Intranasal delivery of streptomycin sulfate (STRS) loaded solid lipid nanoparticles to brain and blood

The assessment of pharmacokinetics and neuroprotective effect of berberine hydrochloride-embedded albumin nanoparticles via various administration routes: comparative in-vivo studies in rats

The current study aimed to evaluate the pharmacokinetics and neuroprotective effect of well-characterised berberine-bovine serum albumin (BBR-BSA) nanoparticles. BBR-BSA nanoparticles were generated by desolvation method. Entrapment efficiency, loading capacity, particle size, polydispersity index, surface morphology, thermal stability, and in-vitro release were estimated. In-vitro pharmacokinetic and tissue distribution were conducted. Their neuroprotection was evaluated against lipopolysaccharides-induced neurodegeneration. BBR-BSA nanoparticles showed satisfactory particle size (202.60 ± 1.20 nm) and entrapment efficiency (57.00 ± 1.56%). Results confirmed the formation of spheroid-thermal stable nanoparticles with a sustained drug release over 48 h. Sublingual and intranasal routes had higher pharmacokinetic plasma profiles than other routes, with Cmax values at 0.75 h (444 ± 77.79 and 259 ± 42.41 ng/mL, respectively). BBR and its metabolite distribution in the liver and kidney were higher than in plasma. Intranasal and sublingual treatment improves antioxidants, proinflammatory, amyloidogenic biomarkers, and brain architecture, protecting the brain. In conclusion, neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration may be prevented by intranasal and sublingual BBR-BSA nanoparticles.

Recent progress in nanoparticulate-based intranasal delivery for treating of different central nervous system diseases

Drug administration to the central nervous system (CNS) has become a great obstacle because of several biological barriers, such as the blood-brain barrier, therefore, brain targeting insights are a light for scientists to move forward for treating neurogenerative diseases using advanced non-invasive methods. The current demand is to use a potential direct route as the nasal administration to transport drugs into the brain enhancing the BBB permeability and hence, increasing the bioavailability. Interestingly, recent techniques have been implanted in formulating nanocarriers-based therapeutics for targeting and treating ischemic stroke using lipid or polymeric-based materials. Nanoparticulate delivery systems are set as an effective platform for brain targeting as polymeric nanoparticles and polymeric micelles or nanocarriers based on lipids for preventing drug efflux to promote optimal therapeutic medication concentration in the brain-diseased site. In recent years, there has been a notable increase in research publications and ongoing investigations on the utilization of drug-loading nanocarriers for the treatment of diverse CNS diseases. This review comprehensively depicts these dangerous neurological disorders, drug targeting challenges to CNS, and potential contributions as novel intranasal nano-formulations are being used to treat and regulate a variety of neurological diseases.

Essential considerations towards development of effective nasal antibiotic formulation: features, strategies, and future directions

INTRODUCTION

Intranasal antibiotic products are gaining popularity as a promising method of administering antibiotics, which provide numerous benefits, e.g. enhancing drug bioavailability, reducing adverse effects, and potentially minimizing resistance threats. However, some issues related to the antibiotic substances and nasal route challenges must be addressed to prepare effective formulations.

AREAS COVERED

This review focuses on the valuable points of nasal delivery as an alternative route for administering antibiotics, coupled with the challenges in the nasal cavity that might affect the formulations. Moreover, this review also highlights the application of nasal delivery to introduce antibiotics for local therapy, brain targeting, and systemic effects that have been conducted. In addition, this viewpoint provides strategies to maintain antibiotic stability and several crucial aspects to be considered for enabling effective nasal formulation.

EXPERT OPINION

In-depth knowledge and understanding regarding various key considerations with respect to the antibiotic substances and nasal route delivery requirement in preparing effective nasal antibiotic formulation would greatly improve the development of nasally administered antibiotic products, enabling better therapeutic outcomes of antibiotic treatment and establishing appropriate use of antibiotics, which in turn might reduce the chance of antibiotic resistance and enhance patient comfort.

Versatile Nanoparticulate Systems as a Prosperous Platform for Targeted Nose-Brain Drug Delivery

The intranasal route has proven to be a reliable and promising route for delivering therapeutics to the central nervous system (CNS), averting the blood-brain barrier (BBB) and avoiding extensive first-pass metabolism of some drugs, with minimal systemic exposure. This is considered to be the main problem associated with other routes of drug delivery such as oral, parenteral, and transdermal, among other administration methods. The intranasal route maximizes drug bioavailability, particularly those susceptible to enzymatic degradation such as peptides and proteins. This review will stipulate an overview of the intranasal route as a channel for drug delivery, including its benefits and drawbacks, as well as different mechanisms of CNS drug targeting using nanoparticulate drug delivery systems devices; it also focuses on pharmaceutical dosage forms such as drops, sprays, or gels via the nasal route comprising different polymers, absorption promoters, CNS ligands, and permeation enhancers.

Micro-nanoemulsion and nanoparticle-assisted drug delivery against drug-resistant tuberculosis: recent developments

Tuberculosis (TB) is a major global health problem and the second most prevalent infectious killer after COVID-19. It is caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis (Mtb) and has become increasingly challenging to treat due to drug resistance. The World Health Organization declared TB a global health emergency in 1993. Drug resistance in TB is driven by mutations in the bacterial genome that can be influenced by prolonged drug exposure and poor patient adherence. The development of drug-resistant forms of TB, such as multidrug resistant, extensively drug resistant, and totally drug resistant, poses significant therapeutic challenges. Researchers are exploring new drugs and novel drug delivery systems, such as nanotechnology-based therapies, to combat drug resistance. Nanodrug delivery offers targeted and precise drug delivery, improves treatment efficacy, and reduces adverse effects. Along with nanoscale drug delivery, a new generation of antibiotics with potent therapeutic efficacy, drug repurposing, and new treatment regimens (combinations) that can tackle the problem of drug resistance in a shorter duration could be promising therapies in clinical settings. However, the clinical translation of nanomedicines faces challenges such as safety, large-scale production, regulatory frameworks, and intellectual property issues. In this review, we present the current status, most recent findings, challenges, and limiting barriers to the use of emulsions and nanoparticles against drug-resistant TB.

Efficacy of Green Synthesized Nanoparticles in Photodynamic Therapy: A Therapeutic Approach

Cancer is a complex and diverse disease characterized by the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the body. It poses a significant global public health challenge and remains a leading cause of death. The rise in cancer cases and deaths is a significant worry, emphasizing the immediate need for increased awareness, prevention, and treatment measures. Photodynamic therapy (PDT) has emerged as a potential treatment for various types of cancer, including skin, lung, bladder, and oesophageal cancer. A key advantage of PDT is its ability to selectively target cancer cells while sparing normal cells. This is achieved by preferentially accumulating photosensitizing agents (PS) in cancer cells and precisely directing light activation to the tumour site. Consequently, PDT reduces the risk of harming surrounding healthy cells, which is a common drawback of conventional therapies such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy. The use of medicinal plants for therapeutic purposes has a long history dating back thousands of years and continues to be an integral part of healthcare in many cultures worldwide. Plant extracts and phytochemicals have demonstrated the ability to enhance the effectiveness of PDT by increasing the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and promoting apoptosis (cell death) in cancer cells. This natural approach capitalizes on the eco-friendly nature of plant-based photoactive compounds, offering valuable insights for future research. Nanotechnology has also played a pivotal role in medical advancements, particularly in the development of targeted drug delivery systems. Therefore, this review explores the potential of utilizing photosensitizing phytochemicals derived from medicinal plants as a viable source for PDT in the treatment of cancer. The integration of green photodynamic therapy with plant-based compounds holds promise for novel treatment alternatives for various chronic illnesses. By harnessing the scientific potential of plant-based compounds for PDT, we can pave the way for innovative and sustainable treatment strategies.

Challenges in the Development and Application of Organ-on-Chips for Intranasal Drug Delivery Studies

With the growing demand for the development of intranasal (IN) products, such as nasal vaccines, which has been especially highlighted during the COVID-19 pandemic, the lack of novel technologies to accurately test the safety and effectiveness of IN products in vitro so that they can be delivered promptly to the market is critically acknowledged. There have been attempts to manufacture anatomically relevant 3D replicas of the human nasal cavity for in vitro IN drug tests, and a couple of organ-on-chip (OoC) models, which mimic some key features of the nasal mucosa, have been proposed. However, these models are still in their infancy, and have not completely recapitulated the critical characteristics of the human nasal mucosa, including its biological interactions with other organs, to provide a reliable platform for preclinical IN drug tests. While the promising potential of OoCs for drug testing and development is being extensively investigated in recent research, the applicability of this technology for IN drug tests has barely been explored. This review aims to highlight the importance of using OoC models for in vitro IN drug tests and their potential applications in IN drug development by covering the background information on the wide usage of IN drugs and their common side effects where some classical examples of each area are pointed out. Specifically, this review focuses on the major challenges of developing advanced OoC technology and discusses the need to mimic the physiological and anatomical features of the nasal cavity and nasal mucosa, the performance of relevant drug safety assays, as well as the fabrication and operational aspects, with the ultimate goal to highlight the much-needed consensus, to converge the effort of the research community in this area of work.

Intranasal ondansetron microemulsion counteracting the adverse effects of cisplatin: animal study

BACKGROUND

Cisplatin is considered one of the most effective and commonly used chemotherapeutic drugs, but despite its high therapeutic effectiveness, most patients treated with cisplatin suffer from nausea and vomiting, neurotoxic side effects, and cerebral psychiatric disorders such as depression. Therefore, the aim of the current work was to explore whether a selective 5-HT₃ receptor antagonist (Ondansetron) administered via the oral route or intranasally in microemulsion form would alleviate cisplatin's adverse effects.

METHODS

The selected ondansetron microemulsion was characterized in vitro for particle size, polydispersity, zeta potential, morphology, and nasal permeation, and in vivo in terms of anti-emetic and antidepressant activity, with the assessment of biochemical markers in brain homogenates.

RESULTS

Results revealed that both orally administered ondansetron and intranasally administered microemulsion were able to counteract the pica effect by increasing food consumption, water intake, and decreasing kaolin intake. They were also able to increase BDNF, normalize IL-6, increase serotonin, and normalize NOx, MDA, GSSH/GSH as well as 8OHdG levels in rats' brain homogenates. The intranasal ondansetron microemulsion displayed superiority compared to oral conventional ondansetron in terms of increasing food intake, reduction of stomach content, and normalization of serotonin turnover.

CONCLUSION

Ondansetron microemulsion can be administered by an alternative route of administration (intranasal) rather than oral, for patients on cisplatin chemotherapy.

Approaches for designing and delivering solid lipid nanoparticles of distinct antitubercular drugs

Tuberculosis (TB) is still the biggest infectious disease among adults globally, which effects the social and biological lives of patients as well as the economic liability of healthcare systems. Current treatment regime has challenges with drug resistant (MDR/XDR) strains and the failure of standard therapeutic interventions against these TB strains. In the recent years, several nanocarrier-based drug delivery systems developed (including lipid-based) with anti-tuberculosis drugs via targeted delivery to improve the therapeutic outcomes. In this review, we attempt to summarize on the composition of the reported solid lipid-based particles (SLNPs), their various production methodologies, and properties of the delivery system, and their influence on cellular and pharmacokinetic aspects are also discussed. Besides, we have highlighted anti-TB drugs delivering via lipid-based systems have shown promising outcomes, however clinical translation of such systems is still under investigation. Based on recent advancements and reports, it is recommended that future efforts be made to accelerate the translational development of lipid-based nanocarriers to improve TB treatment.

Cocrystals of tuberculosis antibiotics: Challenges and missed opportunities

Cocrystals have been extensively used to improve the physicochemical properties and bioavailability of active pharmaceutical ingredients. Cocrystals of anti-tuberculosis medications are among those commonly reported. This review provides a summary of the tuberculosis antibiotic cocrystals reported in the literature, providing the main results on current tuberculosis medications utilized in cocrystals. Moreover, anti-tuberculosis cocrystals limitations and advantages are described, including evidence for enhanced solubility, stability and effect. Opportunities to enhance anti-tuberculosis medications and fixed dose combinations using cocrystals are given. Several cocrystal pairs are suggested to enhance the effectiveness of anti-tuberculosis drugs.

Intranasal Delivery of Functionalized Polymeric Nanomaterials to the Brain

Intravenous delivery of nanomaterials containing therapeutic agents and various cargos for treating neurological disorders is often constrained by low delivery efficacy due to difficulties in passing the blood-brain barrier (BBB). Nanoparticles (NPs) administered intranasally can move along olfactory and trigeminal nerves so that they do not need to pass through the BBB, allowing non-invasive, direct access to selective neural pathways within the brain. Hence, intranasal (IN) administration of NPs can effectively deliver drugs and genes into targeted regions of the brain, holding potential for efficacious disease treatment in the central nervous system (CNS). In this review, current methods for delivering conjugated NPs to the brain are primarily discussed. Distinctive potential mechanisms of therapeutic nanocomposites delivered via IN pathways to the brain are then discussed. Recent progress in developing functional NPs for applications in multimodal bioimaging, drug delivery, diagnostics, and therapeutics is also reviewed. This review is then concluded by discussing existing challenges, new directions, and future perspectives in IN delivery of nanomaterials.

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Intranasal Solid Lipid Nanoparticles and Nanostructured Lipid Carriers for Nose-to-Brain Delivery

Nose-to-brain drug delivery has been of great interest for the treatment of many central nervous system (CNS) diseases and psychiatric disorders over past decades. Several nasally administered formulations have been developed to circumvent the blood-brain barrier and directly deliver drugs to the CNS through the olfactory and trigeminal pathways. However, the nasal mucosa's drug absorption is insufficient and the volume of the nasal cavity is small, which, in combination, make nose-to-brain drug delivery challenging. These problems could be minimized using formulations based on solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) or nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs), which are effective nose-to-brain drug delivery systems that improve drug bioavailability by increasing drug solubility and permeation, extending drug action, and reducing enzymatic degradation. Various research groups have reported in vivo pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of SLNs and NLCs nose-to-brain delivery systems. This review was undertaken to provide an overview of these studies and highlight research performed on SLN and NLC-based formulations aimed at improving the treatment of CNS diseases such neurodegenerative diseases, epilepsy, and schizophrenia. We discuss the efficacies and brain targeting efficiencies of these formulations based on considerations of their pharmacokinetic parameters and toxicities, point out some gaps in current knowledge, and propose future developmental targets.

Magnetic Solid Nanoparticles and Their Counterparts: Recent Advances towards Cancer Theranostics

Cancer is currently a leading cause of death worldwide. The World Health Organization estimates an increase of 60% in the global cancer incidence in the next two decades. The inefficiency of the currently available therapies has prompted an urgent effort to develop new strategies that enable early diagnosis and improve response to treatment. Nanomedicine formulations can improve the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of conventional therapies and result in optimized cancer treatments. In particular, theranostic formulations aim at addressing the high heterogeneity of tumors and metastases by integrating imaging properties that enable a non-invasive and quantitative assessment of tumor targeting efficiency, drug delivery, and eventually the monitoring of the response to treatment. However, in order to exploit their full potential, the promising results observed in preclinical stages need to achieve clinical translation. Despite the significant number of available functionalization strategies, targeting efficiency is currently one of the major limitations of advanced nanomedicines in the oncology area, highlighting the need for more efficient nanoformulation designs that provide them with selectivity for precise cancer types and tumoral tissue. Under this current need, this review provides an overview of the strategies currently applied in the cancer theranostics field using magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), where both nanocarriers have recently entered the clinical trials stage. The integration of these formulations into magnetic solid lipid nanoparticles—with different composition and phenotypic activity—constitutes a new generation of theranostic nanomedicines with great potential for the selective, controlled, and safe delivery of chemotherapy.

Nano-lipidic formulation and therapeutic strategies for Alzheimer's disease via intranasal route

AIM

The inability of drug molecules to cross the 'Blood-Brain Barrier' restrict the effective treatment of Alzheimer's disease. Lipid nanocarriers have proven to be a novel paradigm in brain targeting of bioactive by facilitating suitable therapeutic concentrations to be attained in the brain.

METHODS

The relevant information regarding the title of this review article was collected from the peer-reviewed published articles. Also, the physicochemical properties, and their in vitro and in vivo evaluations were presented in this review article.

RESULTS

Administration of lipid-based nano-carriers have abilities to target the brain, improve the pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamics properties of drugs, and mitigate the side effects of encapsulated therapeutic active agents.

CONCLUSION

Unlike oral and other routes, the Intranasal route promises high bioavailability, low first-pass effect, better pharmacokinetic properties, bypass of the systemic circulation, fewer incidences of unwanted side effects, and direct delivery of anti-AD drugs to the brain via circumventing 'Blood-Brain Barrier'.

Targeting Systems to the Brain Obtained by Merging Prodrugs, Nanoparticles, and Nasal Administration

About 40 years ago the lipidization of hydrophilic drugs was proposed to induce their brain targeting by transforming them into lipophilic prodrugs. Unfortunately, lipidization often transforms a hydrophilic neuroactive agent into an active efflux transporter (AET) substrate, with consequent rejection from the brain after permeation across the blood brain barrier (BBB). Currently, the prodrug approach has greatly evolved in comparison to lipidization. This review describes the evolution of the prodrug approach for brain targeting considering the design of prodrugs as active influx substrates or molecules able to inhibit or elude AETs. Moreover, the prodrug approach appears strategic in optimization of the encapsulation of neuroactive drugs in nanoparticulate systems that can be designed to induce their receptor-mediated transport (RMT) across the BBB by appropriate decorations on their surface. Nasal administration is described as a valuable alternative to obtain the brain targeting of drugs, evidencing that the prodrug approach can allow the optimization of micro or nanoparticulate nasal formulations of neuroactive agents in order to obtain this goal. Furthermore, nasal administration is also proposed for prodrugs characterized by peripheral instability but potentially able to induce their targeting inside cells of the brain.

Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems of RNAi in Cancer Therapy

RNA interference (RNAi) can mediate gene-silencing by knocking down the expression of a target gene via cellular machinery with much higher efficiency in contrast to other antisense-based approaches which represents an emerging therapeutic strategy for combating cancer. Distinct characters of nanoparticles, such as distinctive size, are fundamental for the efficient delivery of RNAi therapeutics, allowing for higher targeting and safety. In this review, we present the mechanism of RNAi and briefly describe the hurdles and concerns of RNAi as a cancer treatment approach in systemic delivery. Furthermore, the current nanovectors for effective tumor delivery of RNAi therapeutics are classified, and the characteristics of different nanocarriers are summarized.

Recent Advances in the Use of Lipid-Based Nanoparticles Against Glioblastoma Multiforme

Glioblastoma (GBM) is the most common and aggressive malignant brain tumor in adults. Although the overall incidence is less than 10 per 100,000 individuals, its poor prognosis and low survival rate make GBM a crucial public health issue. The main challenges for GBM treatment are related to tumor location and its complex and heterogeneous biology. In this sense, a broad range of nanoparticles with different sizes, architectures, and surface properties, have been engineered as brain drug delivery systems. Among them, lipid-based nanoparticles, such as liposomes, have been pointed out as promising materials to deliver antitumoral drugs to the central nervous system and thus, to improve brain drug targeting and therapeutic efficiency. Here, we describe the synthesis and general characteristics of lipid-based nanoparticles, as well as evidence in the past 5 years regarding their potential use to treat GBM.

Lipid nanoparticles with improved biopharmaceutical attributes for tuberculosis treatment

Tuberculosis is a topic of relevance worldwide because of the social and biological factors that triggered the disease and the economic burden on the health-care systems that imply its therapeutic treatment. Challenges to handle these issues include, among others, research on technological breakthroughs modifying the drug regimens to facilitate therapy adherence, avoid mycobacterium drug resistance, and minimize toxic side-effects. Lipid nanoparticles arise as a promising strategy in this respect as deduced from the reported scientific data. They are prepared from biodegradable and biocompatible starting materials and compared to the use of the free drugs, the entrapment of active molecules into the carriers might lead to both dose reduction and controlled delivery. Moreover, the target to the lung, the organ mainly affected by the disease, could be possible if the particle surface is modified. Although conclusive statements cannot be made considering the limited number of available research works, looking into what has been achieved up to now definitively encourages to continue investigations in this regard.

Lipo-PEG nano-ocular formulation successfully encapsulates hydrophilic fluconazole and traverses corneal and non-corneal path to reach posterior eye segment

The present study describes a special lipid-polyethylene glycol matrix solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs; 138 nm; -2.07 mV) for ocular delivery. Success of this matrix to encapsulate (entrapment efficiency - 62.09%) a hydrophilic drug, fluconazole (FCZ-SLNs), with no burst release (67% release in 24 h) usually observed with most water-soluble drugs, is described presently. The system showed 164.64% higher flux than the marketed drops (Zocon^®) through porcine cornea. Encapsulation within SLNs and slow release did not compromise efficacy of FCZ-SLNs. Latter showed in vitro and in vivo antifungal effects, including antibiofilm effects comparable to free FCZ solution. Developed system was safe and stable (even to sterilisation by autoclaving); and showed optimal viscosity, refractive index and osmotic pressure. These SLNs could reach up to retina following application as drops. The mechanism of transport via corneal and non-corneal transcellular pathways is described by fluorescent and TEM images of mice eye cross sections. Particles streamed through the vitreous, crossed inner limiting membrane and reached the outer retinal layers.

Streptomycin sulphate loaded solid lipid nanoparticles show enhanced uptake in macrophage, lower MIC in Mycobacterium and improved oral bioavailability

Present study addresses the challenge of incorporating hydrophilic streptomycin sulphate (STRS; log P -6.4) with high dose (1 g/day) into a lipid matrix of SLNs. Cold high-pressure homogenization technique used for SLN preparation achieved 30% drug loading and 51.17 ± 0.95% entrapment efficiency. Polyethylene glycol 600 as a supporting-surfactant assigned small size (218.1 ± 15.46 nm) and mucus-penetrating property. It was conceived to administer STRS-SLNs orally rather than intramuscularly. STRS-SLNs remained stable on incubation for varying times in SGF or SIF. STRS-SLNs were extensively characterised for microscopic (TEM and AFM), thermal (DSC), diffraction (XRD) and spectroscopic (NMR and FTIR) properties and showed zero-order controlled release. Enhanced (60 times) intracellular uptake was observed in THP-1 and Pgp expressing LoVo and DLD-1 cell lines, using fluorescein-SLNs. Presence of SLNs in LoVo cells was also revealed by TEM studies. STRS-SLNs showed 3 times reduction in MIC against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37RV (256182) in comparison to free STRS. It also showed better activity against both M. bovis BCG and Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37RV (272994) in comparison to free STRS. Cytotoxicity and acute toxicity studies (OECD 425 guidelines) confirmed in vitro and in vivo safety of STRS-SLNs. Single-dose oral pharmacokinetic studies in rat plasma using validated LCMS/MS technique or the microbioassay showed significant oral absorption and bioavailability (160% - 710% increase than free drug).

Characterization and Systemic Delivery of Dibenzoylmethane via the Intranasal Route

Intranasal (IN) administration is known to be noninvasive with the potential to carry a drug or vaccine directly to the blood, bypassing first-pass metabolism in the liver and the harsh environment of the gastrointestinal system. Orally administered dibenzoylmethane (DBM) has been shown experimentally to be neuroprotective in animal models of tauopathy and prion disease and effective in the treatment of certain forms of cancers. The purpose of this study was to prepare, characterize, and test formulations of DBM designed for IN administration. DBM was formulated in brain homogenate (BH) and hypromellose and as nanoparticles (NPs). These formulations were detected using UPLC and characterized in solid and suspension states; NPs were also characterized by in vitro cell culture-based studies. Particle size for DBM NP was 163.8 ± 3.2 nm, and in vitro release studies showed 95.80% of DBM was released from the NPs within 8 days. In vitro cell, culture studies suggested no drug uptake until 6 h. A histological analysis of nasal cavity (NC) sections and blood detection studies were carried out 30 min after inhalation. DBM amounting to 40.77 ± 4.93 and 44.45 ± 5.36 ng/mL was detected in the blood of animals administered DBM in polymeric and NP formulation, respectively. Histological studies on NCs confirmed the presence of BH within lymphatic vessels in the lamina propria of each animal; BH was identified traversing the mucosa in 2 animals. Thus, formulations for DBM administered via IN route were successfully designed and characterized and able to cross the nasal mucosa following inhalation.

Intranasal Nanoparticulate Systems as Alternative Route of Drug Delivery

There is always a need for alternative and efficient methods of drug delivery. The nasal cavity can be considered as a non-invasive and efficient route of administration. It has been used for local, systemic, brain targeting, and vaccination delivery. Although many intranasal products are currently available on the market, the majority is used for local delivery with fewer products available for the other targets. As nanotechnology utilization in drug delivery has rapidly spread out, the nasal delivery has become attractive as a promising approach. Nanoparticulate systems facilitate drug transportation across the mucosal barrier, protect the drug from nasal enzyme degradation, enhance the delivery of vaccines to the lymphoid tissue of the nasal cavity with an adjuvant activity, and offer a way for peptide delivery into the brain and the systemic circulation, in addition to their potential for brain tumor treatment. This review article aims at discussing the potential benefit of the intranasal nanoparticulate systems, including nanosuspensions, lipid and surfactant, and polymer-based nanoparticles as regards productive intranasal delivery. The aim of this review is to focus on the topicalities of nanotechnology applications for intranasal delivery of local, systemic, brain, and vaccination purposes during the last decade, referring to the factors affecting delivery, regulatory aspects, and patient expectations. This review further identifies the benefits of applying the Quality by Design approaches (QbD) in product development. According to the reported studies on nanotechnology-based intranasal delivery, potential attention has been focused on brain targeting and vaccine delivery with promising outcomes. Despite the significant research effort in this field, nanoparticle-based products for intranasal delivery are not available. Thus, further efforts are required to promote the introduction of intranasal nanoparticulate products that can meet the requirements of regulatory affairs with high patient acceptance.

Improved antibacterial function of Rifampicin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles on Brucella abortus

The objective of this study was to assess the antibacterial activity of Rifampicin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles on Brucella abortus 544. Rifampicin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles were prepared by a modified microemulsion/sonication method and characterized. The results showed the average size about 319.7 nm, PI about 0.20 and zeta potential about 18.4 mv, encapsulation efficacy and drug-loading were equal to 95.78 and 34.2%, respectively, with a spherical shape. Drug release lasted for 5 days. The antibacterial activity was statistically significant with p < .05 in bacterial and cell culture media compared to free Rifampicin. It can be concluded that solid lipid nanoparticles can be considered as a promising delivery system for improving the antibacterial activity of Rifampicin against Brucella abortus.

Solid lipid nanoparticles for ocular delivery of isoniazid: evaluation, proof of concept and in vivo safety & kinetics

AIM

Evaluation of solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) for ocular delivery of isoniazid (INH).

MATERIALS & METHODS

INH-SLNs were characterized for morphological, thermal, crystalline and nuclear magnetic resonance properties. In vitro release and ex vivo corneal permeability of INH-SLNs was also evaluated. Proof-of-concept uptake studies were performed in corneal and conjunctival cell lines and in vivo in rat eye using fluorescein-labeled SLNs. Antimycobacterial activity of INH-SLNs was confirmed. In vivo aqueous humor pharmacokinetics, toxicity and tolerance was performed in rabbit/rat eye.

RESULTS

INH-SLNs showed extended release (48 h), enhanced corneal permeability (1.6-times), five-times lower MIC, significant in vitro and in vivo uptake of fluorescein-labeled SLNs, 4.2-times ocular bioavailability (area under the curve) and in vivo acute and repeat dose safety.

CONCLUSION

INH-SLNs are an effective ocular delivery system.

Lipid nanoparticles for intranasal administration: application to nose-to-brain delivery

INTRODUCTION

The blood brain barrier is a functional barrier allowing the entry into the brain of only essential nutrients, excluding other molecules. Its structure, although essential to keep the harmful entities out, is also a major roadblock for pharmacological treatment of brain diseases. Several alternative invasive drug delivery approaches, such as transcranial drug delivery and disruption of blood brain barrier have been explored, with limited success and several challenges. Intranasal delivery is a non-invasive methodology, which bypasses the systemic circulation, and, through the intra- and extra- neuronal pathways, provides direct brain drug delivery. Colloidal drug delivery systems, particularly lipidic nanoparticles offer several unique advantages for this goal.

AREAS COVERED

This review focuses on key brain diseases such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, and provide a detailed overview of the current lipid nanoparticle based treatment options explored thus far. The review also delves into basic preparation, challenges and evaluation methods of lipid drug delivery systems.

EXPERT OPINION

Brain diseases present complex pathophysiology, in addition to the practically inaccessible brain tissues, hence according to the authors, a two-pronged approach utilizing new target discovery coupled with new drug delivery systems such as lipid carriers must be adopted.

Formulation and In-vivo Pharmacokinetic Consideration of Intranasal Microemulsion and Mucoadhesive Microemulsion of Rivastigmine for Brain Targeting

PURPOSE

Presence of tight junctions in blood brain barrier (BBB) pose a major hurdle for delivery of drug and severely affects adequate therapeutic concentration to reach the brain. In present work, we have selected Rivastigmine hydrogen tartrate (RHT), a reversible cholinesterase inhibitor, which exhibits extensive first-pass metabolism, resulting in limited absolute bioavailability (36%). RHT shows extremely low aqueous solubility and poor penetration, resulting in inadequate concentration reaching the brain, thus necessitating frequent oral dosing. To overcome these problems of RHT, microemulsion (ME) and mucoadhesive microemulsion (MME) of RHT were formulated for brain targeting via intranasal delivery route and compared on the basis of in vivo pharmacokinetics.

METHODS

ME and MME formulations containing RHT were developed by water titration method. Characterization of ME and MME was done for various physicochemical parameters, nasal spray pattern, and in vivo pharmacokinetics quantitatively and qualitatively (gamma scintigraphy studies).

RESULTS

The developed ME and MME were transparent having globule size approximately in the range of 53-55 nm. Pharmacokinetic studies showed higher values for C_max and DTP for intranasal RHT: CH-ME over RHT-ME, thus indicating the effect of chitosan in modulating tight junctions, thereby enhanced paracellular transport of RHT.

CONCLUSION

Gamma scintigraphy and in vivo pharmacokinetic study suggested enhanced RHT concentration, upon intranasal administration of RHT:CH-ME, compare with other groups administered formulations intranasally. These findings suggested the potential of non-invasive intranasal route for brain delivery, especially for therapeutics, facing challenges in oral administration.

Solid lipid nanoparticles as carriers for oral delivery of hydroxysafflor yellow A

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is the main bioactive flavonoid extracted from the flower of Carthamus tinctorius L., which is widely used in traditional Chinese medicine for the treatment of myocardial ischemia and cerebral ischemia. HSYA has high water solubility but poor intestinal membrane permeability, resulting in low oral bioavailability. Currently, only HSYA sodium chloride injection has been approved for clinical use and oral formulations are urgently needed. In this study, HSYA solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) with the structure of w/o/w were prepared by a warm microemulsion process using approved drug excipients for oral delivery to increase the oral absorption of HSYA. The optimized HSYA SLNs are spherical with an average size of 214nm and the encapsulation efficiency is 55%. HSYA SLNs exhibited little cytotoxicity in Caco-2 and Hela cells, but increased the oral absorption of HSYA about 3.97-fold in rats, compared to HSYA water solution. In addition, cycloheximide pretreatment significantly decreased the oral absorption of HSYA delivered by SLNs. Importantly, the pharmacodynamics evaluation demonstrated that SLNs further decreased the infarct areas in rats. In conclude, SLNs could be a promising delivery system to enhance the oral absorption and pharmacological activities of HSYA.

Inhibitory effect of a new orally active cedrol-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier on compound 48/80-induced mast cell degranulation and anaphylactic shock in mice

BACKGROUND

Type I hypersensitivity is an allergic reaction characterized by the overactivity of the immune system provoked by normally harmless substances. Glucocorticoids, anti-histamines, or mast cell stabilizers are the choices of treatment for type I hypersensitivity. Even though these drugs have the anti-allergic effect, they can have several side effects in prolong use. Cedrol is the main bioactive compound of Cedrus atlantica with anti-tumor, anti-oxidative, and platelet-activating factor inhibiting properties.

METHODS

In this study, the preparation and anti-anaphylactic effect of cedrol-loaded nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) were evaluated. NLCs were prepared using Compritol® 888 ATO and triolein as lipid phase and vitamin E d-α-tocopherylpolyethyleneglycol 1000 succinate, soya lecithin, and sodium deoxycholate as nanoparticle stabilizers.

RESULTS

The average diameter of cedrol-NLCs (CR-NLCs) was 71.2 nm (NLC-C1) and 91.93 nm (NLC-C2). The particle had negative zeta potential values of -31.9 mV (NLC-C1) and -44.5 mV (NLC-C2). Type I anaphylactoid reaction in the animal model is significantly reduced by cedrol and cedrol-NLC. This in vivo activity of cedrol resulted that cedrol suppressed compound 48/80-induced peritoneal mast cell degranulation and histamine release from mast cells. Furthermore, compound 48/80-evoked Ca2+ uptake into mast cells was reduced in a dose-dependent manner by cedrol and cedrol-NLC. Studies confirmed that the inhibition of type I anaphylactoid response in vivo in mice and compound 48/80-induced mast cell activation in vitro are greatly enhanced by the loading of cedrol into the NLCs. The safety of cedrol and CR-NLC was evaluated as selectivity index (SI) with prednisolone and cromolyn sodium as positive control. SI of CR-NLC-C2 was found to be 11.5-fold greater than both prednisolone and cromolyn sodium.

CONCLUSION

Administration of CR-NLC 24 hours before the onset of anaphylaxis can prevent an anaphylactoid reaction. NLCs could be a promising vehicle for the oral delivery of cedrol to protect anaphylactic reactions.

Development and evaluation of a cedrol-loaded nanostructured lipid carrier system for in vitro and in vivo susceptibilities of wild and drug resistant Leishmania donovani amastigotes

Leishmaniasis is an epidemic in various countries, and the parasite Leishmania donovani is developing resistance against available drugs. In the present study the antileishmanial action of cedrol was evaluated in vitro and in vivo. Activity potentiation was achieved via nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) complexation of cedrol. Cedrol-loaded NLC was prepared through the hot-melting emulsification-ultrasonication method. The cedrol- NLC prepared did not require the use of any organic solvents. The characterization of NLC-C₁ and NLC-C₂ revealed that particle size was 46.62nm and 54.73nm for 3.85%, and 7.48% drug loading, respectively and negative charge of -19.2mV and -23.7mV. The cedrol-loaded NLC were found to be spherical with a smooth surface. Drug-carrier interactions were clearly visualized in FT-IR studies. Incorporation of cedrol in NLC was ascertained in DSC and XRD analysis. Antileishmanial activities of free cedrol and cedrol-NLC were performed against L. donovani wild-type, sodium stibogluconate, paromomycin and field isolated resistant strains in axenic amastigotes and amastigotes in macrophage model. Coumarin-6 loaded NLC nanoparticles were assessed for macrophage internalization in confocal microscopic studies. Cedrol showed significant antileishmanial activity in wild-type (IC₅₀=1.5μM), sodium stibogluconate resistant (IC₅₀=2μM), paromomycin resistant (IC₅₀=1.8μM) and field isolated resistant (IC₅₀=1.35μM) strains in macrophage together with cytotoxicity (CC₅₀=74μM) in mouse peritoneal macrophage cells. Incorporation of cedrol in NLC-C₂ resulted in 2.1-fold and 2-fold increase in selectivity indexes (CC₅₀/IC₅₀) for wild-type and drug resistant strains, respectively. In addition, in vivo studies revealed that bioactivity of NLC-C₂ were 2.3 to 3.8-fold increased in wild-type and 3 to 4.9-fold increased in drug resistant strains when compared with free cedrol; administered orally in mouse leishmaniasis model. Overall, NLC-C₂ showed superior antileishmanial activity to free cedrol and miltefosine in oral dose. These findings support the use of NLCs for oral delivery of poorly water-soluble antileishmanial drugs in treatment of leishmaniasis.

CHEMICAL COMPOUNDS

Cedrol (PubChem CID: 65575); Compritol® 888 ATO (PubChem CID: 62726); Triolein (PubChem CID: 5497163); Pluronic F68 (PubChem CID: 24751); Soya lecithin (PubChem CID: 57369748); Sodium deoxycholate (PubChem CID: 23668196); Miltefosine (PubChem CID: 3599); Paromomycin (PubChem CID: 165580); Amphotericin B (PubChem CID: 5280965); Sodium stibogluconate (PubChem CID: 16683012).

Biological voyage of solid lipid nanoparticles: a proficient carrier in nanomedicine

This review projects the prospects and issues faced by solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) in current scenarios, specially related to its clinical implementation and effectiveness. We re-examine the basic concept of biobehavior and movement of SLNs as a nanomedicine carrier. The extensive survey of the uptake and absorption mechanism from different routes, distribution pattern, targeting efficiency, effect of surface functionalization on biodistribution, elimination pathways and toxic effects have been documented. In general, the objective of this review is to boost our knowledge about the interaction of SLNs with the bioenvironment, their movement in, and effect on, a living system and future prospects.

Solid lipid nanoparticles as attractive drug vehicles: Composition, properties and therapeutic strategies

This work briefly reviews up-to-date developments in solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) as effective nanocolloidal system for drug delivery. It summarizes SLNs in terms of their preparation, surface modification and properties. The application of SLNs as a carrier system enables to improve the therapeutic efficacy of drugs from various therapeutic groups. Present uses of SLNs include cancer therapy, dermatology, bacterial infections, brain targeting and eye disorders among others. The usage of SLNs provides enhanced pharmacokinetic properties and modulated release of drugs. SLN ubiquitous application results from their specific features such as possibility of surface modification, increased permeation through biological barriers, resistance to chemical degradation, possibility of co-delivery of various therapeutic agents or stimuli-responsiveness. This paper will be useful to the scientists working in the domain of SLN-based drug delivery systems.

Naringenin-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: preparation, controlled delivery, cellular uptake, and pulmonary pharmacokinetics

Naringenin (NRG), a flavonoid compound, had been reported to exhibit extensive pharmacological effects, but its water solubility and oral bioavailability are only~46±6 µg/mL and 5.8%, respectively. The purpose of this study is to design and develop NRG-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (NRG-SLNs) to provide prolonged and sustained drug release, with improved stability, involving nontoxic nanocarriers, and increase the bioavailability by means of pulmonary administration. Initially, a group contribution method was used to screen the best solid lipid matrix for the preparation of SLNs. NRG-SLNs were prepared by an emulsification and low-temperature solidification method and optimized using an orthogonal experiment approach. The morphology was examined by transmission electron microscopy, and the particle size and zeta potential were determined by photon correlation spectroscopy. The total drug content of NRG-SLNs was measured by high-performance liquid chromatography, and the encapsulation efficiency (EE) was determined by Sephadex gel-50 chromatography and high-performance liquid chromatography. The in vitro NRG release studies were carried out using a dialysis bag. The best cryoprotectant to prepare NRG-SLN lyophilized powder for future structural characterization was selected using differential scanning calorimetry, powder X-ray diffraction, and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy. The short-term stability, 3-(4,5-dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl-tetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay, cellular uptake, and pharmacokinetics in rats were studied after pulmonary administration of NRG-SLN lyophilized powder. Glycerol monostearate was selected to prepare SLNs, and the optimal formulation of NRG-SLNs was spherical in shape, with a particle size of 98 nm, a polydispersity index of 0.258, a zeta potential of −31.4 mV, a total drug content of 9.76 mg, an EE of 79.11%, and a cumulative drug release of 80% in 48 hours with a sustained profile. In addition, 5% mannitol (w/v) was screened as a cryoprotectant. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, differential scanning calorimetry, and powder X-ray diffraction studies confirmed that the drug was encapsulated into SLNs in an amorphous form. The lyophilized powder was stable at both refrigeration (4°C) and ambient temperature (25°C) for 3 months, and the MTT assay demonstrated that the SLNs were nontoxic. The cellular uptake of fluorescein isothiocyanate-labeled SLNs in A549 cells was highly time dependent over a period of 3 hours, while the pharmacokinetic study in Sprague Dawley rats showed that the relative bioavailability of NRG-SLNs was 2.53-fold greater than that of NRG suspension after pulmonary administration. This study shows that SLNs offer a promising pulmonary delivery system to increase the bioavailability of the poorly water-soluble drug NRG.

Current applications of nanoparticles in infectious diseases

For decades infections have been treated easily with drugs. However, in the 21st century, they may become lethal again owing to the development of antimicrobial resistance. Pathogens can become resistant by means of different mechanisms, such as increasing the time they spend in the intracellular environment, where drugs are unable to reach therapeutic levels. Moreover, drugs are also subject to certain problems that decrease their efficacy. This requires the use of high doses, and frequent administrations must be implemented, causing adverse side effects or toxicity. The use of nanoparticle systems can help to overcome such problems and increase drug efficacy. Accordingly, there is considerable current interest in their use as antimicrobial agents against different pathogens like bacteria, virus, fungi or parasites, multidrug-resistant strains and biofilms; as targeting vectors towards specific tissues; as vaccines and as theranostic systems. This review begins with an overview of the different types and characteristics of nanoparticles used to deliver drugs to the target, followed by a review of current research and clinical trials addressing the use of nanoparticles within the field of infectious diseases.

Fabrication of silver nanoplate hierarchical turreted ordered array and its application in trace analyses

Silver nanoplate hierarchical turreted ordered arrays were fabricated through an electro-deposition method on ordered acuate silicon nanocone templates. Such arrays can be used as SERS substrates for trace analyses of streptomycin sulphate, and exhibit high activity and stability. This work is of importance in practical applications based on the SERS effect of noble metal micro/nano-structured arrays.

Lipid-polyethylene glycol based nano-ocular formulation of ketoconazole

Ophthalmic mycoses including corneal keratitis or endophthalmitis affects 6-million persons/year and can cause blindness. Its management requires antifungals to penetrate the ocular tissue. Oral use of Ketoconazole (KTZ), the first broad-spectrum antifungal to be marketed, is now restricted to life-threatening infections due to severe adverse effects and drug-interactions. Local use of KTZ loaded nanocarrier system can address its toxicity, poor solubility, photodegradation, permeation and bioavailability issues. Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) comprising Compritol(®) 888 ATO and PEG 600 matrix, were presently prepared using hot high-pressure homogenization. Employing extensive characterization: TEM, NMR, DSC, XRD and FTIR, it is proposed that SLNs comprise of a polyethylene glycol (PEG) core into which KTZ is dissolved. PEG endows the lipid matrix with amorphousness and imperfections; rigidity; and, stability to aggregation, on storage and autoclaving. PEG is a simple, cost-effective and safe polymer with superior solubilizing and surfactant-supporting properties. Without its inclusion KTZ could not be loaded into SLNs. It ensured high incorporation efficiency (70%) of KTZ; small size (126 nm); and, better permeation into the eye. Pharmacokinetic studies indicated 2.5 and 1.6 fold higher bioavailability (AUC) in aqueous and vitreous humor, respectively. Biocompatibility and in vitro (both in corneal and retinal cell lines) and in vivo (in rabbits) ocular safety is the other highlight of developed formulation.

Rationally developed core–shell polymeric-lipid hybrid nanoparticles as a delivery vehicle for cromolyn sodium: implications of lipid envelop on in vitro and in vivo behaviour of nanoparticles upon oral administration

In the present study, cromolyn sodium, a highly water soluble molecule was encapsulated into rationally designed, core–shell polymeric-lipid hybrid nanoparticles for enhancing its oral bioavailability, by improving its intestinal permeability.

Microbubbles coupled to methotrexate-loaded liposomes for ultrasound-mediated delivery of methotrexate across the blood-brain barrier

Methotrexate (MTX) is the single most effective agent for the treatment of primary central nervous system lymphoma. Currently, the delivery of MTX to the brain is achieved by high systemic doses, which cause severe long-term neurotoxicity, or intrathecal administration, which is highly invasive and may lead to infections or hemorrhagic complications. Acoustically active microbubbles have been developed as drug carriers for the noninvasive and brain-targeted delivery of therapeutics. However, their application is limited by their low drug-loading capacity. To overcome this limitation, we prepared microbubbles coupled to MTX-loaded liposomes using ZHIFUXIAN, a novel type of microbubbles with a superior safety profile and long circulation time. MTX-liposome-coupled microbubbles had a high drug-loading capacity of 8.91%±0.86%, and their size (2.64±0.93 μm in diameter) was suitable for intravenous injection. When used with ultrasound, they showed more potent in vitro cytotoxicity against Walker-256 cancer cells than MTX alone or MTX-loaded liposomes. When Sprague-Dawley rats were exposed to sonication, administration of these MTX-liposome-coupled microbubbles via the tail vein led to targeted disruption of the blood–brain barrier without noticeable tissue or capillary damage. High-performance liquid chromatography analysis of the brain MTX concentration showed that MTX delivery to the brain followed the order of MTX-liposome-coupled microbubbles + ultrasound (25.3±2.4 μg/g) > unmodified ZHIFUXIAN + MTX + ultrasound (18.6±2.2 μg/g) > MTX alone (6.97±0.75 μg/g) > MTX-liposome-coupled microbubbles (2.92±0.39 μg/g). Therefore, treatment with MTX-liposome-coupled microbubbles and ultrasound resulted in a significantly higher brain MTX concentration than all other treatments (P<0.01). These results suggest that MTX-liposome-coupled microbubbles may hold great promise as new and effective therapies for primary central nervous system lymphoma and other central nervous system malignancies.

Rivastigmine-loaded in situ gelling nanostructured lipid carriers for nose to brain delivery

In the current research work, rivastigmine (RV)-loaded in situ gelling nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) were developed for nose to brain delivery. NLCs were fabricated by ethanol injection method using glyceryl monosterate, Capmul MCM C8, Lecithin and Tween 80. NLCs showed average particle size of 123.2 ± 2.3 nm with entrapment efficiency of 68.34 ± 3.4%. DSC, XRD and IR studies showed complete amorphization and incorporation of the drug into nanoparticles. NLCs were incorporated into an in situ gelling system using 0.8% gellan gum and 15% Lutrol F 127. RV in situ gel showed excellent elasticity, rheology, mucoadhesion and adhesiveness to facilitate its adhesion to the upper nasal mucosa. NLC-based in situ gel showed a 2-fold increase in nasal permeation of the drug over plain RV solution. In situ gelling NLCs showed a 3-fold increase in enzyme inhibition efficacy.