Age affects antibody levels and anthelmintic treatment efficacy in a wild rodent

Divergent age-related changes in parasite infection occur independently of behaviour and demography in a wild ungulate

As animals age, they exhibit a suite of phenotypic changes, often including reductions in movement and social behaviour ('behavioural ageing'). By altering an individual's exposure to parasites, behavioural ageing may influence infection status trajectories over the lifespan. However, these processes could be confounded by age-related changes in other phenotypic traits, or by selective disappearance of certain individuals owing to parasite-induced mortality. Here, we uncover contrasting age-related patterns of infection across three helminth parasites in wild adult female red deer (Cervus elaphus). Counts of strongyle nematodes (order: Strongylida) increased with age, while counts of liver fluke (Fasciola hepatica) and tissue worm (Elaphostrongylus cervi) decreased, and lungworm (Dictyocaulus) counts did not change. These relationships could not be explained by socio-spatial behaviours, spatial structuring, or selective disappearance, suggesting behavioural ageing is unlikely to be responsible for driving age trends. Instead, social connectedness and strongyle infection were positively correlated, such that direct age-infection trends were directly contrasted with the effects implied by previously documented behavioural ageing. This suggests that behavioural ageing may reduce parasite exposure, potentially countering other age-related changes. These findings demonstrate that different parasites can show contrasting age trajectories depending on diverse intrinsic and extrinsic factors, and that behaviour's role in these processes is likely to be complex and multidirectional.This article is part of the discussion meeting issue 'Understanding age and society using natural populations'.

Epidemiological survey of gastrointestinal helminths and protozoa in Testudines from Sardinia, Italy

The order Testudines comprises some of the most endangered groups of vertebrates. Under specific circumstances, infectious and parasitic diseases may affect the survival and fecundity of these animals, potentially threatening Testudines populations. In Sardinia, besides the three species of tortoises present in the wild (Testudo hermanni, Testudo graeca and Testudo marginata), many others are kept as pets. However, epidemiological studies on these animals have not been conducted so far. Thus, the aim of the work was to investigate the presence of gastrointestinal parasites in captive and wild tortoises of Sardinia, Italy, with particular regard to those of zoonotic importance. For the 215 animals examined (n = 36 wild caught and n = 179 private-owned), fecal samples were collected and processed by flotation and modified Ziehl-Neelsen technique. An overall prevalence of 81.4% for endoparasites was detected, with oxyurids being the most prevalent (74.4%), followed by Nyctotherus spp. (18.6%), Cryptosporidium spp. (12.6%), Angusticaecum spp. (2.8%), strongyles (0.9%), Balantidium spp. (0.9%), coccidia (0.9%), cestodes (0.5%), and Giardia spp. (0.5%). Data suggest that tortoises are affected by a great variety of endoparasites, and further molecular analysis are required to assess the impact of Cryptosporidium and Giardia species in these hosts. Therefore, regular health screenings are of importance for the management of these animals and for preventing emerging infectious diseases.

Effects of food supplementation and helminth removal on space use and spatial overlap in wild rodent populations

Animal space use and spatial overlap can have important consequences for population-level processes such as social interactions and pathogen transmission. Identifying how environmental variability and inter-individual variation affect spatial patterns and in turn influence interactions in animal populations is a priority for the study of animal behaviour and disease ecology. Environmental food availability and macroparasite infection are common drivers of variation, but there are few experimental studies investigating how they affect spatial patterns of wildlife. Bank voles (Clethrionomys glareolus) are a tractable study system to investigate spatial patterns of wildlife and are amenable to experimental manipulations. We conducted a replicated, factorial field experiment in which we provided supplementary food and removed helminths in vole populations in natural forest habitat and monitored vole space use and spatial overlap using capture-mark-recapture methods. Using network analysis, we quantified vole space use and spatial overlap. We compared the effects of food supplementation and helminth removal and investigated the impacts of season, sex and reproductive status on space use and spatial overlap. We found that food supplementation decreased vole space use while helminth removal increased space use. Space use also varied by sex, reproductive status and season. Spatial overlap was similar between treatments despite up to threefold differences in population size. By quantifying the spatial effects of food availability and macroparasite infection on wildlife populations, we demonstrate the potential for space use and population density to trade-off and maintain consistent spatial overlap in wildlife populations. This has important implications for spatial processes in wildlife including pathogen transmission.

The impact of within-host coinfection interactions on between-host parasite transmission dynamics varies with spatial scale

Within-host interactions among coinfecting parasites can have major consequences for individual infection risk and disease severity. However, the impact of these within-host interactions on between-host parasite transmission, and the spatial scales over which they occur, remain unknown. We developed and apply a novel spatially explicit analysis to parasite infection data from a wild wood mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus) population. We previously demonstrated a strong within-host negative interaction between two wood mouse gastrointestinal parasites, the nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus and the coccidian Eimeria hungaryensis, using drug-treatment experiments. Here, we show this negative within-host interaction can significantly alter the between-host transmission dynamics of E. hungaryensis, but only within spatially restricted neighbourhoods around each host. However, for the closely related species E. apionodes, which experiments show does not interact strongly with H. polygyrus, we did not find any effect on transmission over any spatial scale. Our results demonstrate that the effects of within-host coinfection interactions can ripple out beyond each host to alter the transmission dynamics of the parasites, but only over local scales that likely reflect the spatial dimension of transmission. Hence there may be knock-on consequences of drug treatments impacting the transmission of non-target parasites, altering infection risks even for non-treated individuals in the wider neighbourhood.

Ecological factors shaping the ectoparasite community assembly of the Azara's Grass Mouse, Akodon azarae (Rodentia: Cricetidae)

Parasites are integral members of the global biodiversity. They are useful indicators of environmental stress, food web structure and diversity. Ectoparasites have the potential to transmit vector-borne diseases of public health and veterinary importance and to play an important role in the regulation and evolution of host populations. The interlinkages between hosts, parasites and the environment are complex and challenging to study, leading to controversial results. Most previous studies have been focused on one or two parasite groups, while hosts are often co-infected by different taxa. The present study aims to assess the influence of environmental and host traits on the entire ectoparasite community composition of the rodent Akodon azarae. A total of 278 rodents were examined and mites (Mesostigmata), lice (Phthiraptera), ticks (Ixodida) and fleas (Siphonaptera) were determined. A multi-correspondence analysis was performed in order to analyze interactions within the ectoparasite community and the influence of environmental and host variables on this assembly. We found that environmental variables have a stronger influence on the composition of the ectoparasite community of A. azarae than the host variables analyzed. Minimum temperature was the most influential variable among the studied. In addition, we found evidence of agonistic and antagonistic interactions between ticks and mites, lice and fleas. The present study supports the hypothesis that minimum temperature plays a major role in the dynamics that shape the ectoparasite community of A. azarae, probably through both direct and indirect processes. This finding becomes particularly relevant in a climate change scenario.

Ontogeny of immunity and potential implications for co-infection

Immunity changes through ontogeny and can mediate facilitative and inhibitory interactions among co-infecting parasite species. In amphibians, most immune memory is not carried through metamorphosis, leading to variation in the complexity of immune responses across life stages. To test if the ontogeny of host immunity might drive interactions among co-infecting parasites, we simultaneously exposed Cuban treefrogs (Osteopilus septentrionalis) to a fungus (Batrachochytrium dendrobaditis, Bd) and a nematode (Aplectana hamatospicula) at tadpole, metamorphic and post-metamorphic life stages. We measured metrics of host immunity, host health and parasite abundance. We predicted facilitative interactions between co-infecting parasites as the different immune responses hosts mount to combat these infectious are energetically challenging to mount simultaneously. We found ontogenetic differences in IgY levels and cellular immunity but no evidence that metamorphic frogs were more immunosuppressed than tadpoles. There was also little evidence that these parasites facilitated one another and no evidence that A. hamatospicula infection altered host immunity or health. However, Bd, which is known to be immunosuppressive, decreased immunity in metamorphic frogs. This made metamorphic frogs both less resistant and less tolerant of Bd infection than the other life stages. These findings indicate that changes in immunity altered host responses to parasite exposures throughout ontogeny. This article is part of the theme issue 'Amphibian immunity: stress, disease and ecoimmunology'.

The Connection between Immunocompetence and Reproduction in Wildlife

Reproduction rate is important for the survival of animal populations. During gravidity, a trade-off occurs between the individual well-being of gravid females and investment in offspring. Due to the high synthesis and energy requirements for the growing fetus, other physiological activities are downregulated in pregnant females. This causes changes in the composition of the reproductive microbiome and a decreased immune response to presented antigens and pathogens. As a result, the immunocompetence of gravid wild animals declines. In general, therefore, increased infection rates during pregnancy can be observed in all wildlife species studied. In the course of evolution, however, this has apparently evolved as a suitable strategy to ensure the survival of the population as a whole.

Living with chronic infection: Persistent immunomodulation during avirulent haemoparasitic infection in a wild rodent

Apicomplexans are a protozoan phylum of obligate parasites which may be highly virulent during acute infections, but may also persist as chronic infections which appear to have little fitness cost. Babesia microti is an apicomplexan haemoparasite that, in immunocompromised individuals, can cause severe, potentially fatal disease. However, in its natural host, wild field voles (Microtus agrestis), it exhibits chronic infections that have no detectable impact on survival or female fecundity. How is damage minimized, and what is the impact on the host's immune state and health? We examine the differences in immune state (here represented by expression of immune-related genes in multiple tissues) associated with several common chronic infections in a population of wild field voles. While some infections show little impact on immune state, we find strong associations between immune state and B. microti. These include indications of clearance of infected erythrocytes (increased macrophage activity in the spleen) and activity likely associated with minimizing damage from the infection (anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity in the blood). By analysing gene expression from the same individuals at multiple time points, we show that the observed changes are a response to infection, rather than a risk factor. Our results point towards continual investment to minimize the damage caused by the infection. Thus, we shed light on how wild animals can tolerate some chronic infections, but emphasize that this tolerance does not come without a cost.

Confounding factors affecting faecal egg count reduction as a measure of anthelmintic efficacy

Increasing anthelmintic resistance (AR) in livestock has stimulated growing efforts to monitor anthelmintic effectiveness (AE) on livestock farms. On-farm assessment of AE relies on measuring the reduction in faecal egg count (FEC) following treatment; and if conducted rigorously, qualifies as a formal FEC reduction test (FECRT) for AR. Substantial research effort has been devoted to designing robust protocols for the FECRT and its statistical interpretation; however, a wide range of factors other than AR can affect FEC reduction on farms. These are not always possible to control, and can affect the outcome and repeatability of AE measurements and confound the on-farm classification of AR using FECRT. This review considers confounders of FEC reduction, focusing on gastrointestinal nematodes of ruminants, including host and parasite physiology and demography; pharmacokinetic variation between drugs, parasites and hosts; and technical performance. Drug formulation and delivery, host condition and diet, and seasonal variation in parasite species composition, can all affect AE and hence observed FEC reduction. Causes of variation in FEC reduction should be attenuated, but this is not always possible. Regular monitoring of AE can indicate a need to improve anthelmintic administration practices, and detect AR early in its progression. Careful interpretation of FEC reduction, however, taking into account possible confounders, is essential before attributing reduced FEC reduction to AR. Understanding of confounders of FEC reduction will complement advances in FECRT design and interpretation to provide measures of anthelmintic efficacy that are both rigorous and accessible.

Noninvasively measured immune responses reflect current parasite infections in a wild carnivore and are linked to longevity

Host immune defenses are important components of host-parasite interactions that affect the outcome of infection and may have fitness consequences for hosts when increased allocation of resources to immune responses undermines other essential life processes. Research on host-parasite interactions in large free-ranging wild mammals is currently hampered by a lack of verified noninvasive assays. We successfully adapted existing assays to measure innate and adaptive immune responses produced by the gastrointestinal mucosa in spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) feces, including enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISAs), to quantify fecal immunoglobulins (total IgA, total IgG) and total fecal O-linked oligosaccharides (mucin). We investigated the effect of infection load by an energetically costly hookworm (Ancylostoma), parasite richness, host age, sex, year of sampling, and clan membership on immune responses and asked whether high investment in immune responses during early life affects longevity in individually known spotted hyenas in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Fecal concentrations of IgA, IgG, and mucin increased with Ancylostoma egg load and were higher in juveniles than in adults. Females had higher mucin concentrations than males. Juvenile females had higher IgG concentrations than juvenile males, whereas adult females had lower IgG concentrations than adult males. High IgA concentrations during the first year of life were linked to reduced longevity after controlling for age at sampling and Ancylostoma egg load. Our study demonstrates that the use of noninvasive methods can increase knowledge on the complex relationship between gastrointestinal parasites and host local immune responses in wild large mammals and reveal fitness-relevant effects of these responses.

Supplemented nutrition decreases helminth burden and increases drug efficacy in a natural host-helminth system

Gastrointestinal (GI) helminths are common parasites of humans, wildlife, and livestock, causing chronic infections. In humans and wildlife, poor nutrition or limited resources can compromise an individual's immune response, predisposing them to higher helminth burdens. This relationship has been tested in laboratory models by investigating infection outcomes following reductions of specific nutrients. However, much less is known about how diet supplementation can impact susceptibility to infection, acquisition of immunity, and drug efficacy in natural host-helminth systems. We experimentally supplemented the diet of wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) with high-quality nutrition and measured resistance to the common GI nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus. To test whether diet can enhance immunity to reinfection, we also administered anthelmintic treatment in both natural and captive populations. Supplemented wood mice were more resistant to H. polygyrus infection, cleared worms more efficiently after treatment, avoided a post-treatment infection rebound, produced stronger general and parasite-specific antibody responses, and maintained better body condition. In addition, when applied in conjunction with anthelmintic treatment, supplemented nutrition significantly reduced H. polygyrus transmission potential. These results show the rapid and extensive benefits of a well-balanced diet and have important implications for both disease control and wildlife health under changing environmental conditions.

Immunity to Soil-Transmitted Helminths: Evidence From the Field and Laboratory Models

Infection with soil-transmitted helminths (STH) remains a major burden on global health and agriculture. Our understanding of the immunological mechanisms that govern whether an individual is resistant or susceptible to infection is derived primarily from model infections in rodents. Typically, experimental infections employ an artificially high, single bolus of parasites that leads to rapid expulsion of the primary infection and robust immunity to subsequent challenges. However, immunity in natura is generated slowly, and is only partially effective, with individuals in endemic areas retaining low-level infections throughout their lives. Therefore, there is a gap between traditional model STH systems and observations in the field. Here, we review the immune response to traditional model STH infections in the laboratory. We compare these data to studies of natural infection in humans and rodents in endemic areas, highlighting crucial differences between experimental and natural infection. We then detail the literature to date on the use of "trickle" infections to experimentally model the kinetics of natural infection.

Variation in Local and Systemic Pro-Inflammatory Immune Markers of Wild Wood Mice after Anthelmintic Treatment

The immune system represents a host's main defense against infection to parasites and pathogens. In the wild, a host's response to immune challenges can vary due to physiological condition, demography (age, sex), and coinfection by other parasites or pathogens. These sources of variation, which are intrinsic to natural populations, can significantly impact the strength and type of immune responses elicited after parasite exposure and infection. Importantly, but often neglected, a host's immune response can also vary within the individual, across tissues and between local and systemic scales. Consequently, how a host responds at each scale may impact its susceptibility to concurrent and subsequent infections. Here we analyzed how characteristics of hosts and their parasite infections drive variation in the pro-inflammatory immune response in wild wood mice (Apodemus sylvaticus) at both the local and systemic scale by experimentally manipulating within-host parasite communities through anthelmintic drug treatment. We measured concentrations of the pro-inflammatory cytokine tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) produced in vitro in response to a panel of toll-like receptor agonists at the local (mesenteric lymph nodes [MLNs]) and systemic (spleen) scales of individuals naturally infected with two gastrointestinal parasites, the nematode Heligmosomoides polygyrus and the protozoan Eimeria hungaryensis. Anthelmintic-treated mice had a 20-fold lower worm burden compared to control mice, as well as a four-fold higher intensity of the non-drug targeted parasite E. hungaryensis. Anthelmintic treatment differentially impacted levels of TNF-α expression in males and females at the systemic and local scales, with treated males producing higher, and treated females lower, levels of TNF-α, compared to control mice. Also, TNF-α was affected by host age, at the local scale, with MLN cells of young, treated mice producing higher levels of TNF-α than those of old, treated mice. Using complementary, but distinct, measures of inflammation measured across within-host scales allowed us to better assess the wood mouse immune response to changes in parasite infection dynamics after anthelmintic treatment. This same approach could be used to understand helminth infections and responses to parasite control measures in other systems in order to gain a broader view of how variation impacts the immune response.

Helminth infections and immunosenescence: The friend of my enemy

Age-associated alterations of the immune system, which known as "immunosenescence", is characterized by a decline in innate and adaptive immunity, which leading to increased susceptibility to age-associated diseases, such as infectious diseases, rheumatic disease and malignancies. On the other hand, helminth infections are among the most prevalent infections in older individuals, especially in the nursing homes. Most of helminth infections have minor clinical symptoms and usually causing chronic infections without treatment. Nevertheless, chronic helminthiasis alters immune responses somewhat similar to the immunosenescence. Some similarities also exist between helminth infections and immunosenescence: 1) both of them led to declining the immune responses; 2) undernutrition is a consequence of immunosenescence and helminthiasis; 3) vaccine efficacy declines in aging and individuals with helminth infections; 4) increase incidence and prevalence of infectious diseases in the elder individuals and patients with helminth infections; and 5) both of them promote tumorigenesis. Hence, it is probable that helminth infections in the elderly population can intensify the immunosenescence outcomes due to the synergistic immunoregulatory effects of each of them. It would be suggested that, diagnosis, treatment and prevention of helminth infections should be more considered in older individuals. Also, it would be suggested that helminths or their antigens can be used for investigation of immunosenescence because both of them possess some similarities in immune alterations. Taken together, this review offers new insights into the immunology of aging and helminth infections.