Development of sorafenib loaded nanoparticles to improve oral bioavailability using a quality by design approach

Research progress of sorafenib drug delivery system in the treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma: An update

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is one of the most prevalent malignant tumors in the contemporary era, representing a significant global health concern. Early HCC patients have mild symptoms or are asymptomatic, which promotes the onset and progression of the disease. Moreover, advanced HCC is insensitive to chemotherapy, making traditional clinical treatment unable to block cancer development. Sorafenib (SFB) is a first-line targeted drug for advanced HCC patients with anti-angiogenesis and anti-tumor cell proliferation effects. However, the efficacy of SFB is constrained by its off-target distribution, rapid metabolism, and multi-drug resistance. In recent years, nanoparticles based on a variety of materials have been demonstrated to enhance the targeting and therapeutic efficacy of SFB against HCC. Concurrently, the advent of joint drug delivery systems has furnished crucial empirical evidence for reversing SFB resistance. This review will summarize the application of nanotechnology in the field of HCC treatment over the past five years. It will focus on the research progress of SFB delivery systems combined with multiple therapeutic modalities in HCC treatment.

The Development of Lipid-Based Sorafenib Granules to Enhance the Oral Absorption of Sorafenib

Sorafenib (SFN) is an anticancer multi-kinase inhibitor with great therapeutic potential. However, SFN has low aqueous solubility, which limits its oral absorption. Lipids and surfactants have the potential to improve the solubility of water-insoluble drugs. The aim of this study is thus to develop novel lipid-based SFN granules that can improve the oral absorption of SFN. SFN powder was coated with a stable binary lipid mixture and then absorbed on Aeroperl 300 to form dry SFN granules with 10% drug loading. SFN granules were stable at room temperature for at least three months. Compared to SFN powder, SFN granules significantly increased SFN release in simulated gastric fluid and simulated intestinal fluid with pancreatin. Pharmacokinetics and tissue distribution of SFN granules and SFN powder were measured following oral administration to Sprague Dawley rats. SFN granules significantly increased SFN absorption compared to SFN powder. Overall, the lipid-based SFN granules provide a promising approach to enhancing the oral absorption of SFN.

Inhalable spray-dried polycaprolactone-based microparticles of Sorafenib Tosylate with promising efficacy on A549 cells

The study developed and evaluated Sorafenib Tosylate (SRT)-loaded polymeric microparticles (MPs) using biodegradable polymer polycaprolactone (PCL) as a potential inhalable carrier for NSCLC. MPs were prepared by spray-drying an oil-in-water (o/w) emulsion. The optimized MPs demonstrated excellent flowability, particle size of 2.84 ± 0.5 μm, zeta potential of -14.0 ± 1.5 mV, and 85.08 ± 5.43% entrapment efficiency. ATR-FTIR/DSC studies revealed a lack of characteristic peaks of the crystalline drug signifying good entrapment of the drug. MPs were spherical and uniform in SEM pictures. The MPs showed a biphasic release pattern up to 72h. The Anderson cascade impactor (ACI) investigation demonstrated the highest drug deposition at stage 4, which revealed that the MPs can reach the lungs' secondary and terminal bronchi. Inhalable MPs had an efficient aerodynamic property with a mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of 2.63 ± 1.3 μm, a geometric standard deviation (GSD) of 1.93 ± 0.2 μm, and a fine particle fraction (FPF) of 87 ± 2.5%. Finally, in cytotoxicity studies on A549 cancer cells, MPs had an IC50 value of 0.6011 ± 0.8 μM, which was 85.68% lower than free drug. These findings suggest SRT-loaded inhalable PCL-based MPs as a novel NSCLC treatment.

Development of Large Hollow Particles for Pulmonary Delivery of Cyclosporine A

The purpose of this study was to prepare large hollow particles (LHPs) by spray drying for pulmonary delivery of cyclosporine A (CsA), using L-Leucine (LEU) and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) as excipients and ammonium bicarbonate (AB) as a porogen. The prepared LHPs were spherical particles composed of both CsA and LEU on the surface and HPMC on the inner layer. The formulation of CsA-LEU-0.8HPMC-AB as typical LHPs showed excellent in vitro aerodynamic performance with a minimum mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) of 1.15 μm. The solubility of CsA-LEU-0.8HPMC-AB was about 5.5-fold higher than that of raw CsA, and the dissolution of CsA-LEU-0.8HPMC-AB suggested that the drug was released within 1 h. The cell viability of the A549 cell line showed that CsA-LEU-0.8HPMC-AB was safe for delivering CsA to the lungs. In addition, inhalation administration of CsA-LEU-0.8HPMC-AB with the Cmax and AUC0-∞ increasing by about 2-fold and 2.8-fold compared with the oral administration of Neoral® could achieve therapeutic drug concentrations with lower systemic exposure and significantly improve the in vivo bioavailability of CsA. From these findings, the LHPs, with the advantage of avoiding alveolar macrophage clearance, could be a viable choice for delivering CsA by inhalation administration relative to oral administration.

Development of a sorafenib-loaded solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system: Formulation optimization and characterization of enhanced properties

Sorafenib, marketed under the brand name Nexavar®, is a multiple tyrosine kinase inhibitor drug that has been actively used in the clinical setting for the treatment of several cancers. However, the low solubility and bioavailability of sorafenib constitute a significant barrier to achieving a good therapeutic outcome. We developed a sorafenib-loaded self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) formulation composed of capmul MCM, tween 80, and tetraglycol, and demonstrated that the SNEDDS formulation could improve drug solubility with excellent self-emulsification ability. Moreover, the sorafenib-loaded SNEDDS exhibited anticancer activity against Hep3B and KB cells, which are the most commonly used hepatocellular carcinoma and oral cancer cell lines, respectively. Subsequently, to improve the storage stability and to increase the possibility of commercialization, a solid SNEDDS for sorafenib was further developed through the spray drying method using Aerosil® 200 and PVP K 30. X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimeter data showed that the crystallinity of the drug was markedly reduced, and the dissolution rate of the drug was further improved in formulation in simulated gastric and intestinal fluid conditions. In vivo study, the bioavailability of the orally administered formulation increases dramatically compared to the free drug. Our results highlight the use of the solid-SNEDDS formulation to enhance sorafenib's bioavailability and outlines potential translational directions for oral drug development.

Updates on applications of low-viscosity grade Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose in coprocessing for improvement of physical properties of pharmaceutical powders

Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) is an important polymeric excipient. Its versatility in terms of molecular weights and viscosity grades is the basis for its wide and successful application in the pharmaceutical industry. Low viscosity grades of HPMC (like E3 and E5) have been used as physical modifiers for pharmaceutical powders in recent years due to their unique physicochemical and biological properties (e.g., low surface tension, high T_g, strong hydrogen bonding ability, etc.). Such modification is the co-processing of HPMC with a drug/excipient to create composite particles (CPs) for the purpose of providing synergistic effects of functional improvement as well as of masking undesirable properties of the powder (e.g., flowability, compressibility, compactibility, solubility, stability, etc.). Therefore, given its irreplaceability and tremendous opportunities for future developments, this review summarized and updated studies on improving the functional properties of drugs and/or excipients by forming CPs with low-viscosity HPMC, analyzed and exploited the improvement mechanisms (e.g., improved surface properties, increased polarity, hydrogen bonding, etc.) for the further development of novel co-processed pharmaceutical powders containing HPMC. It also provides an outlook on the future applications of HPMC, aiming to provide a reference on the crucial role of HPMC in various areas for interested readers.

Cabozantinib-Loaded PLGA Nanoparticles: A Potential Adjuvant Strategy for Surgically Resected High-Risk Non-Metastatic Renal Cell Carcinoma

Patients with high-risk non-metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC) are at risk of metastatic relapse following nephrectomy. Cabozantinib (CZ), a potent multitarget tyrosine kinase inhibitor, interferes with angiogenesis and immunosuppression associated with surgery-induced metastasis. Here, we explored the therapeutic potential of CZ-loaded poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (CZ-PLGA-NPs) as an adjuvant strategy for targeting post-nephrectomy metastasis. A clinically relevant subline recapitulating post-nephrectomy lung metastasis of high-risk human RCC, namely Renca-SRLu5-Luc, was established through in vivo serial selection of luciferase-expressing murine RCC Renca-Luc cells. CZ was encapsulated into PLGA-NPs via the conventional single emulsion technique. The multifaceted preclinical antimetastatic efficacy of CZ-PLGA-NPs was assessed in Renca-SRLu5-Luc cells. CZ-PLGA-NPs with a smooth surface displayed desirable physicochemical properties, good CZ encapsulation efficiency, as well as controlled and sustained CZ release. CZ-PLGA-NPs exhibited remarkable dose-dependent toxicity against Renca-SRLu5-Luc cells by inducing G2/M cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. CZ-PLGA-NPs attenuated in vitro colony formation, migration, and invasion by abrogating AKT and ERK1/2 activation. An intravenous injection of CZ-PLGA-NPs markedly reduced lung metastatic burden and prolonged lifespan with favorable safety in the Renca-SRLu5-Luc experimental lung metastasis model. The novel CZ-PLGA-NPs system with multifaceted antimetastatic effects and alleviating off-target toxicity potential is a promising adjunctive agent for patients with surgically resected high-risk RCC.

Ultrasound-mediated in vivo biodistribution of coumarin-labeled sorafenib-loaded liposome-based nanotheranostic system

Aim: This study aimed to synthesize folate-conjugated sorafenib-loaded (FCSL) liposomes for theranostic application using ultrasound (US). Materials & methods: US parameter optimization, in vitro release, anticancer effect, in vivo biodistribution, optical imaging and biocompatibility of liposomes were studied. Results: With 84% in vitro release after 4 min of US exposure at 3 MHz (1.2 mechanical index), FCSL liposomes showed lower IC₅₀ (8.70 μM) versus sorafenib (9.34 μM) against HepG2 cells. In vivo biodistribution of FCSL liposomes versus sorafenib after 9 mg/kg injection in the liver (8.63 vs 0.55) > intestine (8.45 vs 1.07) > stomach (5.62 vs 0.57) > kidney (5.46 vs 0.91) showed longer circulation time in plasma and can be tracked in mice. Conclusion: A threefold higher drug concentration in the liver in US-exposed mice makes this a successful nanotheranostic approach.

Development of UPLC-MS/MS Method to Study the Pharmacokinetic Interaction between Sorafenib and Dapagliflozin in Rats

Sorafenib (SOR), an inhibitor of multiple kinases, is a classic targeted drug for advanced hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) which often coexists with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Dapagliflozin (DAPA), a sodium–glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitor (SGLT2i), is widely used in patients with T2DM. Notably, co-administration of SOR with DAPA is common in clinical settings. Uridine diphosphate-glucuronosyltransferase family 1 member A9 (UGT1A9) is involved in the metabolism of SOR and dapagliflozin (DAPA), and SOR is the inhibitor of UGT1A1 and UGT1A9 (in vitro). Therefore, changes in UGT1A9 activity caused by SOR may lead to pharmacokinetic interactions between the two drugs. The objective of the current study was to develop an ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous determination of SOR and DAPA in plasma and to evaluate the effect of the co-administration of SOR and DAPA on their individual pharmacokinetic properties and the mechanism involved. The rats were divided into four groups: SOR (100 mg/kg) alone and co-administered with DAPA (1 mg/kg) for seven days, and DAPA (1 mg/kg) alone and co-administered with SOR (100 mg/kg) for seven days. Liquid–liquid extraction (LLE) was performed for plasma sample preparation, and the chromatographic separation was conducted on Waters XSelect HSS T3 column with a gradient elution of 0.1% formic acid and 5 mM ammonium acetate (Phase A) and acetonitrile (Phase B). The levels of Ugt1a7 messenger RNA (mRNA) were determined in rat liver and intestine using quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The method was successfully applied to the study of pharmacokinetic interactions. DAPA caused a significant decrease in the maximum plasma concentrations (Cmax) and the area under the plasma concentration–time curves (AUC0–t) of SOR by 41.6% and 50.5%, respectively, while the apparent volume of distribution (Vz/F) and apparent clearance (CLz/F) significantly increased 2.85- and 1.98-fold, respectively. When co-administering DAPA with SOR, the AUC0–t and the elimination half-life (t1/2Z) of DAPA significantly increased 1.66- and 1.80-fold, respectively, whereas the CLz/F significantly decreased by 40%. Results from qRT-PCR showed that, compared with control, seven days of SOR pretreatment decreased Ugt1a7 expression in both liver and intestine tissue. In contrast, seven days of DAPA pretreatment decreased Ugt1a7 expression only in liver tissue. Therefore, pharmacokinetic interactions exist between long-term use of SOR with DAPA, and UGT1A9 may be the targets mediating the interaction. Active surveillance for the treatment outcomes and adverse reactions are required.

Enhanced oral bioavailability and antitumor therapeutic efficacy of sorafenib administered in core-shell protein nanoparticle

Orally delivered molecularly targeted small-molecule drugs play a significant role in managing cancer as a chronic disease. However, due to the poor oral bioavailability of some of these molecules, high-dose administration is required leading to dose-limiting toxicity especially when delivered daily for a long duration. Here, we report an oral nanoformulation for small-molecule multi-kinase inhibitor, sorafenib tosylate, showing nearly two fold enhancement in the oral bioavailability and enhanced therapeutic efficacy with a better safety profile compared to the current clinical formulation. Using a scalable process involving high-pressure homogenization, sorafenib was loaded into an albumin nanocarrier at ~ 50 w/w%. Repeated preparation of gram-scale batches (n = 7) showed an average particle size of 180 ± 9 nm, encapsulation efficiency of 95 [Formula: see text] 2%, and drug-loading efficiency of 48 [Formula: see text] 0.7%. Further, surface engineering with a mucoadhesive layer on nanoparticles (referred to as ABSORF) resulted in the final size of 299 ± 38 nm and surface charge of -54 ± 8 mV. Single-dose and multidose pharmacokinetic studies showed two fold enhancement in the plasma concentration of sorafenib compared to current clinically used tablets. Antitumor efficacy studies in the orthotopic rat liver tumor model showed significant tumor regression (p value = 0.0037) even at half dose (eqv. to 200 mg of human equivalent dose) of ABSORF compared to clinical control (eqv. to 400 mg). The biodistribution of sorafenib from ABSORF was higher in the liver; however, liver and kidney function test parameters were comparable with that of the 2 × dose of clinical control. No abnormalities and signs of toxicity were seen in the histopathological analysis for ABSORF-treated animals. In summary, we demonstrate a scalable preparation of small-molecule drug-loaded nanoformulation with approximately two fold enhancement in oral bioavailability, improved antitumor efficacy, and acceptable toxicity profile.

Poly (Lactic-Co-Glycolic) Acid–Poly (Vinyl Pyrrolidone) Hybrid Nanoparticles to Improve the Efficiency of Oral Delivery of β-Carotene

The aim of this study was to develop a nanoparticle formulation made of poly (vinyl pyrrolidone) (PVP) and poly (lactic-co-glycolic) acid (PLGA) for the oral delivery of β-carotene (BC). The hybrid nanoparticles were prepared by the interfacial deposition method, and the physicochemical properties of this formulation were characterized in terms of its morphology, particle size, size distribution, encapsulation efficiency, dissolution, intestinal permeability, and in vivo pharmacokinetics. Our results demonstrated that BC-loaded nanoformulation and PLGA nanoparticles (PNP) significantly enhanced a release 6.1 times higher than BC suspension. The fortification of PVP into PLGA nanoparticles, named PLGA–PVP hybrid nanoparticles (PPNP), significantly reduced the particle size, as well as led to an increase 1.9 times higher in the in vitro release of BC, compared with PNP. For the ex vivo intestinal permeability assessment, PNP and PPNP–K15 significantly enhanced the intestinal permeability by 2.7 and 6.5 times at the jejunum, and 2.3 and 4.5 times at the ileum, when compared with unformulated BC. According to the pharmacokinetic study, the optimized hybrid formulation significantly increased the peak plasma concentration (C_max) and the area under the curve (AUC_0-t), and the oral relative bioavailability showed a five-fold enhancement compared with that of the BC suspension. Our results indicate that the hybrid nanoparticulate delivery system is an efficient strategy for the oral delivery of BC.

A formulation development strategy for dual-release bilayer tablets: An integrated approach of quality by design and a placebo layer

Although dual-release mechanism bilayer tablets containing one drug in both immediate- and sustained-release layers are widely used to improve therapeutic efficiency, studies quantitatively analyzing the drug amount released from each layer and the mutual effect of each layer's mechanical properties on drug product quality are limited. Here, the formulation of a dual-release bilayer tablet containing sarpogrelate HCl was optimized with a placebo layer and quality by design (QbD) approach. The placebo layer was developed to replace the active pharmaceutical ingredient and its mechanical properties were evaluated. The formulation was developed using the placebo layer to quantitatively analyze the drug released from each layer. The mixture design and Monte Carlo simulation enabled robust design space identification. The mutual effect of each layer's mechanical properties on drug product quality was confirmed by multivariate analysis using the optimal settings in the design space. The optimized formulation was characterized by comparison with a reference drug for various quality attributes and in vivo pharmacokinetic parameters, which ensured the bioequivalence of the optimized bilayer tablet with the reference drug. This study shows that the integration of QbD and a placebo layer is an effective optimization strategy for dual-release bilayer tablets containing one drug in different layers.

Efficiency of a dexamethasone nanosuspension as an intratympanic injection for acute hearing loss

Dexamethasone sodium phosphate (Dex-SP) is the most commonly used drug administered via intratympanic injection for the treatment of acute hearing loss, but its penetration efficiency into the inner ear is very low. To address this problem, we evaluated the possibility of administering dexamethasone nanosuspensions via intratympanic injection because hydrophobic drugs might be more effective in penetrating the inner ear. Three types of dexamethasone nanosuspensions were prepared; the dexamethasone nanoparticles in the three nanosuspensions were between approximately 250 and 350 nm in size. To compare the efficiency of Dex-SP and dexamethasone nanosuspension in delivering dexamethasone to the inner ear, the concentrations of dexamethasone in perilymph and cochlear tissues were compared by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry. The dexamethasone nanosuspensions resulted in significantly higher drug concentrations in perilymph and cochlear tissues than Dex-SP at 6 h; interestingly, animals treated with nanosuspensions showed a 26-fold higher dexamethasone concentrations in their cochlear tissues than animals treated with Dex-SP. In addition, dexamethasone nanosuspension caused better glucocorticoid receptor phosphorylation than Dex-SP both in vitro and in vivo, and in the ototoxic animal model, the nanosuspension showed a significantly better hearing-protective effect against ototoxic drugs than Dex-SP. In the in vivo safety evaluation, the nanosuspension showed no toxicity at concentrations up to 20 mg/mL. In conclusion, a nanosuspension of dexamethasone was able to deliver dexamethasone to the cochlea very safely and efficiently and showed potential as a formula for intratympanic injection.

Efficient development of sorafenib tablets with improved oral bioavailability enabled by coprecipitated amorphous solid dispersion

An amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) of sorafenib (SOR) in hydroxypropyl methylcellulose acetate succinate (HPMC-AS), prepared by coprecipitation, was used to develop an immediate release tablet with improved oral bioavailability. An ASD of 40% drug loading with HPMC-AS (M grade), which exhibited superior physical stability and enhanced dissolution, was selected for tablet development. Systematic characterization of powder properties of the ASD led to the choice of the dry granulation process to overcome poor flowability of the ASD. The designed tablet formulation was evaluated using a material-sparing and expedited approach to optimize compaction conditions for manufacturing ASD tablets with low friability and rapid disintegration. The resulting SOR ASD tablets exhibited approximately 50% higher relative bioavailability in dogs than the marketed SOR tablet product, Nexavar®.

QbD enabled optimization of solvent shifting method for fabrication of PLGA-based nanoparticles for promising delivery of Capecitabine for antitumor activity

The key objective of the current research was to fabricate and optimize Capecitabine (Cap)-loaded [poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)] PLGA-based nanoparticles (NPs) by enabling quality by design (QbD) approach for enhancing antitumor activity by promising delivery of the drug at the colonic site. The current research was based on fabricating PLGA-based nanoparticles along with Eudragit S100 as enteric polymer employing solvent shifting method followed by optimization using QbD approach. This approach was found to be useful for understanding the multiple factors and their interaction influencing the product by utilizing Design of Experiment (DOE). Box-Behnken design (BBD) was adopted to achieve the required critical quality attributes (CQAs), i.e., minimizing particle size, maximizing entrapment efficiency, and minimizing PDI value. The optimized nanoparticles were lyophilized and characterized by FT-IR, DSC, TEM, DLS, MTT assay using HT-29 cell lines, and in vivo pharmacokinetic studies. The optimized PLGA-based nanoparticles were found to possess average particle size, PDI, zeta potential, and entrapment efficiency of 195 nm, 0.214, -6.65 mV, and 65%, respectively. TEM analysis revealed the spherical nature of nanoparticles. The FT-IR and DSC studies revealed no interaction. The bioavailability of Cap-loaded nanoparticles was found to be two fold increased than the pure drug, and also, it exhibited significantly more cytotoxic to tumor cells as compared to pure drug as confirmed by MTT assay. The optimized PLGA-based nanoparticles found to possess enhanced bioavailability and significantly more cytotoxic potential as compared to pure drug.

Morita-Baylis-Hillman adducts derived from thymol: synthesis, in silico studies and biological activity against Giardia lamblia

Giardiasis is a neglected disease, and there is a need for new molecules with less side effects and better activity against resistant strains. This work describes the evaluation of the giardicidal activity of thymol derivatives produced from the Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction. Thymol acrylate was reacted with different aromatic aldehydes, using 1,4-diazabicyclo[2.2.2]octane (DABCO) as a catalyst. Eleven adducts (8 of them unpublished) with yields between 58 and 80% were obtained from this reaction, which were adequately characterized. The in silico prediction showed theoretical bioavailability after oral administration as well as antiparasitic activity against Giardia lamblia. Compound 4 showed better biological activity against G. lamblia. In addition to presenting antigiardial activity 24 times better than thymol, this MBHA was obtained in a short reaction time (3 h) with a yield (80%) superior to the other investigated molecules. The molecule was more active than the precursors (thymol and MBHA 12) and did not show cytotoxicity against HEK-293 or HT-29 cells. In conclusion, this study presents a new class of drugs with better antigiardial activity in relation to thymol, acting as a basis for the synthesis of new bioactive molecules. Molecular hybridization technique combined with the Morita-Baylis-Hillman reaction provided new thymol derivatives with giardicidal activity superior to the precursor molecules.

Weibull Modeling of Controlled Drug Release from Ag-PMA Nanosystems

Traditional pharmacotherapy suffers from multiple drawbacks that hamper patient treatment such as antibiotic resistances or low drug selectivity and toxicity during systemic applications. Some functional hybrid nanomaterials are designed to handle the drug release process under remote-control. More attention has recently been paid to synthetic polyelectrolytes for their intrinsic properties which allow them to rearrange into compact structures, ideal to be used as drug carriers or probes influencing biochemical processes. The presence of Ag nanoparticles (NPs) in the Poly methyl acrylate (PMA) matrix leads to an enhancement of drug release efficiency, even using a low-power laser whose wavelength is far from the Ag Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) peak. Further, compared to the colloids, the nanofiber-based drug delivery system has shown shorter response time and more precise control over the release rate. The efficiency and timing of involved drug release mechanisms has been estimated by the Weibull distribution function, whose parameters indicate that the release mechanism of nanofibers obeys Fick's first law while a non-Fickian character controlled by diffusion and relaxation of polymer chains occurs in the colloidal phase.

An overview of in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo models for studying the transport of drugs across intestinal barriers

Oral administration is the most commonly used route for drug delivery owing to its cost-effectiveness, ease of administration, and high patient compliance. However, the absorption of orally delivered compounds is a complex process that greatly depends on the interplay between the characteristics of the drug/formulation and the gastrointestinal tract. In this contribution, we review the different preclinical models (in vitro, ex vivo and in vivo) from their development to application for studying the transport of drugs across intestinal barriers. This review also discusses the advantages and disadvantages of each model. Furthermore, the authors have reviewed the selection and validation of these models and how the limitations of the models can be addressed in future investigations. The correlation and predictability of the intestinal transport data from the preclinical models and human data are also explored. With the increasing popularity and prevalence of orally delivered drugs/formulations, sophisticated preclinical models with higher predictive capacity for absorption of oral formulations used in clinical studies will be needed.

Nanotechnology of Tyrosine Kinase Inhibitors in Cancer Therapy: A Perspective

Nanotechnology is an important application in modern cancer therapy. In comparison with conventional drug formulations, nanoparticles ensure better penetration into the tumor mass by exploiting the enhanced permeability and retention effect, longer blood circulation times by a reduced renal excretion and a decrease in side effects and drug accumulation in healthy tissues. The most significant classes of nanoparticles (i.e., liposomes, inorganic and organic nanoparticles) are here discussed with a particular focus on their use as delivery systems for small molecule tyrosine kinase inhibitors (TKIs). A number of these new compounds (e.g., Imatinib, Dasatinib, Ponatinib) have been approved as first-line therapy in different cancer types but their clinical use is limited by poor solubility and oral bioavailability. Consequently, new nanoparticle systems are necessary to ameliorate formulations and reduce toxicity. In this review, some of the most important TKIs are reported, focusing on ongoing clinical studies, and the recent drug delivery systems for these molecules are investigated.

Population Pharmacokinetic Modelling and Simulation to Determine the Optimal Dose of Nanoparticulated Sorafenib to the Reference Sorafenib

Sorafenib, an oral multikinase inhibitor, exhibits a highly variable absorption profile due to enterohepatic reabsorption and poor solubility. SYO-1644 improved the solubility of sorafenib by nanoparticulation technology leading to enhanced bioavailability. To evaluate the pharmacokinetically equivalent dose of SYO-1644 to the reference Nexavar^® 200 mg, a randomized, open-label, replicated two-period study was conducted in healthy volunteers. A total of 32 subjects orally received a single dose of the following assigned treatment under a fasted state in the first period and repeated once more in the second period with a two-week washout: SYO-1644 100, 150 and 200 mg and Nexavar^® 200 mg. Pharmacokinetic (PK) samples were collected up to 168 h post-dose. The PK profile was evaluated by both non-compartmental analysis and population PK method. With the final model, 2 × 2 crossover trial scenarios with Nexavar^® 200 mg and each dose of SYO-1644 ranging from 100 to 150 mg were repeated 500 times by Monte Carlo simulation, and the proportion of bioequivalence achievement was assessed. Transit absorption compartments, followed by a one-compartment model with first-order elimination and enterohepatic reabsorption components were selected as the final model. The simulation results demonstrated that the SYO-1644 dose between 120 and 125 mg could yielded the highest proportion of bioequivalence.

The Application of Nanotechnology for the Diagnosis and Treatment of Brain Diseases and Disorders

Brain is by far the most complex organ in the body. It is involved in the regulation of cognitive, behavioral, and emotional activities. The organ is also a target for many diseases and disorders ranging from injuries to cancers and neurodegenerative diseases. Brain diseases are the main causes of disability and one of the leading causes of deaths. Several drugs that have shown potential in improving brain structure and functioning in animal models face many challenges including the delivery, specificity, and toxicity. For many years, researchers have been facing challenge of developing drugs that can cross the physical (blood–brain barrier), electrical, and chemical barriers of the brain and target the desired region with few adverse events. In recent years, nanotechnology emerged as an important technique for modifying and manipulating different objects at the molecular level to obtain desired features. The technique has proven to be useful in diagnosis as well as treatments of brain diseases and disorders by facilitating the delivery of drugs and improving their efficacy. As the subject is still hot, and new research findings are emerging, it is clear that nanotechnology could upgrade health care systems by providing easy and highly efficient diagnostic and treatment methods. In this review, we will focus on the application of nanotechnology in the diagnosis and treatment of brain diseases and disorders by illuminating the potential of nanoparticles.

Enhanced Oral Bioavailability of Resveratrol by Using Neutralized Eudragit E Solid Dispersion Prepared via Spray Drying

In this study, we designed amorphous solid dispersions based on Eudragit E/HCl (neutralized Eudragit E using hydrochloric acid) to maximize the dissolution of trans-resveratrol. Solid-state characterization of amorphous solid dispersions of trans-resveratrol was performed using powder X-ray diffraction, scanning electron microscopy, and particle size measurements. In addition, an in vitro dissolution study and an in vivo pharmacokinetic study in rats were carried out. Among the tested polymers, Eudragit E/HCl was the most effective solid dispersion for the solubilization of trans-resveratrol. Eudragit E/HCl significantly inhibited the precipitation of trans-resveratrol in a pH 1.2 dissolution medium in a dose-dependent manner. The amorphous Eudragit E/HCl solid dispersion at a trans-resveratrol/polymer ratio of 10/90 exhibited a high degree of supersaturation without trans-resveratrol precipitation for at least 48 h by the formation of Eudragit E/HCl micelles. In rats, the absolute oral bioavailability (F%) of trans-resveratrol from Eudragit E/HCl solid dispersion (10/90) was estimated to be 40%. Therefore, trans-resveratrol-loaded Eudragit E/HCl solid dispersions prepared by spray drying offer a promising formulation strategy with high oral bioavailability for developing high-quality health supplements, nutraceutical, and pharmaceutical products.

In vivo assessment of potential for UGT-inhibition-based drug-drug interaction between sorafenib and tapentadol

Sorafenib (SR) is one of the most potent UGT (1A1, 1A9) inhibitors (in in vitro tests). The inhibition of UGT1A1 may cause hyperbilirubinaemia, whereas the inhibition of UGT1A9 and 1A1 may result in drug-drug interactions (DDIs). Tapentadol (TAP) is a synthetic μ-opioid agonist and is used to treat moderate to severe acute pain. Tapentadol is highly glucuronidated by the UGT1A9 and UGT2B7 isoenzymes. The aim of the study was to assess the DDI between SR and TAP. Wistar rats were divided into three groups, with eight animals in each. The rats were orally treated with SR (100 mg/kg) or TAP (4.64 mg/kg) or in combination with 100 mg/kg SOR and 4.64 TAP mg/kg. The concentrations of SR and sorafenib N-oxide, TAP and tapentadol glucuronide were respectively measured by means of high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with ultraviolet detection and by means of ultra-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The co-administration of TAP with SR caused TAP maximum plasma concentration (C_max) to increase 5.3-fold whereas its area under the plasma concentration-time curve (AUC_0-∞) increased 1.5-fold. The tapentadol glucuronide C_max increased 5.3-fold and whereas its AUC_0-∞ increased 2.0-fold. The tapentadol glucuronide/TAP AUC_0-∞ ratio increased 1.4-fold (p = 0.0118). TAP also increased SR C_max 1.9-fold, whereas its AUC_0-∞ increased 1.3-fold. The sorafenib N-oxide C_max increased 1.9-fold whereas its AUC_0-∞ increased 1.3-fold. The sorafenib N-oxide/SR AUC_0-t ratio increased 1.4-fold (p = 0.0127). The results show that the co-administration of sorafenib and tapentadol increases the exposure to both drugs and changes their metabolism. In consequence, the pharmacological effect may be intensified, but the toxicity may increases, too.

Controlled Drug Delivery Vehicles in Veterinary Oncology: State-of-the-Art and Future Directions

Controlled drug delivery systems can be used to carry several anticancer agents, including classical chemotherapeutic agents such as doxorubicin, paclitaxel or cisplatin, and are also used for the encapsulation of tyrosine kinase inhibitors and monoclonal antibodies. Usually, the controlled systems are used to decrease drug toxicity, increase local drug concentration or target specific organs or systems. In dogs, liposomal doxorubicin is the most known controlled drug delivery vehicle in veterinary medicine. However, several antitumor drugs can be encapsulated within these systems. Since the delivery vehicles are a relatively new topic in veterinary oncology, this review aims to discuss the current knowledge regarding the controlled drug delivery vehicles and discuss the current challenges and future direction of its use in veterinary oncology.

Enhancing Anti-Tumor Activity of Sorafenib Mesoporous Silica Nanomatrix in Metastatic Breast Tumor and Hepatocellular Carcinoma via the Co-Administration with Flufenamic Acid

INTRODUCTION

Because tumor-associated inflammation is a hallmark of cancer treatment, in the present study, sorafenib mesoporous silica nanomatrix (MSNM@SFN) co-administrated with flufenamic acid (FFA, a non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID)) was investigated to enhance the anti-tumor activity of MSNM@SFN.

METHODS

Metastatic breast tumor 4T1/luc cells and hepatocellular carcinoma HepG2 cells were selected as cell models. The effects of FFA in vitro on cell migration, PGE2 secretion, and AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 levels in 4T1/luc and HepG2 cells were investigated. The in vivo anti-tumor activity of MSNM@SFN co-administrating with FFA (MSNM@SFN+FFA) was evaluated in a 4T1/luc metastatic tumor model, HepG2 tumor-bearing nude mice model, and HepG2 orthotopic tumor-bearing nude mice model, respectively.

RESULTS

The results indicated that FFA could markedly decrease cell migration, PGE2 secretion, and AKR1C1 and AKR1C3 levels in both 4T1/luc and HepG2 cells. The enhanced anti-tumor activity of MSNM@SFN+FFA compared with that of MSNM@SFN was confirmed in the 4T1/luc metastatic tumor model, HepG2 tumor-bearing nude mice model, and HepG2 orthotopic tumor-bearing nude mice model in vivo, respectively.

DISCUSSION

MSNM@SFN co-administrating with FFA (MSNM@SFN+FFA) developed in this study is an alternative strategy for improving the therapeutic efficacy of MSNM@SFN via co-administration with NSAIDs.

Development of a Resveratrol Nanosuspension Using the Antisolvent Precipitation Method without Solvent Removal, Based on a Quality by Design (QbD) Approach

The purpose of this study was to develop a resveratrol nanosuspension with enhanced oral bioavailability, based on an understanding of the formulation and process parameters of nanosuspensions and using a quality by design (QbD) approach. Particularly, the antisolvent method, which requires no solvent removal and no heating, is newly applied to prepare resveratrol nanosuspension. To ensure the quality of the resveratrol nanosuspensions, a quality target product profile (QTPP) was defined. The particle size (z-average, d90), zeta potential, and drug content parameters affecting the QTPP were selected as critical quality attributes (CQAs). The optimum composition obtained using a 3-factor, 3-level Box-Behnken design was as follows: polyvinylpyrrolidone vinyl acetate (10 mg/mL), polyvinylpyrrolidone K12 (5 mg/mL), sodium lauryl sulfate (1 mg/mL), and diethylene glycol monoethyl ether (DEGEE, 5% v/v) at a resveratrol concentration of 5 mg/mL. The initial particle size (z-average) was 46.3 nm and the zeta potential was -38.02 mV. The robustness of the antisolvent process using the optimized composition conditions was ensured by a full factorial design. The dissolution rate of the optimized resveratrol nanosuspension was significantly greater than that of the resveratrol raw material. An in vivo pharmacokinetic study in rats showed that the area under the plasma concentration versus time curve (AUC0-12h) and the maximum plasma concentration (Cmax) respectively, than those of the resveratrol raw material. Therefore, the prepara values of the resveratrol nanosuspension were approximately 1.6- and 5.7-fold higher,tion of a resveratrol nanosuspension using the QbD approach may be an effective strategy for the development of a new dosage form of resveratrol, with enhanced oral bioavailability.