The impact of protein corona on the behavior and targeting capability of nanoparticle-based delivery system

In silico assessment of nanoparticle toxicity powered by the Enalos Cloud Platform: Integrating automated machine learning and synthetic data for enhanced nanosafety evaluation

The rapid advance of nanotechnology has led to the development and widespread application of nanomaterials, raising concerns regarding their potential adverse effects on human health and the environment. Traditional (experimental) methods for assessing the nanoparticles (NPs) safety are time-consuming, expensive, and resource-intensive, and raise ethical concerns due to their reliance on animals. To address these challenges, we propose an in silico workflow that serves as an alternative or complementary approach to conventional hazard and risk assessment strategies, which incorporates state-of-the-art computational methodologies. In this study we present an automated machine learning (autoML) scheme that employs dose-response toxicity data for silver (Ag), titanium dioxide (TiO2), and copper oxide (CuO) NPs. This model is further enriched with atomistic descriptors to capture the NPs' underlying structural properties. To overcome the issue of limited data availability, synthetic data generation techniques are used. These techniques help in broadening the dataset, thus improving the representation of different NP classes. A key aspect of this approach is a novel three-step applicability domain method (which includes the development of a local similarity approach) that enhances user confidence in the results by evaluating the prediction's reliability. We anticipate that this approach will significantly expedite the nanosafety assessment process enabling regulation to keep pace with innovation, and will provide valuable insights for the design and development of safe and sustainable NPs. The ML model developed in this study is made available to the scientific community as an easy-to-use web-service through the Enalos Cloud Platform (www.enaloscloud.novamechanics.com/sabydoma/safenanoscope/), facilitating broader access and collaborative advancements in nanosafety.

Pegylated gold nanoparticles interact with lipid bilayer and human serum albumin and transferrin

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) are potentially applicable in drug/nucleic acid delivery systems. Low toxicity, high stability, and bioavailability are crucial for the therapeutic use of AuNPs and they are mainly determined by their interactions with proteins and lipids on their route to the target cells. In this work, we investigated the interaction of two pegylated gold nanoparticles, AuNP14a and AuNP14b, with human serum proteins albumin (HSA) and transferrin (Tf) as well as dimyristoyl-phosphatidylcholine (DMPC) liposomes, which can be a representative of biomembranes. We showed that AuNP14a/b interacted with HSA and Tf changing their electrical, thermodynamic, and structural properties as evidenced by dynamic light scattering, zeta potential, transmission electron microscopy, circular dichroism, fluorescence quenching, and isothermal titration calorimetry. These nanoparticles penetrated the DMPC membrane suggesting their ability to reach a target inside the cell. In most of the effects, AuNP14b was more effective than AuNP14a, which might result from its more positive charge. Further studies are needed to evaluate whether the interaction of AuNP14a/b with HSA and Tf is safe for the cell/organism and whether they may safely penetrate natural membranes.

Endocytosis: the match point of nanoparticle-based cancer therapy

Nanomedicine has inspired a ground-breaking strategy for cancer therapy. By intelligently assembling diverse moieties to form nanoparticles, numerous functionalities such as controlled release, synergistic efficiency, and in situ killing can be achieved. The emerging nanoparticles have been designed with elevated targeting efficiency as targeting cancer cells is the primary requirement for nanoparticles. However, effective targeting does not guarantee therapeutic effects as endocytosis is a prerequisite for nanoparticles to exert effects. The recent decade has witnessed the rapid development of endocytosis-oriented nanoparticles, and this review subtly analyzes, categorizes, and exemplifies these nanoparticles according to their biological internalization patterns, and the correlation between the endocytosis mechanism and the property of nanoparticles is bridged. Based on the interdisciplinary vision, the present challenges and future perspectives of nanoparticle design for successful endocytosis are discussed, highlighting the potential strategies for the future development of endocytosis-oriented nanoparticles, thus facilitating the endocytosis-oriented strategy from bench to bedside. The undeniable fact is that endocytosis-oriented nanoparticles will definitely bring new blood to the next generation of advanced cancer therapies.

COVID-19 Vaccine mRNA Biodistribution: Maternal and Fetal Exposure Risks

SARS-CoV-2 infection during pregnancy has severe consequences on maternal and neonatal health. Presently, vaccination stands as a critical preventive measure for mitigating infection-related risks. Although the initial clinical trials for the COVID-19 vaccines excluded pregnant women, subsequent investigations have indicated mRNA vaccinations' effectiveness and short-term safety during pregnancy. However, there is a lack of information regarding the potential biodistribution of the vaccine mRNA during pregnancy and lactation. Recent findings indicate that COVID-19 vaccine mRNA has been detected in breast milk, suggesting that its presence is not confined to the injection site and raises the possibility of similar distribution to the placenta and the fetus. Furthermore, the potential effects and responses of the placenta and fetus to the vaccine mRNA are still unknown. While potential risks might exist with the exposure of the placenta and fetus to the COVID-19 mRNA vaccine, the application of mRNA therapies for maternal and fetal conditions offers a groundbreaking prospect. Future research should leverage the unique opportunity provided by the first-ever application of mRNA vaccines in humans to understand their biodistribution and impact on the placenta and fetus in pregnant women. Such insights could substantially advance the development of safer and more effective future mRNA-based therapies during pregnancy.

OX26-cojugated gangliosilated liposomes to improve the post-ischemic therapeutic effect of CDP-choline

Cerebrovascular impairment represents one of the main causes of death worldwide with a mortality rate of 5.5 million per year. The disability of 50% of surviving patients has high social impacts and costs in long period treatment for national healthcare systems. For these reasons, the efficacious clinical treatment of patients, with brain ischemic stroke, remains a medical need. To this aim, a liposome nanomedicine, with monosialic ganglioside type 1 (GM1), OX26 (an anti-transferrin receptor antibody), and CDP-choline (a neurotrophic drug) (CDP-choline/OX26Lip) was prepared. CDP-choline/OX26Lip were prepared by a freeze and thaw method and then extruded through polycarbonate filters, to have narrow size distributed liposomes of ~80 nm. CDP-choline/OX26Lip were stable in human serum, they had suitable pharmacokinetic properties, and 30.0 ± 4.2% of the injected drug was still present in the blood stream 12 h after its systemic injection. The post-ischemic therapeutic effect of CDP-choline/OX26Lip is higher than CDP-choline/Lip, thus showing a significantly high survival rate of the re-perfused post-ischemic rats, i.e. 96% and 78% after 8 days. The treatment with CDP-choline/OX26Lip significantly decreased the peroxidation rate of ~5-times compared to CDP-choline/Lip; and the resulting conjugated dienes, that was 13.9 ± 1.1 mmol/mg proteins for CDP-choline/Lip and 3.1 ± 0.8 for CDP-choline/OX26Lip. OX26 increased the accumulation of GM1-liposomes in the brain tissues and thus the efficacious of CDP-choline. Therefore, this nanomedicine may represent a strategy for the reassessment of CDP-choline to treat post-ischemic events caused by brain stroke, and respond to a significant clinical need.

Evaluating the Effects of BSA-Coated Gold Nanorods on Cell Migration Potential and Inflammatory Mediators in Human Dermal Fibroblasts

Albumin-coated gold nanoparticles display potential biomedical applications, including cancer research, infection treatment, and wound healing; however, elucidating their interaction with normal cells remains an area with limited exploration. In this study, gold nanorods (GNR) were prepared and coated with bovine serum albumin (BSA) to produce GNR-BSA. The functionalized nanoparticles were characterized based on their optical absorption spectra, morphology, surface charge, and quantity of attached protein. The interaction between GNR-BSA and BSA with normal cells was investigated using human dermal fibroblasts. The cytotoxicity test indicated cell viability between ~63-95% for GNR-BSA over concentrations from 30.0 to 0.47 μg/mL and ~85-98% for BSA over concentrations from 4.0 to 0.0625 mg/mL. The impact of the GNR-BSA and BSA on cell migration potential and wound healing was assessed using scratch assay, and the modulation of cytokine release was explored by quantifying a panel of cytokines using Multiplex technology. The results indicated that GNR-BSA, at 10 μg/mL, delayed the cell migration and wound healing 24 h post-treatment compared to the BSA or the control group with an average wound closure percentage of 6% and 16% at 6 and 24 h post-treatment, respectively. Multiplex analysis revealed that while GNR-BSA reduced the release of the pro-inflammatory marker IL-12 from the activated fibroblasts 24 h post-treatment, they significantly reduced the release of IL-8 (p < 0.001), and CCL2 (p < 0.01), which are crucial for the inflammation response, cell adhesion, proliferation, migration, and angiogenesis. Although GNR-BSA exhibited relatively high cell viability towards human dermal fibroblasts and promising therapeutic applications, toxicity aspects related to cell motility and migration must be considered.

Transepithelial transport of nanoparticles in oral drug delivery: From the perspective of surface and holistic property modulation

Despite the promising prospects of nanoparticles in oral drug delivery, the process of oral administration involves a complex transportation pathway that includes cellular uptake, intracellular trafficking, and exocytosis by intestinal epithelial cells, which are necessary steps for nanoparticles to enter the bloodstream and exert therapeutic effects. Current researchers have identified several crucial factors that regulate the interaction between nanoparticles and intestinal epithelial cells, including surface properties such as ligand modification, surface charge, hydrophilicity/hydrophobicity, intestinal protein corona formation, as well as holistic properties like particle size, shape, and rigidity. Understanding these properties is essential for enhancing transepithelial transport efficiency and designing effective oral drug delivery systems. Therefore, this review provides a comprehensive overview of the surface and holistic properties that influence the transepithelial transport of nanoparticles, elucidating the underlying principles governing their impact on transepithelial transport. The review also outlines the chosen of parameters to be considered for the subsequent design of oral drug delivery systems.

Harnessing nanomedicine for modulating microglial states in the central nervous system disorders: Challenges and opportunities

Microglia are essential for maintaining homeostasis and responding to pathological events in the central nervous system (CNS). Their dynamic and multidimensional states in different environments are pivotal factors in various CNS disorders. However, therapeutic modulation of microglial states is challenging due to the intricate balance these cells maintain in the CNS environment and the blood-brain barrier's restriction of drug delivery. Nanomedicine presents a promising avenue for addressing these challenges, offering a method for the targeted and efficient modulation of microglial states. This review covers the challenges faced in microglial therapeutic modulation and potential use of nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems. We provide an in-depth examination of nanoparticle applications for modulating microglial states in a range of CNS disorders, encompassing neurodegenerative and autoimmune diseases, infections, traumatic injuries, stroke, tumors, chronic pain, and psychiatric conditions. This review highlights the recent advancements and future prospects in nanomedicine for microglial modulation, paving the way for future research and clinical applications of therapeutic interventions in CNS disorders.

Unveiling the PDK4-centered rituximab-resistant mechanism in DLBCL: the potential of the "Smart" exosome nanoparticle therapy

BACKGROUND

Diffuse large B-cell lymphoma (DLBCL) represents a prevalent malignant tumor, with approximately 40% of patients encountering treatment challenges or relapse attributed to rituximab resistance, primarily due to diminished or absent CD20 expression. Our prior research identified PDK4 as a key driver of rituximab resistance through its negative regulation of CD20 expression. Further investigation into PDK4's resistance mechanism and the development of advanced exosome nanoparticle complexes may unveil novel resistance targets and pave the way for innovative, effective treatment modalities for DLBCL.

METHODS

We utilized a DLBCL-resistant cell line with high PDK4 expression (SU-DHL-2/R). We infected it with short hairpin RNA (shRNA) lentivirus for RNA sequencing, aiming to identify significantly downregulated mRNA in resistant cells. Techniques including immunofluorescence, immunohistochemistry, and Western blotting were employed to determine PDK4's localization and expression in resistant cells and its regulatory role in phosphorylation of Histone deacetylase 8 (HDAC8). Furthermore, we engineered advanced exosome nanoparticle complexes, aCD20@ExoCTX/siPDK4, through cellular, genetic, and chemical engineering methods. These nanoparticles underwent characterization via Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM), and their cellular uptake was assessed through flow cytometry. We evaluated the nanoparticles' effects on apoptosis in DLBCL-resistant cells and immune cells using CCK-8 assays and flow cytometry. Additionally, their capacity to counteract resistance and exert anti-tumor effects was tested in a resistant DLBCL mouse model.

RESULTS

We found that PDK4 initiates HDAC8 activation by phosphorylating the Ser-39 site, suppressing CD20 protein expression through deacetylation. The aCD20@ExoCTX/siPDK4 nanoparticles served as effective intracellular delivery mechanisms for gene therapy and monoclonal antibodies, simultaneously inducing apoptosis in resistant DLBCL cells and triggering immunogenic cell death in tumor cells. This dual action effectively reversed the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment, showcasing a synergistic therapeutic effect in a subcutaneous mouse tumor resistance model.

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrates that PDK4 contributes to rituximab resistance in DLBCL by modulating CD20 expression via HDAC8 phosphorylation. The designed exosome nanoparticles effectively overcome this resistance by targeting the PDK4/HDAC8/CD20 pathway, representing a promising approach for drug delivery and treating patients with Rituximab-resistant DLBCL.

Peptide-Hitchhiking for the Development of Nanosystems in Glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) remains the epitome of aggressiveness and lethality in the spectrum of brain tumors, primarily due to the blood-brain barrier (BBB) that hinders effective treatment delivery, tumor heterogeneity, and the presence of treatment-resistant stem cells that contribute to tumor recurrence. Nanoparticles (NPs) have been used to overcome these obstacles by attaching targeting ligands to enhance therapeutic efficacy. Among these ligands, peptides stand out due to their ease of synthesis and high selectivity. This article aims to review single and multiligand strategies critically. In addition, it highlights other strategies that integrate the effects of external stimuli, biomimetic approaches, and chemical approaches as nanocatalytic medicine, revealing their significant potential in treating GBM with peptide-functionalized NPs. Alternative routes of parenteral administration, specifically nose-to-brain delivery and local treatment within the resected tumor cavity, are also discussed. Finally, an overview of the significant obstacles and potential strategies to overcome them are discussed to provide a perspective on this promising field of GBM therapy.

Silica-coated liquid metal nanoparticles with different stiffness for cellular uptake-enhanced tumor photothermal therapy

Cells can sense the mechanical stimulation of nanoparticles (NPs) and then regulate the cellular uptake process. The enhanced endocytosis efficiency can improve the concentration of NPs in tumor cells significantly, which is the key prerequisite for achieving efficient biological performance. However, the preparation methods of NPs with flexible and tunable stiffness are relatively limited, and the impact of stiffness property on their interaction with tumor cells remains unclear. In this study, soft liquid metal (LM) core was coated with hard silica layer, the obtained core-shell NPs with a wide range of Young's modulus (130.5 ± 25.6 MPa - 1729.2 ± 146.7 MPa) were prepared by adjusting the amount of silica. It was found that the NPs with higher stiffness exhibited superior cellular uptake efficiency and lysosomal escape ability compared to the NPs with lower stiffness. The silica layer not only affected the stiffness, but also improved the photothermal stability of the LM NPs. Both in vitro and in vivo results demonstrated that the NPs with higher stiffness displayed significantly enhanced tumor hyperthermia capability. This work may provide a paradigm for the preparation of NPs with varying stiffness and offer insights into the role of the mechanical property of NPs in their delivery.

Looking back, moving forward: protein corona of lipid nanoparticles

Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are commonly employed for drug delivery owing to their considerable drug-loading capacity, low toxicity, and excellent biocompatibility. Nevertheless, the formation of protein corona (PC) on their surfaces significantly influences the drug's in vivo fate (such as absorption, distribution, metabolism, and elimination) upon administration. PC denotes the phenomenon wherein one or multiple strata of proteins adhere to the external interface of nanoparticles (NPs) or microparticles within the biological milieu, encompassing ex vivo fluids (e.g., serum-containing culture media) and in vivo fluids (such as blood and tissue fluids). Hence, it is essential to claim the PC formation behaviors and mechanisms on the surface of LNPs. This overview provided a comprehensive examination of crucial aspects related to such issues, encompassing time evolution, controllability, and their subsequent impacts on LNPs. Classical studies of PC generation on the surface of LNPs were additionally integrated, and its decisive role in shaping the in vivo fate of LNPs was explored. The mechanisms underlying PC formation, including the adsorption theory and alteration theory, were introduced to delve into the formation process. Subsequently, the existing experimental outcomes were synthesized to offer insights into the research and application facets of PC, and it was concluded that the manipulation of PC held substantial promise in the realm of targeted delivery.

Electrophoresis-Based Approach for Characterizing Dendrimer-Protein Interactions: A Proof-of-Concept Study

Improving the clinical translation of nanomedicine requires better knowledge about how nanoparticles interact with biological environments. As researchers are recognizing the importance of understanding the protein corona and characterizing how nanocarriers respond in biological systems, new tools and techniques are needed to analyze nanocarrier-protein interactions, especially for smaller size (<10 nm) nanoparticles like polyamidoamine (PAMAM) dendrimers. Here, we developed a streamlined, semiquantitative approach to assess dendrimer-protein interactions using a nondenaturing electrophoresis technique combined with mass spectrometry. With this protocol, we detect fluorescently tagged dendrimers and proteins simultaneously, enabling us to analyze when dendrimers migrate with proteins. We found that PAMAM dendrimers mostly interact with complement proteins, particularly C3 and C4a, which aligns with previously published data, verifying that our approach can be used to isolate and identify dendrimer-protein interactions.

Overcoming Barriers in Glioblastoma-Advances in Drug Delivery Strategies

The world of cancer treatment is evolving rapidly and has improved the prospects of many cancer patients. Yet, there are still many cancers where treatment prospects have not (or hardly) improved. Glioblastoma is the most common malignant primary brain tumor, and even though it is sensitive to many chemotherapeutics when tested under laboratory conditions, its clinical prospects are still very poor. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is considered at least partly responsible for the high failure rate of many promising treatment strategies. We describe the workings of the BBB during healthy conditions and within the glioblastoma environment. How the BBB acts as a barrier for therapeutic options is described as well as various approaches developed and tested for passing or opening the BBB, with the ultimate aim to allow access to brain tumors and improve patient perspectives.

Oral targeted drug delivery to post-gastrointestinal sites

As an essential branch of targeted drug delivery, oral targeted delivery is attracting growing attention in recent years. In addition to site-specific delivery for the treatment of locoregional diseases in the gastrointestinal tract (GIT), oral targeted delivery to remote sites beyond the GIT emerges as a cutting-edge research topic. This review aims to provide an overview of the fundamental concepts and most recent advances in this field. Owing to the physiological barriers existing in the GIT, carrier systems should be transported across the enteric epithelia to target remote sites. Recently, pioneer investigations have validated the transport of intact micro- or nanocarriers across gastrointestinal barriers and subsequently to various distal organs and tissues. The microfold (M) cell pathway is the leading mechanism underlying the oral absorption of particulates, but the contribution of the transcellular and paracellular pathways should not be neglected either. In addition to well-acknowledged physicochemical and biological factors, the formation of a protein corona may also influence the biological fate of carrier systems. Although in an early stage of conceptualization, oral targeted delivery to remote diseases has demonstrated promising potential for the treatment of inflammation, tumors, and diseases inflicting the lymphatic and mononuclear phagocytosis systems.

Empowering lung cancer treatment: Harnessing the potential of natural phytoconstituent-loaded nanoparticles

Lung cancer, the second leading cause of cancer-related deaths, accounts for a substantial portion, representing 18.4% of all cancer fatalities. Despite advances in treatment modalities such as chemotherapy, surgery, and immunotherapy, significant challenges persist, including chemoresistance, non-specific targeting, and adverse effects. Consequently, there is an urgent need for innovative therapeutic approaches to overcome these limitations. Natural compounds, particularly phytoconstituents, have emerged as promising candidates due to their potent anticancer properties and relatively low incidence of adverse effects compared to conventional treatments. However, inherent challenges such as poor solubility, rapid metabolism, and enzymatic degradation hinder their clinical utility. To address these obstacles, researchers have increasingly turned to nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems (DDS). Nanocarriers offer several advantages, including enhanced drug stability, prolonged circulation time, and targeted delivery to tumor sites, thereby minimizing off-target effects. By encapsulating phytoconstituents within nanocarriers, researchers aim to optimize their bioavailability and therapeutic efficacy while reducing systemic toxicity. Moreover, the integration of nanotechnology with phytoconstituents allows for a nuanced understanding of the intricate molecular pathways involved in lung cancer pathogenesis. This integrated approach holds promise for modulating key cellular processes implicated in tumor growth and progression. Additionally, by leveraging the synergistic effects of phytoconstituents and nanocarriers, researchers seek to develop tailored therapeutic strategies that maximize efficacy while minimizing adverse effects. In conclusion, the integration of phytoconstituents with nanocarriers represents a promising avenue for advancing lung cancer treatment. This synergistic approach has the potential to revolutionize current therapeutic paradigms by offering targeted, efficient, and minimally toxic interventions. Continued research in this field holds the promise of improving patient outcomes and addressing unmet clinical needs in lung cancer management.

Phospholipid Type Regulates Protein Corona Composition and In Vivo Performance of Lipid Nanodiscs

Over the years, there has been significant interest in PEGylated lipid-based nanocarriers within the drug delivery field. The inevitable interplay between the nanocarriers and plasma protein plays a pivotal role in their in vivo biological fate. Understanding the factors influencing lipid-based nanocarrier and protein corona interactions is of paramount importance in the design and clinical translation of these nanocarriers. Herein, discoid-shaped lipid nanodiscs (sNDs) composed of different phospholipids with varied lipid tails and head groups were fabricated. We investigated the impact of phospholipid components on the interaction between sNDs and serum proteins, particle stability, and biodistribution. The results showed that all of these lipid nanodiscs remained stable over a 15 day storage period, while their stability in the blood serum demonstrated significant differences. The sND composed of POPG exhibited the least stability due to its potent complement activation capability, resulting in rapid blood clearance. Furthermore, a negative correlation between the complement activation capability and serum stability was identified. Pharmacokinetic and biodistribution experiments indicated that phospholipid composition did not influence the capability of sNDs to evade the accelerated blood clearance phenomenon. Complement deposition on the sND was inversely associated with the area under the curve. Additionally, all lipid nanodiscs exhibited dominant adsorption of apolipoprotein. Remarkably, the POPC-based lipid nanodisc displayed a significantly higher deposition of apolipoprotein E, contributing to an obvious brain distribution, which provides a promising tool for brain-targeted drug delivery.

On the uncertainty of the correlation between nanoparticle avidity and biodistribution

The specific delivery of a drug to its site of action also known as targeted drug delivery is a topic in the field of pharmaceutics studied for decades. One approach extensively investigated in this context is the use ligand functionalized nanoparticles. These particles are modified to carry receptor specific ligands, enabling them to accumulate at a desired target site. However, while this concept initially appears straightforward to implement, in-depth research has revealed several challenges hindering target site specific particle accumulation - some of which remain unresolved to this day. One of these challenges consists in the still incomplete understanding of how nanoparticles interact with biological systems. This knowledge gap significantly compromises the predictability of particle distribution in biological systems, which is critical for therapeutic efficacy. One of the most crucial steps in delivery is the attachment of nanoparticles to cells at the target site. This attachment occurs via the formation of multiple ligand receptor bonds. A process also referred to as multivalent interaction. While multivalency has been described extensively for individual molecules and macromolecules respectively, little is known on the multivalent binding of nanoparticles to cells. Here, we will specifically introduce the concept of avidity as a measure for favorable particle membrane interactions. Also, an overview about nanoparticle and membrane properties affecting avidity will be given. Thereafter, we provide a thorough review on literature investigating the correlation between nanoparticle avidity and success in targeted particle delivery. In particular, we want to analyze the currently uncertain data on the existence and nature of the correlation between particle avidity and biodistribution.

A Holographic-Type Model in the Description of Polymer-Drug Delivery Processes

A unitary model of drug release dynamics is proposed, assuming that the polymer-drug system can be assimilated into a multifractal mathematical object. Then, we made a description of drug release dynamics that implies, via Scale Relativity Theory, the functionality of continuous and undifferentiable curves (fractal or multifractal curves), possibly leading to holographic-like behaviors. At such a conjuncture, the Schrödinger and Madelung multifractal scenarios become compatible: in the Schrödinger multifractal scenario, various modes of drug release can be "mimicked" (via period doubling, damped oscillations, modulated and "chaotic" regimes), while the Madelung multifractal scenario involves multifractal diffusion laws (Fickian and non-Fickian diffusions). In conclusion, we propose a unitary model for describing release dynamics in polymer-drug systems. In the model proposed, the polymer-drug dynamics can be described by employing the Scale Relativity Theory in the monofractal case or also in the multifractal one.

Nanocarrier-based gene delivery for immune cell engineering

Clinical advances in genetically modified immune cell therapies, such as chimeric antigen receptor T cell therapies, have raised hope for cancer treatment. The majority of these biotechnologies are based on viral methods for ex vivo genetic modification of the immune cells, while the non-viral methods are still in the developmental phase. Nanocarriers have been emerging as materials of choice for gene delivery to immune cells. This is due to their versatile physicochemical properties such as large surface area and size that can be optimized to overcome several practical barriers to successful gene delivery. The in vivo nanocarrier-based gene delivery can revolutionize cell-based cancer immunotherapies by replacing the current expensive autologous cell manufacturing with an off-the-shelf biomaterial-based platform. The aim of this research is to review current advances and strategies to overcome the challenges in nanoparticle-based gene delivery and their impact on the efficiency, safety, and specificity of the process. The main focus is on polymeric and lipid-based nanocarriers, and their recent preclinical applications for cancer immunotherapy.

Lipid-mediated protein corona regulation with increased apolipoprotein A-I recruitment for glioma targeting

Protein corona has long been a source of concern, as it might impair the targeting efficacy of targeted drug delivery systems. However, engineered up-regulating the adsorption of certain functional serum proteins could provide nanoparticles with specific targeting drug delivery capacity. Herein, apolipoprotein A-I absorption increased nanoparticles (SPC-PLGA NPs), composed with the Food and Drug Administration approved intravenously injectable soybean phosphatidylcholine (SPC) and poly (DL-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA), were fabricated for enhanced glioma targeting. Due to the high affinity of SPC and apolipoprotein A-I, the percentage of apolipoprotein A-I in the protein corona of SPC-PLGA NPs was 2.19-fold higher than that of nanoparticles without SPC, which made SPC-PLGA NPs have superior glioma targeting ability through binding to scavenger receptor class BI on blood-brain barrier and glioma cells both in vitro and in vivo. SPC-PLGA NPs loaded with paclitaxel could effectively reduce glioma invasion and prolong the survival time of glioma-bearing mice. In conclusion, we provided a good example of the direction of achieving targeting drug delivery based on protein corona regulation.

Self-Assembled Acid-Responsive Nanosystem for Synergistic Anti-Angiogenic/Photothermal/Ferroptosis Therapy against Esophageal Cancer

Esophageal cancer (EC) treatment via anti-angiogenic therapy faces challenges due to non-cytotoxicity and non-specific biodistribution of the anti-angiogenic agents. Hence, the quest for a synergistic treatment modality and a targeted delivery approach to effectively address EC has become imperative. In this study, an acid-responsive release nanosystem (Bev-IR820@FeIII TA) that involves the conjugation of bevacizumab, an anti-angiogenic monoclonal antibody, with TA and Fe3+ to form a metal-phenolic network, followed by loading with the near-infrared photothermal agent (IR820) to achieve combinational therapy, is designed. The construction of Bev-IR820@FeIII TA can be realized through a facile self-assembly process. The Bev-IR820@FeIII TA exhibits tumor-targeting capabilities and synergistic therapeutic effects, encompassing anti-angiogenic therapy, photothermal therapy (PTT), and ferroptosis therapy (FT). Bev-IR820@FeIII TA exhibits remarkable proficiency in delivering drugs to EC tissue through its pH-responsive release properties. Consequently, bevacizumab exerts its therapeutic effects by obstructing tumor angiogenesis, thereby impeding tumor growth. Meanwhile, PTT facilitates localized thermal ablation at the tumor site, directly eradicating EC cells. FT synergistically collaborates with PTT, giving rise to the formation of a reactive oxygen species (ROS) storm, subsequently culminating in the demise of EC cells. In summary, this amalgamated treatment modality carries substantial promise for synergistically impeding EC progression and showcases auspicious prospects for future EC treatment.

Folic Acid-Modified Long-Circulating Liposomes Loaded with Sulfasalazine For Targeted Induction of Ferroptosis in Melanoma

Melanoma is a malignant tumor that originates from melanocytes. The incidence of melanoma is increasing worldwide, partially because of its insensitivity to radiotherapy or chemotherapy. Therefore, effective treatments for melanoma are urgently required. In this study, we employed folic acid-modified sulfasalazine long-circulating liposomes (FA-SSZ-Lips) to precisely target drug delivery to melanoma cells, eliciting ferroptosis effectively. The synthesized FA-SSZ-Lips were characterized as small spheres of a double-layer membrane, a particle size of 110.1 nm, and a ζ-potential of -22.8 ± 0.66 mV. FA-SSZ-Lips are effective drug carriers with SSZ-loading ratio and SSZ release rate of 6.2 ± 0.10%, and 72.63 ± 1.40%, respectively. The liposomes enhanced SSZ solubility, and the folic acid modifications increased the liposome targeting to melanoma cells. Compared with SSZ alone, FA-SSZ-Lips more strongly inhibited B16F10 cell growth, significantly disrupted the intracellular redox balance, and induced ferroptosis. After treatment, considerable differences were observed in the tumor volumes between FA-SSZ-Lips and phosphate-buffered saline control groups. The tumor growth-inhibition value of the FA-SSZ-Lips group reached 70.09%. Thus, FA-SSZ-Lips exhibited favorable antitumor effects in vitro and in vivo and are a promising strategy for melanoma treatment.

Protein corona exacerbated inflammatory response in macrophages elicited by CdTe quantum dots

Nano-bio interface is significant concern in nanomedicine. When nanoparticles (NPs) come into contact with cells, they form complexes with proteins known as protein corona (PC). Cadmium telluride quantum dots (CdTe QDs) have been applied as bioimaging probes and for macrophage theragnostic. However, the impact of protein corona on the behavior of CdTe QDs is not well understood. Macrophages play a crucial role in defending against NPs. In this study, RAW264.7 cells were used to investigated the inflammatory response in macrophages when exposed to CdTe QDs before and after PC formation in fetal bovine serum. The results indicated that protein corona polarized more macrophages towards M1 phenotype. Transcriptomics analysis revealed that PC-CdTe QDs altered a greater number of differentially expressed genes (DEGs) compared to CdTe QDs (177 and 398) at 1.0 μM in macrophages. The DEGs affected by PC-CdTe QDs contained several personalized inflammatory cytokines. The enriched pathways after PC formation included Cytokine-cytokine receptor interaction, NOD-like receptor signaling pathway, and TNF signaling pathway, etc. Furthermore, PC specifically exacerbated the overexpression of CCL2 and IL-1β proteins. Importantly, PC altered the mechanism of CdTe QD-induced pyroptosis, shifting it from activating NLRC4 to both NLRP1 and NLRP3 inflammasomes, and from cleaving GSDMD and GSDMB to GSDMB alone. Overall, protein corona exacerbated the inflammatory response induced by CdTe QDs in macrophages. This study provides valuable insight into the pro-inflammatory effect of protein corona on CdTe QDs, with implications for their use in bioimaging or macrophage theragnostic by either exploiting or eliminating this biological interface effect.

A detailed insight of the tumor targeting using nanocarrier drug delivery system

Human struggle against the deadly disease conditions is continued since ages. The contribution of science and technology in fighting against these diseases cannot be ignored exclusively due to the invention of novel procedure and products, extending their size ranges from micro to nano. Recently nanotechnology has been gaining more consideration for its ability to diagnose and treat different cancers. Different nanoparticles have been used to evade the issues related with conservative anticancer delivery systems, including their nonspecificity, adverse effects and burst release. These nanocarriers including, solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs), liposomes, nano lipid carriers (NLCs), nano micelles, nanocomposites, polymeric and magnetic nanocarriers, have brought revolutions in antitumor drug delivery. Nanocarriers improved the therapeutic efficacy of anticancer drugs with better accumulation at the specific site with sustained release, improved bioavailability and apoptosis of the cancer cells while bypassing the normal cells. In this review, the cancer targeting techniques and surface modification on nanoparticles are discussed briefly with possible challenges and opportunities. It can be concluded that understanding the role of nanomedicine in tumor treatment is significant, and therefore, the modern progressions in this arena is essential to be considered for a prosperous today and an affluent future of tumor patients.

Recent progress in the development of nanomaterials targeting multiple cancer metabolic pathways: a review of mechanistic approaches for cancer treatment

Cancer is a very heterogeneous disease, and uncontrolled cell division is the main characteristic of cancer. Cancerous cells need a high nutrition intake to enable aberrant growth and survival. To do so, cancer cells modify metabolic pathways to produce energy and anabolic precursors and preserve redox balance. Due to the importance of metabolic pathways in tumor growth and malignant transformation, metabolic pathways have also been given promising perspectives for cancer treatment, providing more effective treatment strategies, and target-specific with minimum side effects. Metabolism-based therapeutic nanomaterials for targeted cancer treatment are a promising option. Numerous types of nanoparticles (NPs) are employed in the research and analysis of various cancer therapies. The current review focuses on cutting-edge strategies and current cancer therapy methods based on nanomaterials that target various cancer metabolisms. Additionally, it highlighted the primacy of NPs-based cancer therapies over traditional ones, the challenges, and the future potential.

Recent advances in cancer cell bionic nanoparticles for tumour therapy

Nanoparticle-based drug delivery systems have found extensive use in delivering oncology therapeutics; however, some delivery vehicles still exhibit rapid immune clearance, lack of biocompatibility and insufficient targeting. In recent years, bionanoparticles constructed from tumour cell membranes have gained momentum as tumour-targeting therapeutic agents. Cancer cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CCMCNPs) typically consist of a drug-loaded nanoparticle core coated with cancer cell membrane. CCMCNPs retain homologous tumour cell surface antigens, receptors and proteins, and it has been shown that the modified nanoparticles exhibit better homologous targeting, immune escape and biocompatibility. CCMCNPs are now widely used in a variety of cancer treatments, including photothermal, photodynamic and sonodynamic therapies, chemotherapy, immunotherapy, chemodynamical therapy or other combination therapies. This article presents different therapeutic approaches using multimodal antitumour therapy-combination of two or more therapies that treat tumours synergistically-based on tumour cell membrane systems. The advantages of CCMCNPs in different cancer treatments in recent years are summarised, thus, providing new strategies for cancer treatment research.

Effect of the Protein Corona Formation on Antibody Functionalized Liquid Lipid Nanocarriers

The main aim of this study is to report basic knowledge on how a protein corona (PC) could affect or modify the way in which multifunctionalized nanoparticles interact with cells. With this purpose, we have firstly optimized the development of a target-specific nanocarrier by coupling a specific fluorescent antibody on the surface of functionalized lipid liquid nanocapsules (LLNCs). Thus, an anti-HER2-FITC antibody (αHER2) has been used, HER2 being a surface receptor that is overexpressed in several tumor cells. Subsequently, the in vitro formation of a PC has been developed using fetal bovine serum supplemented with human fibrinogen. Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis (NTA), Laser Doppler Electrophoresis (LDE), and Gel Chromatography techniques have been used to assure a complete physico-chemical characterization of the nano-complexes with (LLNCs-αHER2-PC) and without (LLNCs-αHER2) the surrounding PC. In addition, cellular assays were performed to study the cellular uptake and the specific cellular-nanocarrier interactions using the SKBR3 (high expression of HER2) breast cancer cell line and human dermal fibroblasts (HDFa) (healthy cell line without expression of HER2 receptors as control), showing that the SKBR3 cell line had a higher transport rate (50-fold) than HDFa at 60 min with LLNCs-αHER2. Moreover, the SKBR3 cell line incubated with LLNCs-αHER2-PC suffered a significant reduction (40%) in the uptake. These results suggest that the formation of a PC onto LLNCs does not prevent specific cell targeting, although it does have an important influence on cell uptake.

Protein corona on brain targeted nanocarriers: Challenges and prospects

Safe and efficient medical therapy for brain diseases is still an unmet clinical need due to various barriers represented by the blood-brain barrier. Well-designed brain targeted nanocarriers are potential solutions for enhanced brain drug delivery; however, the complicated in vivo process attenuates performance of nanocarriers, which severely hampers clinical translation. The formation of protein corona (PC) is inevitable for nanocarriers circulation and transport in biofluids, acting as an important factor to regulate in vivo performance of nanocarriers. In this review, the reported strategies have been retrospected for better understanding current situation in developing brain targeted nanocarriers. The interplay between brain targeted nanocarriers and plasma proteins is emphasized to comprehend how the nanocarriers adsorb proteins by certain synthetic identity, and following regulations on in vivo performance of nanocarriers. More importantly, the mainstream methods to promote efficiency of nanocarriers by regulating PC, defined as in vitro functionalization and in vivo functionalization strategies, are also discussed. Finally, viewpoints about future development of brain targeted nanocarriers according to the understanding on nanocarriers-PC interaction are proposed.

Biodistribution of mRNA COVID-19 vaccines in human breast milk

BACKGROUND

COVID-19 mRNA vaccines play a vital role in the fight against SARS-CoV-2 infection. However, lactating women have been largely excluded from most vaccine clinical trials. As a result, limited research has been conducted on the systemic distribution of vaccine mRNA during lactation and whether it is excreted in human breast milk (BM). Here, we evaluated if COVID-19 vaccine mRNA is detectable in BM after maternal vaccination and determined its potential translational activity.

METHODS

We collected BM samples from 13 lactating, healthy, post-partum women before and after COVID-19 mRNA vaccination. Vaccine mRNA in whole BM and BM extracellular vesicles (EVs) was assayed using quantitative Droplet Digital PCR, and its integrity and translational activity were evaluated.

FINDINGS

Of 13 lactating women receiving the vaccine (20 exposures), trace mRNA amounts were detected in 10 exposures up to 45 h post-vaccination. The mRNA was concentrated in the BM EVs; however, these EVs neither expressed SARS-COV-2 spike protein nor induced its expression in the HT-29 cell line. Linkage analysis suggests vaccine mRNA integrity was reduced to 12-25% in BM.

INTERPRETATION

Our findings demonstrate that the COVID-19 vaccine mRNA is not confined to the injection site but spreads systemically and is packaged into BM EVs. However, as only trace quantities are present and a clear translational activity is absent, we believe breastfeeding post-vaccination is safe, especially 48 h after vaccination. Nevertheless, since the minimum mRNA vaccine dose to elicit an immune reaction in infants <6 months is unknown, a dialogue between a breastfeeding mother and her healthcare provider should address the benefit/risk considerations of breastfeeding in the first two days after maternal vaccination.

FUNDING

This study was supported by the Department of Pediatrics, NYU-Grossman Long Island School of Medicine.

Antibody-conjugated nanoparticles for target-specific drug delivery of chemotherapeutics

Nanotechnology provides effective methods for precisely delivering chemotherapeutics to cancer cells, thereby improving efficacy and reducing off-target side effects. The targeted delivery of nanoscale chemotherapeutics is accomplished by two different approaches, namely the exploitation of leaky tumor vasculature (EPR effect) and the surface modification of nanoparticles (NPs) with various tumor-homing peptides, aptamers, oligonucleotides, and monoclonal antibodies (mAbs). Because of higher binding affinity and specificity, mAbs have received a lot of attention for the detection of selective cancer biomarkers and also for the treatment of various types of cancer. Antibody-conjugated nanoparticles (ACNPs) are an effective targeted therapy for the efficient delivery of chemotherapeutics specifically to the targeted cancer cells. ACNPs combine the benefits of NPs and mAbs to provide high drug loads at the tumor site with better selectivity and delivery efficiency. The mAbs on the NP surfaces recognize their specific receptors expressed on the target cells and release the chemotherapeutic agent in a controlled manner. Appropriately designed and synthesized ACNPs are essential to fully realize their therapeutic benefits. In blood stream, ACNPs instantly interact with biological molecules, and a protein corona is formed. Protein corona formation triggers an immune response and affects the targeting ability of the nanoformulation. In this review, we provide recent findings to highlight several antibody conjugation methods such as adsorption, covalent conjugation, and biotin-avidin interaction. This review also provides an overview of the many effects of the protein corona and the theranostic applications of ACNPs for the treatment of cancer.

Revolutionizing cancer treatment: The power of cell-based drug delivery systems

Intravenous administration of drugs is a widely used cancer therapy approach. However, the efficacy of these drugs is often hindered by various biological barriers, including circulation, accumulation, and penetration, resulting in poor delivery to solid tumors. Recently, cell-based drug delivery platforms have emerged as promising solutions to overcome these limitations. These platforms offer several advantages, including prolonged circulation time, active targeting, controlled release, and excellent biocompatibility. Cell-based delivery systems encompass cell membrane coating, intracellular loading, and extracellular backpacking. These innovative platforms hold the potential to revolutionize cancer diagnosis, monitoring, and treatment, presenting a plethora of opportunities for the advancement and integration of pharmaceuticals, medicine, and materials science. Nevertheless, several technological, ethical, and financial barriers must be addressed to facilitate the translation of these platforms into clinical practice. In this review, we explore the emerging strategies to overcome these challenges, focusing specifically on the functions and advantages of cell-mediated drug delivery in cancer treatment.

Polymeric Nanoparticles and Nanogels: How Do They Interact with Proteins?

Polymeric nanomaterials, nanogels, and solid nanoparticles can be fabricated using single or double emulsion methods. These materials hold great promise for various biomedical applications due to their biocompatibility, biodegradability, and their ability to control interactions with body fluids and cells. Despite the increasing use of nanoparticles in biomedicine and the plethora of publications on the topic, the biological behavior and efficacy of polymeric nanoparticles (PNPs) have not been as extensively studied as those of other nanoparticles. The gap between the potential of PNPs and their applications can mainly be attributed to the incomplete understanding of their biological identity. Under physiological conditions, such as specific temperatures and adequate protein concentrations, PNPs become coated with a "protein corona" (PC), rendering them potent tools for proteomics studies. In this review, we initially investigate the synthesis routes and chemical composition of conventional PNPs to better comprehend how they interact with proteins. Subsequently, we comprehensively explore the effects of material and biological parameters on the interactions between nanoparticles and proteins, encompassing reactions such as hydrophobic bonding and electrostatic interactions. Moreover, we delve into recent advances in PNP-based models that can be applied to nanoproteomics, discussing the new opportunities they offer for the clinical translation of nanoparticles and early prediction of diseases. By addressing these essential aspects, we aim to shed light on the potential of polymeric nanoparticles for biomedical applications and foster further research in this critical area.

Addressing the in vivo delivery of nucleic-acid nanostructure therapeutics

DNA and RNA nanostructures are being investigated as therapeutics, vaccines, and drug delivery systems. These nanostructures can be functionalized with guests ranging from small molecules to proteins with precise spatial and stoichiometric control. This has enabled new strategies to manipulate drug activity and to engineer devices with novel therapeutic functionalities. Although existing studies have offered encouraging in vitro or pre-clinical proof-of-concepts, establishing mechanisms of in vivo delivery is the new frontier for nucleic-acid nanotechnologies. In this review, we first provide a summary of existing literature on the in vivo uses of DNA and RNA nanostructures. Based on their application areas, we discuss current models of nanoparticle delivery, and thereby highlight knowledge gaps on the in vivo interactions of nucleic-acid nanostructures. Finally, we describe techniques and strategies for investigating and engineering these interactions. Together, we propose a framework to establish in vivo design principles and advance the in vivo translation of nucleic-acid nanotechnologies.

Effects of silver nanoparticles on maternal mammary glands and offspring development under lactation exposure

The widespread applications of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) throughout our daily lives have raised concerns regarding their environmental health and safety (EHS). Despite an increasing number of studies focused on the EHS impacts of AgNPs, there remain significant knowledge gaps with respect to their potential health impacts on susceptible populations, such as lactating mothers and infants. Herein, we aimed to investigate the deleterious effects of AgNPs with different sizes (20 and 40 nm) and surface coatings (PVP and BPEI) on maternal mice and their offspring following lactation exposure at doses of 20, 100 and 400 μg/kg body weight. We discovered that AgNPs could accumulate in the maternal mammary glands and disrupt the epithelial barrier in a dose-dependent manner. Notably, BPEI-coated AgNPs caused more damage to the mammary glands than PVP-coated particles. Importantly, we observed that, while AgNPs were distributed throughout the blood and main tissues, they were particularly enriched in the brains of breastfed offspring after maternal exposure during lactation, exhibiting exposure dosage- and particle coating-dependent patterns. Compared to PVP-coated nanoparticles, BPEI-coated AgNPs were more readily transferred to the offspring, possibly due to their enhanced deposition in maternal mammary glands. Moreover, we observed reduced body weight, blood cell toxicity, and tissue injuries in breastfed offspring whose dams received AgNPs. As a whole, these results reveal that maternal exposure to AgNPs results in the translocation of AgNPs into offspring via breastfeeding, inducing developmental impairments in these breastfed offspring. This study provides important new insights into the EHS impacts of AgNP consumption during lactation.

Nanomaterials: a review of emerging contaminants with potential health or environmental impact

Nanotechnologies have been advantageous in many sectors and gaining much concern due to the unique physical, chemical and biological properties of nanomaterials (NMs). We have surveyed peer-reviewed publications related to "nanotechnology", "NMs", "NMs water treatment", "NMs air treatment", and "NMs environmental risk" in the last 23 years. We found that most of the research work is focused on developing novel applications for NMs and new products with peculiar features. In contrast, there are relatively few of publications concerning NMs as environmental contaminants relative to that for NMs applications. Thus, we devoted this review for NMs as emerging environmental contaminants. The definition and classification of NMs will be presented first to demonstrate the importance of unifying the NMs definition. The information provided here should facilitate the detection, control, and regulation of NMs contaminants in the environment. The high surface-area-to-volume ratio and the reactivity of NMs contaminants cause the prediction of the chemical properties and potential toxicities of NPs to be extremely difficult; therefore, we found that there are marked knowledge gaps in the fate, impact, toxicity, and risk of NMs. Consequently, developing and modifying extraction methods, detection tools, and characterization technologies are essential for complete risk assessment of NMs contaminants in the environment. This will help also in setting regulations and standards for releasing and handling NMs as there are no specific regulations. Finally, the integrated treatment technologies are necessary for the removal of NMs contaminants in water. Also, membrane technology is recommended for NMs remediation in air.

CDX-modified chitosan nanoparticles remarkably reduce therapeutic dose of fingolimod in the EAE model of mice

Fingolimod (Fin), an FDA-approved drug, is used to control relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis (MS). This therapeutic agent faces crucial drawbacks like poor bioavailability rate, risk of cardiotoxicity, potent immunosuppressive effects, and high cost. Here, we aimed to assess the therapeutic efficacy of nano-formulated Fin in a mouse model of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). Results showed the suitability of the present protocol in the synthesis of Fin-loaded CDX-modified chitosan (CS) nanoparticles (NPs) (Fin@CSCDX) with suitable physicochemical features. Confocal microscopy confirmed the appropriate accumulation of synthesized NPs within the brain parenchyma. Compared to the control EAE mice, INF-γ levels were significantly reduced in the group that received Fin@CSCDX (p < 0.05). Along with these data, Fin@CSCDX reduced the expression of TBX21, GATA3, FOXP3, and Rorc associated with the auto-reactivation of T cells (p < 0.05). Histological examination indicated a low-rate lymphocyte infiltration into the spinal cord parenchyma after the administration of Fin@CSCDX. Of note, HPLC data revealed that the concentration of nano-formulated Fin was about 15-fold less than Fin therapeutic doses (TD) with similar reparative effects. Neurological scores were similar in both groups that received nano-formulated fingolimod 1/15th of free Fin therapeutic amounts. Fluorescence imaging indicated that macrophages and especially microglia can efficiently uptake Fin@CSCDX NPs, leading to the regulation of pro-inflammatory responses. Taken together, current results indicated that CDX-modified CS NPs provide a suitable platform not only for the efficient reduction of Fin TD but also these NPs can target the brain immune cells during neurodegenerative disorders.

Emerging ultrasmall luminescent nanoprobes for in vivo bioimaging

Photoluminescence (PL) imaging has become a fundamental tool in disease diagnosis, therapeutic evaluation, and surgical navigation applications. However, it remains a big challenge to engineer nanoprobes for high-efficiency in vivo imaging and clinical translation. Recent years have witnessed increasing research efforts devoted into engineering sub-10 nm ultrasmall nanoprobes for in vivo PL imaging, which offer the advantages of efficient body clearance, desired clinical translation potential, and high imaging signal-to-noise ratio. In this review, we present a comprehensive summary and contrastive discussion of emerging ultrasmall luminescent nanoprobes towards in vivo PL bioimaging of diseases. We first summarize size-dependent nano-bio interactions and imaging features, illustrating the unique attributes and advantages/disadvantages of ultrasmall nanoprobes differentiating them from molecular and large-sized probes. We also discuss general design methodologies and PL properties of emerging ultrasmall luminescent nanoprobes, which are established based on quantum dots, metal nanoclusters, lanthanide-doped nanoparticles, and silicon nanoparticles. Then, recent advances of ultrasmall luminescent nanoprobes are highlighted by surveying their latest in vivo PL imaging applications. Finally, we discuss existing challenges in this exciting field and propose some strategies to improve in vivo PL bioimaging and further propel their clinical applications.

Polymersome-based protein drug delivery - quo vadis?

Protein-based therapeutics are an attractive alternative to established therapeutic approaches and represent one of the fastest growing families of drugs. While many of these proteins can be delivered using established formulations, the intrinsic sensitivity of proteins to denaturation sometimes calls for a protective carrier to allow administration. Historically, lipid-based self-assembled structures, notably liposomes, have performed this function. After the discovery of polymersome-based targeted drug-delivery systems, which offer manifold advantages over lipid-based structures, the scientific community expected that such systems would take the therapeutic world by storm. However, no polymersome formulations have been commercialised. In this review article, we discuss key obstacles for the sluggish translation of polymersome-based protein nanocarriers into approved pharmaceuticals, which include limitations imparted by the use of non-degradable polymers, the intricacies of polymersome production methods, and the complexity of the in vivo journey of polymersomes across various biological barriers. Considering this complex subject from a polymer chemist's point of view, we highlight key areas that are worthy to explore in order to advance polymersomes to a level at which clinical trials become worthwhile and translation into pharmaceutical and nanomedical applications is realistic.

Nanoparticle: A Promising Player in Nanomedicine and its Theranostic Applications for the Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) are the leading cause of death around the world, a trend that will progressively grow over the next decade. Recently, with the advancement of nanotechnology, innovative nanoparticles (NPs) have been efficiently utilized in disease diagnosis and theranostic applications. In this review, we highlighted the benchmark summary of the recently synthesized NPs that are handy for imaging, diagnosis, and treatment of CVDs. NPs are the carrier of drug-delivery payloads actively reaching more areas of the heart and arteries, allowing them novel therapeutic agents for CVDs. Herein, due to the limited availability of literature, we only focused on NPs mechanism in the cardiovascular system and various treatment-based approaches that opens a new window for future research and versatile approach in the field of medical and clinical applications. Moreover, current challenges and limitations for the detection of CVDs has also discussed.

Interaction between Nanoparticles, Membranes and Proteins: A Surface Plasmon Resonance Study

Regardless of the promising use of nanoparticles (NPs) in biomedical applications, several toxic effects have increased the concerns about the safety of these nanomaterials. Although the pathways for NPs toxicity are diverse and dependent upon many parameters such as the nature of the nanoparticle and the biochemical environment, numerous studies have provided evidence that direct contact between NPs and biomolecules or cell membranes leads to cell inactivation or damage and may be a primary mechanism for cytotoxicity. In such a context, this work focused on developing a fast and accurate method to characterize the interaction between NPs, proteins and lipidic membranes by surface plasmon resonance imaging (SPRi) technique. The interaction of gold NPs with mimetic membranes was evaluated by monitoring the variation of reflectivity after several consecutive gold NPs injections on the lipidic membranes prepared on the SPRi biochip. The interaction on the membranes with varied lipidic composition was compared regarding the total surface concentration density of gold NPs adsorbed on them. Then, the interaction of gold and silver NPs with blood proteins was analyzed regarding their kinetic profile of the association/dissociation and dissociation constants (k_off). The surface concentration density on the membrane composed of 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycero-3-phosphocholine and cholesterol (POPC/cholesterol) was 2.5 times higher than the value found after the injections of gold NPs on POPC only or with dimethyldioctadecylammonium (POPC/DDAB). Regarding the proteins, gold NPs showed preferential binding to fibrinogen resulting in a value of the variation of reflectivity that was 8 times higher than the value found for the other proteins. Differently, silver NPs showed similar interaction on all the tested proteins but with a variation of reflectivity on immunoglobulin G (IgG) 2 times higher than the value found for the other tested proteins.

Ligand-modified nanocarriers for oral drug delivery: Challenges, rational design, and applications

Ligand-modified nanocarriers (LMNCs) specific to their targets have attracted increasing interest for enhanced oral drug delivery in recent decades. Although the design of LMNCs for enhanced endocytosis and improved exposure of the loaded drugs through the oral route has received abundant attention, it remains unclear how the design influences their transcellular process, especially the key factors affecting their functions. This review discusses the extracellular and cellular barriers to orally administered LMNCs in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and new discoveries regarding the GI protein corona and the sequential transport barriers that impede the preplanned movements of LMNCs after oral administration. Furthermore, innovative progress in considering key factors (including target selection, ligand properties, and other important factors) in the rational design of LMNCs for oral drug delivery is presented. In particular, some factors that endow LMNCs with efficient transcytosis rather than only endocytosis are highlighted. Finally, the prospects of orally administered LMNCs in disease therapy for the enhanced oral/local bioavailability of active pharmaceutical ingredients, as well as emerging delivery routes, such as lymphatic drug delivery and systemic location-specific drug release based on oral transcellular LMNCs, are discussed.

Multi-target tyrosine kinase inhibitor nanoparticle delivery systems for cancer therapy

Multi-target Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors (MTKIs) have drawn substantial attention in tumor therapy. MTKIs could inhibit tumor cell proliferation and induce apoptosis by blocking the activity of tyrosine kinase. However, the toxicity and drug resistance of MTKIs severely restrict their further clinical application. The nano pharmaceutical technology based on MTKIs has attracted ever-increasing attention in recent years. Researchers deliver MTKIs through various types of nanocarriers to overcome drug resistance and improve considerably therapeutic efficiency. This review intends to summarize comprehensive applications of MTKIs nanoparticles in malignant tumor treatment. Firstly, the mechanism and toxicity were introduced. Secondly, various nanocarriers for MTKIs delivery were outlined. Thirdly, the combination treatment schemes and drug resistance reversal strategies were emphasized to improve the outcomes of cancer therapy. Finally, conclusions and perspectives were summarized to guide future research.

Targeted nanomedicines remodeling immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment for enhanced cancer immunotherapy

Cancer immunotherapy has significantly flourished and revolutionized the limited conventional tumor therapies, on account of its good safety and long-term memory ability. Discouragingly, low patient response rates and potential immune-related side effects make it rather challenging to literally bring immunotherapy from bench to bedside. However, it has become evident that, although the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment (TME) plays a pivotal role in facilitating tumor progression and metastasis, it also provides various potential targets for remodeling the immunosuppressive TME, which can consequently bolster the effectiveness of antitumor response and tumor suppression. Additionally, the particular characteristics of TME, in turn, can be exploited as avenues for designing diverse precise targeting nanomedicines. In general, it is of urgent necessity to deliver nanomedicines for remodeling the immunosuppressive TME, thus improving the therapeutic outcomes and clinical translation prospects of immunotherapy. Herein, we will illustrate several formation mechanisms of immunosuppressive TME. More importantly, a variety of strategies concerning remodeling immunosuppressive TME and strengthening patients' immune systems, will be reviewed. Ultimately, we will discuss the existing obstacles and future perspectives in the development of antitumor immunotherapy. Hopefully, the thriving bloom of immunotherapy will bring vibrancy to further exploration of comprehensive cancer treatment.

Metal-phenolic networks with ferroptosis to deliver NIR-responsive CO for synergistic therapy

As an endogenous gasotransmitter, CO has achieved tremendous advances in cancer treatment through selectively killing cancer cells. However, the application of CO in tumor immunotherapy has not been reported and the tumor targeting delivery is still a tremendous challenge. Herein, thermosensitive boronic acid group-containing CO prodrug was synthesized and fabricated with tannic acid (TA) and iron (Fe) to form metal-phenolic networks, and then loaded with near-infrared (NIR) photothermal agent IR820 to form FeCO-IR820@Fe^IIITA for combinational therapy of CO and photothermal therapy. Ferroptosis can also be enhanced due to the Fe³⁺ incorporation. After TA reduced Fe³⁺ into Fe²⁺, Fe²⁺ might lead to intracellular Fenton reaction. Furthermore, in combination with CTLA-4 blockade immunotherapy, FeCO-IR820@Fe^IIITA remarkably inhibited breast tumor growth, suppressed the lung metastasis and improved the antitumor immune response. To summarize, FeCO-IR820@Fe^IIITA provides a potential novel option for CO/photothermal/immune synergistic therapy with enhanced ferroptosis through simple compositions and facile synthesis process.

The Surface Charge of Polymer-Coated Upconversion Nanoparticles Determines Protein Corona Properties and Cell Recognition in Serum Solutions

Applications of nanoparticles (NPs) in the life sciences require control over their properties in protein-rich biological fluids, as an NP quickly acquires a layer of proteins on the surface, forming the so-called "protein corona" (PC). Understanding the composition and kinetics of the PC at the molecular level is of considerable importance for controlling NP interaction with cells. Here, we present a systematic study of hard PC formation on the surface of upconversion nanoparticles (UCNPs) coated with positively-charged polyethyleneimine (PEI) and negatively-charged poly (acrylic acid) (PAA) polymers in serum-supplemented cell culture medium. The rationale behind the choice of UCNP is two-fold: UCNP represents a convenient model of NP with a size ranging from 5 nm to >200 nm, while the unique photoluminescent properties of UCNP enable direct observation of the PC formation, which may provide new insight into this complex process. The non-linear optical properties of UCNP were utilised for direct observation of PC formation by means of fluorescence correlation spectroscopy. Our findings indicated that the charge of the surface polymer coating was the key factor for the formation of PC on UCNPs, with an ensuing effect on the NP-cell interactions.

PEGylated Strontium Sulfite Nanoparticles with Spontaneously Formed Surface-Embedded Protein Corona Restrict Off-Target Distribution and Accelerate Breast Tumour-Selective Delivery of siRNA

As transporters of RNAi therapeutics in preclinical and clinical studies, the application of nanoparticles is often hindered by their susceptibility to opsonin-mediated clearance, poor biological stability, ineffectual targeting, and undesirable effects on healthy cells. Prolonging the blood circulation time while minimizing the off-target distribution and associated toxicity is indispensable for the establishment of a clinically viable delivery system for therapeutic small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). Herein, we report a scalable and straightforward approach to fabricate non-toxic and biodegradable pH-responsive strontium sulfite nanoparticles (SSNs) wrapped with a hydrophilic coating material, biotinylated PEG to lessen unforeseen biological interactions. Surface functionalization of SSNs with PEG led to the generation of small and uniformly distributed particles with a significant affinity towards siRNAs and augmented internalization into breast cancer cells. A triple quadrupole liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) was deployed to identify the proteins entrapped onto the SSNs, with the help of SwissProt.Mus_musculus database. The results demonstrated the reduction of opsonin proteins adsorption owing to the stealth effect of PEG. The distribution of PEGylated SSNs in mice after 4 h and 24 h of intravenous administration in breast tumour-bearing mice was found to be significantly less to the organs of the reticuloendothelial system (RES) and augmented accumulation in the tumour region. The anti-EGFR siRNA-loaded PEG-SSNs exerted a significant inhibitory effect on tumour development in the murine breast cancer model without any significant toxicity to healthy tissues. Therefore, PEGylated SSNs open up a new avenue for tumour-selective efficient delivery of siRNAs in managing breast cancer.