In vitro study of the cytotoxicity and antiproliferative effects of surfactants produced by Sphingobacterium detergens

Glycolipids mimicking biosurfactants of the synthetic origin as new immunomodulating and anticandidal derivatives

The immunobiological effectivity of glycolipids mimicking biosurfactants of the synthetic origin was followed up using macrophages cell line RAW264.7. These derivatives with different number of mannose units connected glycosidically or through triazole linker, and all having octyl aglycone, were evaluated with respect to their structure - immunomodulation activity relationship. This comparative study showed that the structural variations of the selected derivatives influenced the immunobiological cell behaviour as concerned pro-inflammatory TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1α, IL-17, IL-12 and anti-inflammatory IL-10 cytokines production and enhancement of RAW264.7 cell proliferation. The derivatives with mannose units linked through triazole linkers exerted in some cases stronger immunomodulative potency than (di)mannosides. On the other hand, a presence of triazole linker is a less favourable for an effective candidacidal activity as determined by in vitro using Candida albicans biofilm. The design of new defined immunomodulating formulas of the synthetic origin as possible antifungal agents and prospective participants in drug delivery systems may be of interest.

Characterization and Cytotoxicity of Pseudomonas Mediated Rhamnolipids Against Breast Cancer MDA-MB-231 Cell Line

A biosurfactant producing bacterium was identified as Pseudomonas aeruginosa DNM50 based on molecular characterization (NCBI accession no. MK351591). Structural characterization using MALDI-TOF revealed the presence of 12 different congeners of rhamnolipid such as Rha-C8-C8:1, Rha-C10-C8:1, Rha-C10-C10, Rha-C10-C12:1, Rha-C16:1, Rha-C16, Rha-C17:1, Rha-Rha-C10:1-C10:1, Rha-Rha-C10-C12, Rha-Rha-C10-C8, Rha-Rha-C10-C8:1, and Rha-Rha-C8-C8. The radical scavenging activity of rhamnolipid (DNM50RL) was determined by 2, 3-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay which showed an IC₅₀ value of 101.8 μg/ ml. The cytotoxic activity was investigated against MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cell line by MTT (4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide) assay which showed a very low IC50 of 0.05 μg/ ml at 72 h of treatment. Further, its activity was confirmed by resazurin and trypan blue assay with IC₅₀ values of 0.01 μg/ml and 0.64 μg/ ml at 72 h of treatment, respectively. Thus, the DNM50RL would play a vital role in the treatment of breast cancer targeting inhibition of p38MAPK.

ROS-Mediated Necrosis by Glycolipid Biosurfactants on Lung, Breast, and Skin Melanoma Cells

Cancer is one of the major leading causes of death worldwide. Designing the new anticancer drugs is remained a challenging task due to ensure complexicity of cancer etiology and continuosly emerging drug resistance. Glycolipid biosurfactants are known to possess various biological activities including antimicrobial, anticancer and antiviral properties. In the present study, we sought to decipher the mechanism of action of the glycolipids (lactonic-sophorolipd, acidic-sophorolipid, glucolipid, and bolalipid) against cancer cells using lung cancer cell line (A549), breast cancer cell line (MDA-MB 231), and mouse skin melanoma cell line (B16F10). Scratch assay and fluorescence microscopy revealed that glycolipids inhibit tumorous cell migration possibly by inhibiting actin filaments. Fluorescence activated cell sorter (FACS) analysis exhibited that lactonic sophorolipid and glucolipid both induced the reactive oxygen species, altered the mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ) and finally led to the cell death by necrosis. Furthermore, combinatorial effect of lactonic-sophorolipd and glucolipid demonstrated synergistic interaction on A549 cell line whereas additive effect on MDA-MB 231 and B16F10 cell lines. Our study has highlighted that lactonic-sophorolipd and glucolipid could be useful for developing new anticancer drugs either alone or in combination.

Synthetic and Bio-Derived Surfactants Versus Microbial Biosurfactants in the Cosmetic Industry: An Overview

This article includes an updated review of the classification, uses and side effects of surfactants for their application in the cosmetic, personal care and pharmaceutical industries. Based on their origin and composition, surfactants can be divided into three different categories: (i) synthetic surfactants; (ii) bio-based surfactants; and (iii) microbial biosurfactants. The first group is the most widespread and cost-effective. It is composed of surfactants, which are synthetically produced, using non-renewable sources, with a final structure that is different from the natural components of living cells. The second category comprises surfactants of intermediate biocompatibility, usually produced by chemical synthesis but integrating fats, sugars or amino acids obtained from renewable sources into their structure. Finally, the third group of surfactants, designated as microbial biosurfactants, are considered the most biocompatible and eco-friendly, as they are produced by living cells, mostly bacteria and yeasts, without the intermediation of organic synthesis. Based on the information included in this review it would be interesting for cosmetic, personal care and pharmaceutical industries to consider microbial biosurfactants as a group apart from surfactants, needing specific regulations, as they are less toxic and more biocompatible than chemical surfactants having formulations that are more biocompatible and greener.

Characterization and Cytotoxic Effect of Biosurfactants Obtained from Different Sources

In this work, five biosurfactant extracts, obtained from different sources, all of them with demonstrated antimicrobial properties, were characterized and subjected to a cytotoxic study using mouse fibroblast cells (NCTC clone 929). Biosurfactant extracts obtained directly from corn steep water (CSW) showed similar surfactant characteristics to those of the extracellular biosurfactant extract produced by Bacillus isolated from CSW and grown in tryptic soy broth, observing that they are amphoteric, consisting of viscous and yellowish liquid with no foaming capacity. Contrarily, cell-bound biosurfactant extracts produced from Lactobacillus pentosus or produced by Bacillus sp isolated from CSW are nonionic, consisting of a white powder with foaming capacity. All the biosurfactants possess a similar fatty acid composition. The cytotoxic test revealed that the extracts under evaluation, at a concentration of 1 g/L, were not cytotoxic for fibroblasts (fibroblast growth > 90%). The biosurfactant extract obtained from CSW with ethyl acetate, at 1 g/L, showed the highest cytotoxic effect but above the cytotoxicity limit established by the UNE-EN-ISO10993-5. It is remarkable that the cell-bound biosurfactant produced by L. pentosus, at a concentration of 1 g/L, promoted the growth of the fibroblast up to 113%.

Cytotoxicity screening of emulsifiers for pulmonary application of lipid nanoparticles

INTRODUCTION

The pulmonary route is a non-invasive administration route that receives growing attention. The challenge for formulation development of orally inhaled formulations is, however, the limited number of approved excipients. Lipid nanoparticles are desired drug delivery systems for inhalation because lipids are biocompatible. However, addition of emulsifiers to stabilize the formulation may cause toxic effects. Alveolar epithelial cells and alveolar macrophages are the main cell types that get in contact with inhaled formulations in the deep lung. The different cell types are supposed to differ in the extent of particle uptake. Kolliphor RH40, Poloxamer 188, and Tween 80 are approved for use in oral formulations and widely used in the academic field for manufacturing of lipid nanoparticles. However, little is known about their pulmonary toxicity.

METHODS

Cytotoxicity of Kolliphor RH40, Poloxamer 188, and Tween 80 was studied by integration into solid lipid nanoparticles loaded with itraconazole as model drug. Cytotoxicity of the formulations was assessed in human alveolar epithelial cells and human and murine macrophages and correlated to cell uptake.

RESULTS

The tested emulsifiers showed overall low cytotoxicity with less pronounced adverse effects in human cells than in murine macrophages. Cellular uptake of Poloxamer 188 containing lipid nanoparticles was decreased in macrophages, while uptake of lipid nanoparticles with the other emulsifiers was similar in epithelial cells and phagocytes.

CONCLUSION

The tested emulsifiers appear suitable for use in pulmonary applications. Due to larger cell size and lower proliferation rate human cells showed lower cytotoxicity than the murine cells. Being human cells, they appear more suitable for the screening of adverse effects in human lungs.

Interactions between surfactants and the skin - Theory and practice

One of the primary causes of skin irritation is the use of body wash cosmetics and household chemicals, since they are in direct contact with the skin, and they are widely available and frequently used. The main ingredients of products of this type are surfactants, which may have diverse effects on the skin. The skin irritation potential of surfactants is determined by their chemical and physical properties resulting from their structure, and specific interactions with the skin. Surfactants are capable of interacting both with proteins and lipids in the stratum corneum. By penetrating through this layer, surfactants are also able to affect living cells in deeper regions of the skin. Further skin penetration may result in damage to cell membranes and structural components of keratinocytes, releasing proinflammatory mediators. By causing irreversible changes in cell structure, surfactants can often lead to their death. The paper presents a critical review of literature on the effects of surfactants on the skin. Aspects discussed in the paper include the skin irritation potential of surfactants, mechanisms underlying interactions between compounds of this type and the skin which have been proposed over the years, and verified methods of reducing the skin irritation potential of surfactant compounds. Basic research conducted in this field over many years translate into practical applications of surfactants in the cosmetic and household chemical industries. This aspect is also emphasized in the present study.

Novel cosmetic formulations containing a biosurfactant from Lactobacillus paracasei

Cosmetic and personal care products including toothpaste, shampoo, creams, makeup, among others, are usually formulated with petroleum-based surfactants, although in the last years the consume trend for "green" products is inducing the replacement of surface-active agents in these formulations by natural surfactants, so-called biosurfactants. In addition to their surfactant capacity, many biosurfactants can act as good emulsifiers, which is an extra advantage in the preparation of green cosmetic products. In this work, a biosurfactant obtained from Lactobacillus paracasei was used as a stabilizing agent in oil-in-water emulsions containing essential oils and natural antioxidant extract. In the presence of biosurfactant, maximum percentages of emulsion volumes (EV=100%) were observed, with droplets sizes about 199nm. These results were comparable with the ones obtained using sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), a synthetic well known surfactant with high emulsify capacity. Moreover, the biosurfactant and emulsions cytotoxicity was evaluated using a mouse fibroblast cell line. Solutions containing 5g/L of biosurfactant presented cell proliferation values of 97%, whereas 0.5g/L of SDS showed a strong inhibitory effect. Overall, the results herein gathered are very promising towards the development of new green cosmetic formulations.

Biosurfactants in cosmetic formulations: trends and challenges

Cosmetic products play an essential role in everyone's life. People everyday use a large variety of cosmetic products such as soap, shampoo, toothpaste, deodorant, skin care, perfume, make-up, among others. The cosmetic industry encompasses several environmental, social and economic impacts that are being addressed through the search for more efficient manufacturing techniques, the reduction of waste and emissions and the promotion of personal hygiene, contributing to an improvement of public health and at the same time providing employment opportunities. The current trend among consumers is the pursuit for natural ingredients in cosmetic products, as many of these products exhibit equal, better or additional benefits in comparison with the chemical-based products. In this sense, biosurfactants are natural compounds with great potential in the formulation of cosmetic products given by their biodegradability and impact in health. Indeed, many of these biosurfactants could exhibit a "prebiotic" character. This review covers the current state-of-the-art of biosurfactant research for cosmetic purposes and further discusses the future challenges for cosmetic applications.

Rhamnolipids form drug-loaded nanoparticles for dermal drug delivery

Bacterial biosurfactants are nature's strategy to solubilize and ingest hydrophobic molecules and nutrients using a fully biodegradable transport system. Eight structurally defined rhamnolipids were selected and investigated as potential drug carrier systems. Depending on the molecular structures defining their packing parameters, the rhamnolipids were found to form spherical nanoparticles with precisely defined average sizes between 5 and 100nm, low polydispersity, and stability over a broad concentration range as revealed from dynamic light scattering and electron microscopy. As rhamnolipids were tolerated well by the human skin, rhamnolipid nanoparticles were considered for dermal drug delivery and thus loaded with hydrophobic drug molecules. Using the drug model, Nile red, dexamethasone, and tacrolimus nanoparticles charged with up to 30% drug loading (w/w) were obtained. Nanoparticles loaded with Nile red were investigated for dermal drug delivery in a Franz cell using human skin. Fluoresence microscopy of skin slices indicated the efficient penetration of the model drug into human skin, both into the stratum corneum and although to a lesser extent into the lower epidermis. Rhamnolipid nanocarriers were found to be non-toxic to primary human fibroblasts in a proliferation assay and thus are considered candidates for the dermal delivery of drugs.

Surfactin-functionalized poly(methyl methacrylate) as an eco-friendly nano-adsorbent: from size-controlled scalable fabrication to adsorptive removal of inorganic and organic pollutants

Green synthesis of poly(methyl methacrylate) nanoparticles functionalized with the biosurfactant surfactin for adsorptive and reusable removal of toxic metals and organic compounds.

Formulation of mayonnaise with the addition of a bioemulsifier isolated from Candida utilis

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A biosurfactant from Candida utilis was employed in formulations of mayonnaises.

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The biosurfactant was tested on rats and in different formulations of mayonnaise.

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The biosurfactant showed absence of toxic effect in the animals.

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The most stable formulation was obtained with guar gum and the biosurfactant.

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The innocuousness of the biosurfactant indicates its safe use in food emulsions.

Biosurfactants have a number of industrial applications due their diverse properties, such as emulsification, foaming, wetting, and surface activity. The aim of the present study was to produce a biosurfactant from Candida utilis and employ it in the formulation of a mayonnaise. The biosurfactant was produced in a mineral medium supplemented with glucose and canola waste frying oil at 150 rpm for 88 h. The product was biologically tested on rats and in different formulations of mayonnaise, which were submitted to microbiological evaluations. The biosurfactant was added to the diet of the rats for 21 days. Greater consumption was found of the experimental diet. Moreover, no changes were found in the liver or kidneys of the animals, demonstrating the absence of a toxic effect from the biosurfactant. Six different formulations of mayonnaise were prepared and tested regarding stability with the addition of carboxymethyl cellulose and guar gum (combined and isolated) after 30 days of refrigeration. The most stable formulation with the best quality was obtained with combination of guar gum and the isolated biosurfactant, with an absence of pathogenic microorganisms. In conclusion, the potential and innocuousness of the biosurfactant isolated from C. utilis indicates its safe use in food emulsions.

Production and structural characterization of Lactobacillus helveticus derived biosurfactant

A probiotic strain of lactobacilli was isolated from traditional soft Churpi cheese of Yak milk and found positive for biosurfactant production. Lactobacilli reduced the surface tension of phosphate buffer saline (PBS) from 72.0 to 39.5 mNm⁻¹ pH 7.2 and its critical micelle concentration (CMC) was found to be 2.5 mg mL⁻¹. Low cost production of Lactobacilli derived biosurfactant was carried out at lab scale fermenter which yields 0.8 mg mL⁻¹ biosurfactant. The biosurfactant was found least phytotoxic and cytotoxic as compared to the rhamnolipid and sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS) at different concentration. Structural attributes of biosurfactant were determined by FTIR, NMR (¹H and ¹³C), UPLC-MS, and fatty acid analysis by GCMS which confirmed the presence of glycolipid type of biosurfactant closely similar to xylolipids. Biosurfactant is mainly constituted by lipid and sugar fractions. The present study outcomes provide valuable information on structural characterization of the biosurfactant produced by L. helveticus MRTL91. These findings are encouraging for the application of Lactobacilli derived biosurfactant as nontoxic surface active agents in the emerging field of biomedical applications.

Effects of biosurfactants on the viability and proliferation of human breast cancer cells

Biosurfactants are molecules with surface activity produced by microorganisms that can be used in many biomedical applications. The anti-tumour potential of these molecules is being studied, although results are still scarce and few data are available regarding the mechanisms underlying such activity. In this work, the anti-tumour activity of a surfactin produced by Bacillus subtilis 573 and a glycoprotein (BioEG) produced by Lactobacillus paracasei subsp. paracasei A20 was evaluated. Both biosurfactants were tested against two breast cancer cell lines, T47D and MDA-MB-231, and a non-tumour fibroblast cell line (MC-3 T3-E1), specifically regarding cell viability and proliferation. Surfactin was found to decrease viability of both breast cancer cell lines studied. A 24 h exposure to 0.05 g l(-1) surfactin led to inhibition of cell proliferation as shown by cell cycle arrest at G1 phase. Similarly, exposure of cells to 0.15 g l(-1) BioEG for 48 h decreased cancer cells' viability, without affecting normal fibroblasts. Moreover, BioEG induced the cell cycle arrest at G1 for both breast cancer cell lines. The biosurfactant BioEG was shown to be more active than surfactin against the studied breast cancer cells. The results gathered in this work are very promising regarding the biosurfactants potential for breast cancer treatment and encourage further work with the BioEG glycoprotein.

Potential therapeutic applications of biosurfactants

Biosurfactants have recently emerged as promising molecules for their structural novelty, versatility, and diverse properties that are potentially useful for many therapeutic applications. Mainly due to their surface activity, these molecules interact with cell membranes of several organisms and/or with the surrounding environments, and thus can be viewed as potential cancer therapeutics or as constituents of drug delivery systems. Some types of microbial surfactants, such as lipopeptides and glycolipids, have been shown to selectively inhibit the proliferation of cancer cells and to disrupt cell membranes causing their lysis through apoptosis pathways. Moreover, biosurfactants as drug delivery vehicles offer commercially attractive and scientifically novel applications. This review covers the current state-of-the-art in biosurfactant research for therapeutic purposes, providing new directions towards the discovery and development of molecules with novel structures and diverse functions for advanced applications.