concentrated on the remission of the disease. In addition, the side effects of conventional drugs on the body cannot be ignored. IBD also has a certain relationship with colitis-associated cancer (CAC), and inflammatory cells can produce a large number of tumor-promoting cytokines to promote tumor progression. In recent years, exosomes from plants have been found to have the ability to load drugs to target the intestine and have great potential for the treatment of intestinal diseases. This plant-derived exosome-targeting delivery system can load chemical or nucleic acid drugs and deliver them to intestinal inflammatory sites stably and efficiently. This review summarizes the pathophysiological characteristics of IBD and CAC as well as the application and prospect of plant exosomes in the treatment of IBD and CAC.

Effects of rAmb a 1-Loaded PLGA-PEG Nanoparticles in a Murine Model of Allergic Conjunctivitis

Ambrosia artemisiifolia (Amb a) contains many allergens. Allergic conjunctivitis caused by Ambrosia artemisiifolia and its related allergen-specific immunotherapy (AIT) are seldom studied at present. poly(DL-lactide-co-glycolide)-polyethylene glycol (PLGA-PEG) is a very good nano-carrier, which has been applied in the medical field. In this context, we studied the immunotherapy effect and potential mechanism of recombinant Amb a 1 (rAmb a 1)-loaded PLGA-PEG nanoparticles. A mouse allergic conjunctivitis model was established with Ambrosia artemisiifolia crude extract, and the nanoparticles were used for AIT through direct observation of conjunctival tissue, degranulation of mast cells in conjunctival tissue, serum-specific antibodies, cytokines and other assessment models. The treatment of nanoparticles enhanced the secretion of T-helper 1 (Th1) cytokine Interferon-gama (IFN-γ) and the production of immunoglobulin G (IgG)2a (IgG2a), inhibited the secretion of T-helper 2 (Th2) cytokine Interleukin (IL)-13 and IL-4 and the level of IgE. Especially, degranulation of mast cells and expression of mast cell protease-1 (MCP-1) in conjunctival tissue was reduced significantly. In this study, we proved that the nanoparticles prepared by rAmb a 1 and PLGA-PEG have an immunotherapy effect on allergic conjunctivitis in mice.

Antibacterial Activity of T22, a Specific Peptidic Ligand of the Tumoral Marker CXCR4

CXCR4 is a cytokine receptor used by HIV during cell attachment and infection. Overexpressed in the cancer stem cells of more than 20 human neoplasias, CXCR4 is a convenient antitumoral drug target. T22 is a polyphemusin-derived peptide and an effective CXCR4 ligand. Its highly selective CXCR4 binding can be exploited as an agent for the cell-targeted delivery and internalization of associated antitumor drugs. Sharing chemical and structural traits with antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), the capability of T22 as an antibacterial agent remains unexplored. Here, we have detected T22-associated antimicrobial activity and biofilm formation inhibition over Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus and Pseudomonas aeruginosa, in a spectrum broader than the reference AMP GWH1. In contrast to GWH1, T22 shows neither cytotoxicity over mammalian cells nor hemolytic activity and is active when displayed on protein-only nanoparticles through genetic fusion. Under the pushing need for novel antimicrobial agents, the discovery of T22 as an AMP is particularly appealing, not only as its mere addition to the expanding catalogue of antibacterial drugs. The recognized clinical uses of T22 might allow its combined and multivalent application in complex clinical conditions, such as colorectal cancer, that might benefit from the synchronous destruction of cancer stem cells and local bacterial biofilms.

Electrosprayed Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery systems for Biomedical Applications

BACKGROUND

Nanotechnology is a tool being used intensely in the area of drug delivery systems in the biomedical field. Electrospraying is one of the nanotechnological methods, which is growing due to its importance in the development of nanoparticles comprising bioactive compounds. It is helpful in improving the efficacy, reducing side effects of active drug elements, and is useful in targeted drug delivery. When compared to other conventional methods like nanoprecipitation, emulsion diffusion, and double emulsification, electrospraying offers better advantages to produce micro/nanoparticles due to its simplicity, cost-effectiveness, and single-step process.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this paper is to highlight the use of electrosprayed nanoparticles for biomedical applications.

METHODS

We conducted a literature review on the usage of natural and synthetic materials to produce nanoparticles, which can be used as a drug delivery system for medical purposes.

RESULTS

We summarized a possible key role of electrosprayed nanoparticles in different therapeutic applications (tissue regeneration, cancer).

CONCLUSION

The modest literature production denotes that further investigation is needed to assess and validate the promising role of drug-loaded nanoparticles through the electrospraying process as noninvasive materials in the biomedical field.

Evaluating the Anticarcinogenic Activity of Surface Modified/Functionalized Nanochitosan: The Emerging Trends and Endeavors

Chitosan begins its humble journey from marine food shell wastes and ends up as a versatile nutraceutical. This review focuses on briefly discussing the antioxidant activity of chitosan and retrospecting the accomplishments of chitosan nanoparticles as an anticarcinogen. The various modified/functionalized/encapsulated chitosan nanoparticles and nanoforms have been listed and their biomedical deliverables presented. The anticancer accomplishments of chitosan and its modified composites have been reviewed and presented. The future of surface modified chitosan and the lacunae in the current research focus have been discussed as future perspective. This review puts forth the urge to expand the scientific curiosity towards attempting a variety of functionalization and surface modifications to chitosan. There are few well known modifications and functionalization that benefit biomedical applications that have been proven for other systems. Being a biodegradable, biocompatible polymer, chitosan-based nanomaterials are an attractive option for medical applications. Therefore, maximizing expansion of its bioactive properties are explored. The need for applying the ideal functionalization that will significantly promote the anticancer contributions of chitosan nanomaterials has also been stressed.

Receptor-mediated targeted drug delivery systems for treatment of inflammatory bowel disease: Opportunities and emerging strategies

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is a chronic intestinal disease with painful clinical manifestations and high risks of cancerization. With no curative therapy for IBD at present, the development of effective therapeutics is highly advocated. Drug delivery systems have been extensively studied to transmit therapeutics to inflamed colon sites through the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect caused by the inflammation. However, the drug still could not achieve effective concentration value that merely utilized on EPR effect and display better therapeutic efficacy in the inflamed region because of nontargeted drug release. Substantial researches have shown that some specific receptors and cell adhesion molecules highly expresses on the surface of colonic endothelial and/or immune cells when IBD occurs, ligand-modified drug delivery systems targeting such receptors and cell adhesion molecules can specifically deliver drug into inflamed sites and obtain great curative effects. This review introduces the overexpressed receptors and cell adhesion molecules in inflamed colon sites and retrospects the drug delivery systems functionalized by related ligands. Finally, challenges and future directions in this field are presented to advance the development of the receptor-mediated targeted drug delivery systems for the therapy of IBD.

Drug delivery to the inflamed intestinal mucosa - targeting technologies and human cell culture models for better therapies of IBD

Current treatment strategies for inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) seek to alleviate the undesirable symptoms of the disorder. Despite the higher specificity of newer generation therapeutics, e.g. monoclonal antibodies, adverse effects still arise from their interference with non-specific systemic immune cascades. To circumvent such undesirable effects, both conventional and newer therapeutic options can benefit from various targeting strategies. Of course, both the development and the assessment of the efficiency of such targeted delivery systems necessitate the use of suitable in vivo and in vitro models representing relevant pathophysiological manifestations of the disorder. Accordingly, the current review seeks to provide a comprehensive discussion of the available preclinical models with emphasis on human in vitro models of IBD, along with their potentials and limitations. This is followed by an elaboration on the advancements in the field of biology- and nanotechnology-based targeted drug delivery systems and the potential rooms for improvement to facilitate their clinical translation.

Green Synthesized Chitosan/Chitosan Nanoforms/Nanocomposites for Drug Delivery Applications

Chitosan has become a highlighted polymer, gaining paramount importance and research attention. The fact that this valuable polymer can be extracted from food industry-generated shell waste gives it immense value. Chitosan, owing to its biological and physicochemical properties, has become an attractive option for biomedical applications. This review briefly runs through the various methods involved in the preparation of chitosan and chitosan nanoforms. For the first time, we consolidate the available scattered reports on the various attempts towards greens synthesis of chitosan, chitosan nanomaterials, and chitosan nanocomposites. The drug delivery applications of chitosan and its nanoforms have been reviewed. This review points to the lack of systematic research in the area of green synthesis of chitosan. Researchers have been concentrating more on recovering chitosan from marine shell waste through chemical and synthetic processes that generate toxic wastes, rather than working on eco-friendly green processes-this is projected in this review. This review draws the attention of researchers to turn to novel and innovative green processes. More so, there are scarce reports on the application of green synthesized chitosan nanoforms and nanocomposites towards drug delivery applications. This is another area that deserves research focus. These have been speculated and highlighted as future perspectives in this review.

Current Strategies and Potential Prospects of Nanomedicine-Mediated Therapy in Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) such as Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis are highly debilitating. IBDs are associated with the imbalance of inflammatory mediators within the inflamed bowel. Conventional drugs for IBD treatment include anti-inflammatory medications and immune suppressants. However, they suffer from a lack of bioavailability and high dose-induced systemic side effects. Nanoparticle (NP)-derived therapy improves therapeutic efficacy and increases targeting specificity. Recent studies have shown that nanomedicines, based on bowel disease's pathophysiology, are a fast-growing field. NPs can prolong the circulation period and reduce side effects by improving drug encapsulation and targeted delivery. Here, this review summarizes various IBD therapies with a focus on NP-derived applications, whereas their challenges and future perspectives have also been discussed.

Therapeutic effect of an anti-tuberculosis agent, isoniazid, and its nano-isoform in ulcerative colitis

BACKGROUND

Isoniazid (INH) is well known as a first-line anti-tuberculosis, while some studies demonstrate that it has anti-inflammatory activity via a different mechanism such as inhibitionthe production of IL-1, ROS, activation of PPARγ expression, inhibition of the transcriptional regulatory activity of NF-κB and AP-1. The aim of this study, investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of INH and INH combined with Sulfasalazine-loaded nanoparticles (NPs) in the ulcerative colitis mouse model.

METHODS

To investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of INH and NPs in the ulcerative colitis mice model, we evaluated the effect of INH clinical symptoms and colonic mucosal histology in colitis.

RESULT

The present study demonstrates that combination therapy of INH with sulfasalazine as well as NPs reduces the symptom of ulcerative colitis and improved disease activity index include body lose weight, diarrhea, rectal bleeding, colonic length, spleen weight, and colon histopathological score in DSS-induced colitis mice model.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that the nanoforms of INH with sulfasalazine enhances the therapeutic effect of the drugs in the treatment of ulcerative colitis.

Garcinol Encapsulated Ph-Sensitive Biodegradable Nanoparticles: A Novel Therapeutic Strategy for the Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

The emergence of pH-sensitive nanoscale particles is beneficial due to their ability to only release cargo in a colonic pH environment, which helps to directly target inflamed tissues in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Hence, we have designed the formulation of pH-sensitive biodegradable garcinol (GAR)-loaded poly (lactic–co–glycolic acid) (PLGA) coated with Eudragit^® S100 (ES100) (GAR-PLGA-ES100 nanoparticles (NPs)) for reducing inflammation caused by proinflammatory cytokines. The GAR-PLGA-ES100 NPs were prepared using a solvent evaporation technique and characterized for shape and surface morphology. An in vitro drug release study revealed the release of the drug specifically from NPs at the colonic pH of 7.4. The in vitro cytotoxicity of the GAR-PLGA-ES100 NPs was also evaluated and found to be highly biocompatible with CACO-2 cells. These NPs were able to reduce lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. Inhibition of the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine TNF-α , chemokine interleukin (IL)-8 and the nuclear factor kappa light chain enhancer of activated B-cells (NF-κB) was observed after GAR-PLGA-ES100 NPs treatment. Therefore, our results support the idea that GAR-PLGA-ES100 NPs show substantial improvement after the release of the drug, specifically in colonic pH targeting and reduction in the activation of inflammation that leads to IBD, suggesting that GAR-PLGA-ES100 NPs are promising candidates for oral delivery to colonic inflamed tissue.

Acerola exosome-like nanovesicles to systemically deliver nucleic acid medicine via oral administration

Extracellular vesicles derived from mammalian cells could be useful carriers for drug delivery systems (DDSs); however, with regard to clinical application, there are several issues to be overcome. Acerola (Malpighia emarginata DC.) is a popular health food. In this study, the feasibility of orally administered nucleic acid drug delivery by acerola exosome-like nanoparticles (AELNs) was examined. AELNs were recovered from acerola juice using an affinity column instead of ultracentrifugation. MicroRNA (miRNA) was sufficiently encapsulated in AELNs by 30-min incubation on ice and was protected against RNase, strong acid, and base treatments. The administration of an AELN/miRNA mixture in cells achieved downregulation of the miRNA’s target gene, and this mixture showed cytoplasmic localization. AELNs orally delivered small RNA to the digestive system in vivo. The target gene-suppressing effect in the small intestine and liver peaked 1 day after administration, indicating potential for use as an oral DDS for nucleic acid in the digestive system.

Drug Disposition in the Lower Gastrointestinal Tract: Targeting and Monitoring

The increasing prevalence of colonic diseases calls for a better understanding of the various colonic drug absorption barriers of colon-targeted formulations, and for reliable in vitro tools that accurately predict local drug disposition. In vivo relevant incubation conditions have been shown to better capture the composition of the limited colonic fluid and have resulted in relevant degradation and dissolution kinetics of drugs and formulations. Furthermore, drug hurdles such as efflux transporters and metabolising enzymes, and the presence of mucus and microbiome are slowly integrated into drug stability- and permeation assays. Traditionally, the well characterized Caco-2 cell line and the Ussing chamber technique are used to assess the absorption characteristics of small drug molecules. Recently, various stem cell-derived intestinal systems have emerged, closely mimicking epithelial physiology. Models that can assess microbiome-mediated drug metabolism or enable coculturing of gut microbiome with epithelial cells are also increasingly explored. Here we provide a comprehensive overview of the colonic physiology in relation to drug absorption, and review colon-targeting formulation strategies and in vitro tools to characterize colonic drug disposition.

Application of Polymeric Nano-Materials in Management of Inflammatory Bowel Disease

Inflammatory Bowel Disease (IBD) is an umbrella term used to describe disorders that involve Crohn's disease (CD), ulcerative colitis (UC) and pouchitis. The disease occurrence is more prevalent in the working group population which not only hampers the well being of an individual but also has negative economical impact on society. The current drug regime used therapy is very costly owing to the chronic nature of the disease leading to several side effects. The condition gets more aggravated due to the lower concentration of drug at the desired site. Therefore, in the present scenario, a therapy is needed which can maximize efficacy, adhere to quality of life, minimize toxicity and doses, be helpful in maintaining and stimulating physical growth of mucosa with minimum disease complications. In this aspect, nanotechnology intervention is one promising field as it can act as a carrier to reduce toxicity, doses and frequency which in turn help in faster recovery. Moreover, nanomedicine and nanodiagnostic techniques will further open a new window for treatment in understanding pathogenesis along with better diagnosis which is poorly understood till now. Therefore the present review is more focused on recent advancements in IBD in the application of nanotechnology.

Recent Advances in Nanoparticle-Mediated Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Diseases

There have been continuous advances in nanoscience since the beginning of the 21st century, and the emerging field of computational nanomedicine, the development of nanomaterial-based sensors or the prominent biomedical engineering applications should be mentioned. Intestinal disorders causing prolonged inflammation of the digestive tract, largely known as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), include Crohn’s disease (CD) and ulcerative colitis (UC), have seen a significant increase in incidence rates. Nanoparticle-based approaches to locally target therapy could help regulate immune responses and act as an anti-inflammatory in individual patients diagnosed with IBD. The results of the paper emphasize the major role that nanoparticle-mediated drug delivery has in IBD treatment, giving IBD patients in remission the chance for a more effective drug therapy with a decreased medication load.

Inflammatory Bowel Disease: The Emergence of New Trends in Lifestyle and Nanomedicine as the Modern Tool for Pharmacotherapy

The human intestine, which harbors trillions of symbiotic microorganisms, may enter into dysbiosis when exposed to a genetic defect or environmental stress. The naissance of chronic inflammation due to the battle of the immune system with the trespassing gut bacteria leads to the rise of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Though the genes behind the scenes and their link to the disease are still unclear, the onset of IBD occurs in young adults and has expanded from the Western world into the newly industrialized countries. Conventional drug deliveries depend on a daily heavy dosage of immune suppressants or anti-inflammatory drugs targeted for the treatment of two types of IBD, ulcerative colitis (UC) and Crohn's disease (CD), which are often associated with systemic side effects and adverse toxicities. Advances in oral delivery through nanotechnology seek remedies to overcome the drawbacks of these conventional drug delivery systems through improved drug encapsulation and targeted delivery. In this review, we discuss the association of genetic factors, the immune system, the gut microbiome, and environmental factors like diet in the pathogenesis of IBD. We also review the various physiological concerns required for oral delivery to the gastrointestinal tract (GIT) and new strategies in nanotechnology-derived, colon-targeting drug delivery systems.

Nanocomposites-based targeted oral drug delivery systems with infliximab in a murine colitis model

Background

Infliximab (IFX), a TNF-α blocking chimeric monoclonal antibody, induces clinical response and mucosal healing in patients with inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). However, systemic administration of this agent causes unwanted side effects. Oral delivery of antibody therapeutics might be an effective treatment strategy for IBD compared to intravenous administration.

Results

All three carriers had a high encapsulation efficiency, narrow size distribution, and minimal systemic exposure. There was a higher interaction between nanocomposite carriers and monocytes compared to lymphocytes in the PBMC of IBD patients. Orally administered nanocomposite carriers targeted to inflamed colitis minimized systemic exposure. All IFX delivery formulations with nanocomposite carriers had a significantly less colitis-induced body weight loss, colon shortening and histomorphological score, compared to the DSS-treated group. AC-IFX-L and EAC-IFX-L groups showed significantly higher improvement of the disease activity index, compared to the DSS-treated group. In addition, AC-IFX-L and EAC-IFX-L alleviated pro-inflammatory cytokine expressions (Tnfa, Il1b, and Il17).

Conclusion

We present orally administered antibody delivery systems which improved efficacy in murine colitis while reducing systemic exposure. These oral delivery systems suggest a promising therapeutic approach for treating IBD.

Site-specific targeted drug delivery systems for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) includes Crohn's disease and ulcerative colitis and manifests as a complex and dysregulated immune response. To date, there is no cure for IBD; thus, lifelong administration of maintenance drugs is often necessary. Since conventional IBD treatment strategies do not target the sites of inflammation, only limited efficacy is observed with their use. Moreover, the possibility of severe side effects resulting from systemic drug redistribution is high when conventional drug treatments are used. Therefore, a straightforward disease-targeted drug delivery system is desirable. Based on the pathophysiological changes associated with IBD, novel site-specific targeted drug delivery strategies that deliver drugs directly to the inflammation sites can enhance drug accumulation and decrease side effects. This review summarizes novel inflammation targeted delivery systems in the management of IBD. It also discusses the challenges and new perspectives in this field.

Novel thymoquinone lipidic core nanocapsules with anisamide-polymethacrylate shell for colon cancer cells overexpressing sigma receptors

The biggest challenge in colorectal cancer therapy is to avoid intestinal drug absorption before reaching the colon, while focusing on tumor specific delivery with high local concentration and minimal toxicity. In our work, thymoquinone (TQ)-loaded polymeric nanocapsules were prepared using the nanoprecipitation technique using Eudragit S100 as polymeric shell. Conjugation of anisamide as a targeting ligand for sigma receptors overexpressed by colon cancer cells to Eudragit S100 was carried out via carbodiimide coupling reaction, and was confirmed by thin layer chromatography and ¹H-NMR. TQ nanocapsules were characterized for particle size, surface morphology, zeta potential, entrapment efficiency % (EE%), in vitro drug release and physical stability. A cytotoxicity study on three colon cancer cell lines (HT-29, HCT-116, Caco-2) was performed. Results revealed that the polymeric nanocapsules were successfully prepared, and the in vitro characterization showed a suitable size, zeta potential, EE% and physical stability. TQ exhibited a delayed release pattern from the nanocapsules in vitro. Anisamide-targeted TQ nanocapsules showed higher cytotoxicity against HT-29 cells overexpressing sigma receptors compared to their non-targeted counterparts and free TQ after incubation for 48 h, hence delineating anisamide as a promising ligand for active colon cancer targeting.

Eudragit®-S100 Coated PLGA Nanoparticles for Colon Targeting of Etoricoxib: Optimization and Pharmacokinetic Assessments in Healthy Human Volunteers

Aim

Etoricoxib is a selective inhibitor of COX-2 enzyme. It is proposed as a potent anti-inflammatory drug intended for the control of irritable bowel syndrome. The current work aimed at developing etoricoxib-loaded nanoparticles for colon- targeting.

Materials and Methods

PLGA nanoparticles were developed via nano-spray drying technique. The D-optimal design was adopted for the investigation of the influence of i) DL-lactide-coglycolide (PLGA) concentration, ii) polyvinylpyrrolidone K30 (PVP K30) concentration and iii) lactide:glycolide ratio in the copolymer chain on the yield%, the encapsulation efficiency (EE%), particle size (PS) and percentage of drug release after 2h (P_2h), 4h (P_4h) and 12h (P_12h). To promote colon targeting of the systems, the best achieved system (M14) was either directly coated with poly(methacrylic acid-co-methyl methacrylate) [Eudragit^®-S100] or loaded into hard gelatin capsules and the capsules were coated with poly(methacrylic acid-co-methyl methacrylate) (E-M14C). The pharmacokinetic parameters of etoricoxib following oral administration of E-M14C in healthy volunteers were assessed relative to commercial etoricoxib tablets.

Results

M14 system was prepared using PLGA (0.5% w/v) at a lactide:glycolide ratio of 100:0, in the presence of PVP K30 (2% w/v). M14 system was nano-spherical particles of 488 nm size possessing promising yield% (63.5%) and EE% (91.2%). The percentage drug released after 2, 4 and 12 hours were 43.41%, 47.34 and 64.96%, respectively. Following M14-loading into hard gelatin capsules and coating with poly(methacrylic acid-co-methyl methacrylate) [Eudragit-S100], the respective P_2h, P_4h and P_12h were 10.1%, 28.60% and 65.45%. Significant (p < 0.05) differences between the pharmacokinetic parameter of E-M14C in comparison with the commercial product were revealed with a delay in T_max (from 2.5h to 6h), a prolongation in MRT_0-∞ (from 24.4h to 34.7h) and an increase in the relative oral bioavailability (4.23 folds).

Conclusion

E-M14C is a potential system for possible colon targeting of etoricoxib.

Advances in Oral Drug Delivery for Regional Targeting in the Gastrointestinal Tract - Influence of Physiological, Pathophysiological and Pharmaceutical Factors

The oral route is by far the most common route of drug administration in the gastrointestinal tract and can be used for both systemic drug delivery and for treating local gastrointestinal diseases. It is the most preferred route by patients, due to its advantages, such as ease of use, non-invasiveness, and convenience for self-administration. Formulations can also be designed to enhance drug delivery to specific regions in the upper or lower gastrointestinal tract. Despite the clear advantages offered by the oral route, drug delivery can be challenging as the human gastrointestinal tract is complex and displays a number of physiological barriers that affect drug delivery. Among these challenges are poor drug stability, poor drug solubility, and low drug permeability across the mucosal barriers. Attempts to overcome these issues have focused on improved understanding of the physiology of the gastrointestinal tract in both healthy and diseased states. Innovative pharmaceutical approaches have also been explored to improve regional drug targeting in the gastrointestinal tract, including nanoparticulate formulations. This review will discuss the physiological, pathophysiological, and pharmaceutical considerations influencing drug delivery for the oral route of administration, as well as the conventional and novel drug delivery approaches. The translational challenges and development aspects of novel formulations will also be addressed.

Viability of microencapsulated and non-microencapsulated Lactobacilli in a commercial beverage

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Ca-alginate-chitosan and eudragit S100 nanoparticles were used for encapsulation.

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The encapsulation increased the viability of probiotics into Iranian Doogh beverage.

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The encapsulation increased the viability of probiotics under GI conditions.

The survival rate of free and encapsulated L. acidophilus and L. rhamnosus into Doogh beverage and simulated gastrointestinal conditions during 42-day were studied. Microencapsulation considerably protected both L. acidophilus and L. rhamnosus in Doogh beverage storage and in gastrointestinal conditions. Microencapsulation provided better protection to L. acidophilus than to L. rhamnosus during Doogh storage. In beverages containing the free form of bacteria, pH and acidity changes were greater than those of microencapsulated and control groups. More activity of the free probiotic bacteria (during a 42-day period especially after 21-day) produced more acid and metabolites inside the product, thereby reducing the organoleptic properties scores, However, acidity, pH and organoleptic characteristics of Doogh containing microencapsulated bacteria did not change considerably. In conclusion, this study suggests that the encapsulation and double coating of L. acidophilus and L. rhamnosus can increase the viability of them in Doogh beverage and in simulated GI conditions.

Rheumatiod Arthritis: An Updated Overview of Latest Therapy and Drug Delivery

Rheumatoid arthritis is a severe autoimmune disorder, related to joints. It is associated with serious cartilage destruction. This causes disability and reduces the excellence of life. Numerous treatments are existed to combat this disease, however, they are not very efficient and possess severe side effects, higher doses, and frequent administration. Therefore, newer therapies are developed to overcome all these limitations. These include different monoclonal antibodies, immunoglobulins, small molecules used for immunotherapy and transgenes for gene therapy. One of the main goals of these new generation therapeutics is to address the underlying distressing biological processes by specifically targeting the causative agents with fewer systemic side effects and greater patient console. It is very fortuitous that loads of progressive investigations are going on in this field and many of them have entered into the successful clinical trial. But till date, a limited molecule has got FDA clearance and entered the market for treating this devastating disease. This review highlights the overview of conventional therapy and advancements in newer therapeutics including immunotherapy and gene therapy for rheumatoid arthritis. Further, different novel techniques for the delivery of these therapeutics of active and passive targeting are also described.

Nanoparticles for the regulation of intestinal inflammation: opportunities and challenges

Prevalence of chronic inflammation of the gastrointestinal tract is increasing, emerging as a public health challenge. Conventional drug delivery systems targeting the colon have improved the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. However, therapy frequently results in inconsistent efficacy and toxicity problems. Novel approaches based on nanoparticles offer several advantages over conventional dosage forms due to their ability to selectively target inflamed tissues. Several formulation efforts have been made in order to obtain increasingly selective nanosized systems, some with promising results in animal models of colitis. Despite all advances, no nanomedicines are yet approved for clinical use in inflammatory bowel disease. This review discusses the most recent efforts made toward the development of nanoparticles for regulating chronic intestinal inflammation.

An Orally Administrated Hyaluronan Functionalized Polymeric Hybrid Nanoparticle System for Colon-Specific Drug Delivery

There is a pressing clinical need for advanced colon-specific local drug delivery systems that can provide major advantages in treating diseases associated with the colon, such as inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) and colon cancer. A precise colon targeted drug delivery platform is expected to reduce drug side effects and increase the therapeutic response at the intended disease site locally. In this study, we report the fabrication of hyaluronan (HA) functionalized polymeric hybrid nanoparticulate system (Cur-HA NPs) by using curcumin as a model fluorescent drug. The Cur-HA NPs were about 200–300 nm in size, −51.3 mV overall surface charge after HA functionalization, with 56.0% drug released after 72 h in simulated gastrointestinal fluids. The Cur-HA NPs did not exhibit any cytotoxicity by AlamarBlue, PicoGreen and Live/Dead assays. Following the Cur-HA NPs use on HT-29 monolayer cell cultures demonstrating, the efficacy of HA functionalization increases cellular interaction, uptake when compared to uncoated nanoparticulate system. These findings indicate that HA functionalized nano-hybrid particles are effective in delivering drugs orally to the lower gastrointestinal tract (GIT) in order to treat local colonic diseases.

Budesonide-Loaded Eudragit S 100 Nanocapsules for the Treatment of Acetic Acid-Induced Colitis in Animal Model

Nanoparticles for colon-drug delivery were designed and evaluated to solve many discrepancy issues as insufficient drug amount at diseased regions, high adverse effects of released drugs, and unintentionally premature drug release to noninflamed gastrointestinal regions. Herein, the prepared budesonide-loaded Eudragit S 100/Capryol 90 nanocapsules for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Nanocapsules were prepared efficiently by nanoprecipitation technique and composed mainly of the pH-sensitive Eudragit S 100 polymeric coat with a semisynthetic Capryol 90 oily core. Full 3¹ × 2¹ factorial design was applied to obtain optimized nanocapsules. Optimal nanocapsules showed mean particle size of 171 nm with lower polydispersity index indicating the production of monodispersed system and negative zeta-potential of - 37.6 mV. Optimized nanocapsules showed high encapsulation efficiency of 83.4% with lower initial rapid release of 10% for first 2 h and higher rapid cumulative release of 72% after 6 h. The therapeutic activity of the prepared budesonide-loaded nanocapsules was evaluated using a rat colitis model. Disease activity score, macroscopical examination, blood glucose level, and histopathological assessment showed marked improvements over that free drug suspension. Obtained results demonstrate that the budesonide-loaded Eudragit S 100 nanocapsules are an effective colon-targeting nanosystem for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease. Capryol 90 was found to be a successful, and even preferred, alternative to benzyl benzoate, which is commonly employed as the oil core of such nanocapsules.

Bioresponsive drug delivery systems in intestinal inflammation: State-of-the-art and future perspectives

Oral colon-specific delivery systems emerged as the main therapeutic cargos by making a significant impact in the field of modern medicine for local drug delivery in intestinal inflammation. The site-specific delivery of therapeutics (aminosalicylates, glucocorticoids, biologics) to the ulcerative mucus tissue can provide prominent advantages in mucosal healing (MH). Attaining gut mucosal healing and anti-fibrosis are main treatment outcomes in inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). The pharmaceutical strategies that are commonly used to achieve a colon-specific drug delivery system include time, pH-dependent polymer coating, prodrug, colonic microbiota-activated delivery systems and a combination of these approaches. Amongst the different approaches reported, the use of biodegradable polysaccharide coated systems holds great promise in delivering drugs to the ulcerative regions. The present review focuses on major physiological gastro-intestinal tract challenges involved in altering the pharmacokinetics of delivery systems, pathophysiology of MH and fibrosis, reported drug-polysaccharide cargos and focusing on conventional to advanced disease responsive delivery strategies, highlighting their limitations and future perspectives in intestinal inflammation therapy.

Novel polyurethane-based nanoparticles of infliximab to reduce inflammation in an in-vitro intestinal epithelial barrier model

In this study we examined the potential of novel biodegradable polymers of polyesterurethane (PU), and its PEGylated (PU-PEG) form as nanocarriers of Infliximab (INF), to treat inflammation in an in-vitro epithelial model. Nanoparticles (NPs) formulated were of average size of 200-287 nm. INF loading of NPs (INF-NPs) resulted in an increase in size and zeta potential. No cytotoxicity was observed for any of the NPs. Cellular interaction and uptake of PU NPs were similar compared with polycaprolactone (PCL) NPs and significantly higher to Poly(lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) NPs. Cellular interaction was higher for corresponding PEG-NPs. INF-PU and INF-PU-PEG NPs showed a rapid rate and extent of recovery of the epithelial barrier function in inflamed Caco-2 cell monolayers and decreased cytokine levels in inflamed monocytes. Results obtained in this study are promising and the potential of PU and PU-PEG NPs for drug delivery and targeting to treat gastrointestinal inflammation warrants further investigation.