Experimental design in formulation optimization of vitamin K1 oxide-loaded nanoliposomes for skin delivery

Current Applications of Liposomes for the Delivery of Vitamins: A Systematic Review

Liposomes have been used for several decades for the encapsulation of drugs and bioactives in cosmetics and cosmeceuticals. On the other hand, the use of these phospholipid vesicles in food applications is more recent and is increasing significantly in the last ten years. Although in different stages of technological maturity-in the case of cosmetics, many products are on the market-processes to obtain liposomes suitable for the encapsulation and delivery of bioactives are highly expensive, especially those aiming at scaling up. Among the bioactives proposed for cosmetics and food applications, vitamins are the most frequently used. Despite the differences between the administration routes (oral for food and mainly dermal for cosmetics), some challenges are very similar (e.g., stability, bioactive load, average size, increase in drug bioaccessibility and bioavailability). In the present work, a systematic review of the technological advancements in the nanoencapsulation of vitamins using liposomes and related processes was performed; challenges and future perspectives were also discussed in order to underline the advantages of these drug-loaded biocompatible nanocarriers for cosmetics and food applications.

Design of Innovative Biocompatible Cellulose Nanostructures for the Delivery and Sustained Release of Curcumin

Poor aqueous solubility, stability and bioavailability of interesting bioactive compounds is a challenge in the development of bioactive formulations. Cellulose nanostructures are promising and sustainable carriers with unique features that may be used in enabling delivery strategies. In this work, cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and cellulose nanofibers were investigated as carriers for the delivery of curcumin, a model liposoluble compound. Nanocellulose modification with the surfactant cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB), tannic acid and decylamine (TADA), and by TEMPO-mediated oxidation were also tested and compared. The carrier materials were characterized in terms of structural properties and surface charge, while the delivery systems were evaluated for their encapsulation and release properties. The release profile was assessed in conditions that mimic the gastric and intestinal fluids, and cytotoxicity studies were performed in intestinal cells to confirm safe application. Modification with CTAB and TADA resulted in high curcumin encapsulation efficiencies of 90 and 99%, respectively. While no curcumin was released from TADA-modified nanocellulose in simulated gastrointestinal conditions, CNC-CTAB allowed for a curcumin-sustained release of ca. 50% over 8 h. Furthermore, the CNC-CTAB delivery system showed no cytotoxic effects on Caco-2 intestinal cells up to 0.125 g/L, meaning that up to this concentration the system is safe to use. Overall, the use of the delivery systems allowed for the reduction in the cytotoxicity associated with higher curcumin concentrations, highlighting the potential of nanocellulose encapsulation systems.

Cod liver oil nano-structured lipid carriers (Cod-NLCs) as a promising platform for nose to brain delivery: Preparation, in vitro optimization, ex vivo cytotoxicity & in vivo biodistribution utilizing radioiodinated zopiclone

Nano-structured lipid carriers containing zopiclone were prepared as a targeted drug delivery system to convey zopiclone directly to brain via nasal route. Nano-structured lipid carriers were constructed adopting hot emulsification-ultrasonication method using palmitic acid in place of the solid lipid, cod liver oil as liquid lipid, and poloxamer 407 as a surfactant. A three-factor three-level central composite face-centered design was used to optimize the formulated nano-structured lipid carriers. The independent factors were lipid amount (X₁), surfactant amount (X₂), and sonication time (X₃). The examined responses were entrapment efficiency (EE,Y₁,%), particle size (PS,Y₂,nm), zeta potential(mV), polydispersity index(PDI,Y₃), in vitro release(Q8h,Y₄,%) and dissolution efficiency (DE,Y₅,%). The optimum formula showed high entrapment efficiency of 94.31% ± 2.44, in vitro drug release of 83.89% ± 1.77 with dissolution efficiency equals 88.63% ± 2.01, small particle size of 71.27 nm ± 13.57 and low polydispersity index 0.097 ± 0.15. In vivo biodistribution in mice was evaluated by a radiobiological technique using radioiodinated zopiclone([¹³¹I]iodo-ZP). Results revealed the superiority of the intranasal route to deliver zopiclone directly to brain faster and higher brain uptake (6.9 ± 1.02%ID/g at 5 min post-administration). The current study confirmed that intranasal administration of nano-structured lipid carriers had great potential as an effective tool for targeted brain zopiclone delivery for insomnia treatment.

Preparation and Optimization of Ibrutinib-Loaded Nanoliposomes Using Response Surface Methodology

The main aim of this study was to optimize the formulation and process variables for the preparation of ibrutinib nanoliposomes and to evaluate the stability of nanoliposomes. The influence of four formulations and process parameters, namely, the phosphatidylcholine-to-cholesterol ratio (A), conc. of ibrutinib (B), sonication time (C), and stirring time (D) on the drug encapsulation efficiency (Y₁) and particle size (Y₂) of ibrutinib nanoliposomes were investigated by using response surface methodology. Reverse-phase evaporation was used to prepare ibrutinib nanoliposomes. Twenty-nine trial experiments were performed as per the design and the response parameters were noted. Multiple linear regression analysis was used to assess each response parameter. The effect of each factor on the response parameters was depicted using perturbation, response surface, and contour plots. A numerical optimization technique was used to estimate the optimum process parameters to obtain the desired responses. Ibrutinib nanoliposomes prepared under optimal conditions were evaluated for stability at a different temperature, pH, and sonication time. It is evident from the results that the phosphatidylcholine-to-cholesterol ratio (A) was the major factor influencing the encapsulation efficiency. All the factors were found to have noteworthy influences on particle size. A statistical evaluation provided the information about the individual and interactive effects of independent factors on the response parameters in order to obtain optimum experimental conditions that lead to preparing nanoliposomes with improved characteristics. The optimum level of the independent variables was phosphatidylcholine:cholesterol (6.76:1), ibrutinib concentration (2 mg/mL), sonication time (15.13 min), and stirring time (45 min). At optimal conditions, Y₁ and Y₂ were found to be 90.76 ± 1.56% and 208.24 ± 3.16 nm, respectively. The ibrutinib nanoliposomes were found to be stable both in simulated gastric and intestinal fluids at 37 °C for 6 h. At elevated conditions of temperature and pH, the prepared nanoliposomes were found to be unstable. Sonication for shorter periods resulted in decreased particle size, whereas longer periods can be helpful for ultrasound-assisted drug delivery. The closeness between the obtained results and predicted results indicates the reliability of the optimization technique for the preparation of ibrutinib nanoliposomes.

Processes and Interactions Impacting the Stability and Compatibility of Vitamin K and Gold Nanoparticles

This study provides evidence on the stability of vitamin K1 (VK) in the form of phytomenadione, in the absence and presence of a therapeutic preparation, as the gold nanoparticles (AuNPs), under the effect of sodium halide ions. The degradation susceptibility of the two compounds was assessed individually and in mixtures by cyclic voltammetry and electrolysis at a constant current density assisted by UV-Vis spectrophotometry. Their interactions with the halide ions differently impact on the electrochemical processes as follows: (i) the fluoride ions weakly affects the VK/AuNP stability and compatibility; (ii) the presence of chloride ions leads to VK/AuNP stability, for a short time and restrictive compatibility; (iii) bromide ions induce instability and incompatibility of the VK/AuNP system; (iv) spontaneous interactions between VK/AuNPs and iodide ions take place, consequently defining as an unstable and incompatible system.

Liposome and microemulsion loaded with ibuprofen: from preparation to mechanism of drug transport

To compare the difference between liposome (LP) and microemulsion (ME) in delivering ibuprofen (IBU) transdermally and explore relative mechanism. IBU-LP and IBU-ME were prepared by ethanol injection and spontaneous emulsification, respectively. The percutaneous delivery was evaluated using Franz diffusion cells. Fourier transform infra-red spectroscopy (FTIR), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), activation energy (Ea), and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM) were used to investigate the transdermal mechanism. The particle size and encapsulation efficiency were 228.00 ± 8.60 nm, 86.68 ± 1.43%(w/w) for IBU-LP, and 56.74 ± 7.11 nm, 91.08 ± 3.27%(w/w) for IBU-ME. Percutaneous study showed that formulations enhanced permeation and drug retention in the skin. FTIR and DSC showed that the permeation occurred due to the interaction of the formulations with the lipid bilayer and the protein. The decrease in Ea (1.506 and 0.939 kcal/mol) revealed that the stratum corneum (SC) lipid bilayers were significantly disrupted and this destructive effect of IBU-LP was stronger. IBU-LP was superior to IBU-ME in the aspects of transdermal delivery of IBU.

Pentoxifylline/Valsartan co-delivery in liposomal gel alters the inflammatory HMGB-1/ TLR pathway and promotes faster healing in burn wounds: A promising repurposed approach

Burn wounds are one of the most severe complex forms of trauma. Hence, new treatment strategies that facilitate the healing process; reduce the severity and the healing time is the main concern of the health care systems. In this work, pentoxifylline-valsartan, (PTX- VAL), loaded liposomes integrated into gel were designed for the first time as a novel co-delivery carrier for the treatment of burn wounds. The objective of this work was to investigate the ability of the nano-based liposomal system to co-entrap two repurposed drugs; hydrophilic pentoxifylline and lipophilic valsartan for topical treatment of burn wounds. The impact of increasing the phospholipid amount to enhance the co-entrapment of PTX and VAL was investigated and in-vitro evaluation of the prepared formulations was conducted to choose the optimum composition with the highest entrapment of both drugs adopting a simple, reliable derivative spectrophotometric method. Structure elucidation was also performed using a transmission electron microscope. In addition, A simple selected derivative spectrophotometric method was developed for the assay of PTX-VAL novel combination. The proven selectivity, precision and accuracy assured the reliability of this analytical method. Being economic and fast makes routine application of the developed analytical method is recommended in pharmaceutical industry. The selected liposomal formulation integrated into gel matrix (PTX-VAL-LG) showed; nanometric size, acceptable entrapment efficiency of both PTX and VAL as well as sustained release profiles and thus, enhanced action.

Pintado M, Fernandes JC, Ramos ÓL. Novel Micro- and Nanocellulose-Based Delivery Systems for Liposoluble Compounds

Poor aqueous solubility of bioactive compounds is becoming a pronounced challenge in the development of bioactive formulations. Numerous liposoluble compounds have very interesting biological activities, but their low water solubility, stability, and bioavailability restrict their applications. To overcome these limitations there is a need to use enabling delivering strategies, which often demand new carrier materials. Cellulose and its micro- and nanostructures are promising carriers with unique features. In this context, this review describes the fast-growing field of micro- and nanocellulose based delivery systems with a focus on the release of liposoluble bioactive compounds. The state of research on this field is reviewed in this article, which also covers the chemistry, preparation, properties, and applications of micro- and nanocellulose based delivery systems. Although there are promising perspectives for introducing these materials into various fields, aspects of safety and toxicity must be revealed and are discussed in this review. The impact of gastrointestinal conditions on the systems and on the bioavailability of the bioactive compounds are also addressed in this review. This article helps to unveil the whole panorama of micro- and nanocellulose as delivery systems for liposoluble compounds, showing that these represent a great promise in a wide range of applications.

Liposomes for oral delivery of protein and peptide-based therapeutics: challenges, formulation strategies, and advances

Throughout the past decade, there has been a rapid growth in the development of protein/peptide-based therapeutics. These therapeutics have found widespread applications in the treatment of cancer, infectious diseases, and other metabolic disorders owing to their several desirable attributes, such as reduced toxicity, diverse biological activities, high specificity, and potency. Most protein/peptide-based drugs are still administered parenterally, and there is an unprecedented demand in the pharmaceutical industry to develop oral delivery routes to increase patient acceptability and convenience. Recent advancements in nanomedicine discoveries have led to the development of several nano and micro-particle-based oral delivery platforms for protein/peptide-based therapeutics and among these, liposomes have emerged as a prominent candidate. Liposomes are spherical vesicles composed of one or more phospholipid bilayers enclosing a core aqueous phase. Their unique amphiphilic nature enables encapsulation of a diverse range of bioactives/drugs including both hydrophobic and hydrophilic compounds for delivery. Against this backdrop, this review provides an overview of the current approaches and challenges associated with the routes and methods of oral administration of protein/peptide-based therapeutics by using liposomes as a potential vehicle. First, the conventional and innovative liposome formation approaches have been discussed along with their applications. Next, the challenges associated with current approaches for oral delivery of protein and peptide-derived therapeutics have been thoroughly addressed. Lastly, we have critically reviewed the potential of liposomes utilization as vehicles for oral delivery of proteins emphasizing the current status and future directions in this area.

Insight Into Nanoliposomes as Smart Nanocarriers for Greening the Twenty-First Century Biomedical Settings

The necessity to develop more efficient, biocompatible, patient compliance, and safer treatments in biomedical settings is receiving special attention using nanotechnology as a potential platform to design new drug delivery systems (DDS). Despite the broad range of nanocarrier systems in drug delivery, lack of biocompatibility, poor penetration, low entrapment efficiency, and toxicity are significant challenges that remain to address. Such practices are even more demanding when bioactive agents are intended to be loaded on a nanocarrier system, especially for topical treatment purposes. For the aforesaid reasons, the search for more efficient nano-vesicular systems, such as nanoliposomes, with a high biocompatibility index and controlled releases has increased considerably in the past few decades. Owing to the stratum corneum layer barrier of the skin, the in-practice conventional/conformist drug delivery methods are inefficient, and the effect of the administered therapeutic cues is limited. The current advancement at the nanoscale has transformed the drug delivery sector. Nanoliposomes, as robust nanocarriers, are becoming popular for biomedical applications because of safety, patient compliance, and quick action. Herein, we reviewed state-of-the-art nanoliposomes as a smart and sophisticated drug delivery approach. Following a brief introduction, the drug delivery mechanism of nanoliposomes is discussed with suitable examples for the treatment of numerous diseases with a brief emphasis on fungal infections. The latter half of the work is focused on the applied perspective and clinical translation of nanoliposomes. Furthermore, a detailed overview of clinical applications and future perspectives has been included in this review.