An approach for understanding the inflammation and cancer relationship

The role of inflammation biomarkers in differential diagnosis of pelvic tumours of ovarian origin: a single-centre observational study

Aim of the study

Our aim was to analyse the feasibility of white blood cell and platelet counts along with their ratios as a prognostic factor in patients who underwent surgery for ovarian mass.

Material and methods

We retrospectively studied the patients admitted in the Department of Gynaecology due to adnexal mass. The potential association of the neutrophil-to-lymphocyte-ratio (NLR), neutrophil-to-monocyte (NMR), platelet-to-lymphocyte (PLR), lymphocyte-to-monocyte (LMR), monocyte-to-platelet, and malignancy was evaluated.

Results

Patients with malignant tumours were found with significantly higher ratios of NLR (p < 0.001) and PLR (p < 0.001) and lower LMR ratio (p < 0.001) compared to those with benign tumours. Furthermore, higher lymphocyte count (p = 0.04) and platelet count (p = 0.004) were found in cancer patients when compared with borderline tumours. No significant variations were detected regarding white blood cell count (p = 0.238), NMR ratio (p = 0.28), platelet-to-neutrophil ratio (p = 0.12), and platelet-to-monocyte ratio (p = 0.34).

Conclusions

Inflammation biomarker ratios can easily and inexpensive assist in distinguishing malignant ovarian tumours from benign ones.

A Psychosocial Genomics Pilot Study in Oncology for Verifying Clinical, Inflammatory and Psychological Effects of Mind-Body Transformations-Therapy (MBT-T) in Breast Cancer Patients: Preliminary Results

Several studies have highlighted the key role of chronic inflammation in breast cancer development, progression, metastasis, and therapeutic outcome. These processes are mediated through a variety of cytokines and hormones that exert their biological actions either locally or distantly via systemic circulation. Recent findings suggest that positive psychosocial experiences, including psychotherapeutic interventions and therapeutic mind-body protocols, can modulate the inflammatory response by reducing the expression of genes/proteins associated with inflammation and stress-related pathways. Our preliminary results indicate that a specific mind-body therapy (MBT-T) could induce a significant reduction of the release of different cytokines and chemokines, such as SCGFβ, SDF-1α, MCP3, GROα, LIF, and IL-18, in the sera of breast cancer patients compared to a control group, suggesting that MBT-T could represent a promising approach to improve the wellness and outcome of breast cancer patients.

Zoledronic Acid Abrogates Restraint Stress-Induced Macrophage Infiltration, PDGF-AA Expression, and Ovarian Cancer Growth

Simple Summary

Biobehavioral disorders can negatively impact patients with ovarian cancer. Growing evidence suggests that chronic stress can promote tumor progression, the release of inflammatory mediators, and macrophage infiltration into the tumor. However, the role of stress hormones in regulating cancer cell/macrophage crosstalk remains unclear. This study aimed to assess the role of stress hormone-stimulated macrophages in modulating inflammatory networks and ovarian cancer biology. Our data show that stress hormones induced secretion of inflammatory proteins in ovarian cancer cell/macrophage co-cultures. Furthermore, we show that restraint stress leads to cancer growth, macrophage infiltration, and PDGF-AA protein expression in animal models of ovarian cancer. Conversely, zoledronic acid was able to prevent the effects of restraint stress on ovarian cancer growth. Overall, our data suggest a role for stress hormone-stimulated macrophages in ovarian cancer progression and suggest the involvement of PDGF-AA as a key mediator of this process.

Abstract

Multiple studies suggest that chronic stress accelerates the growth of existing tumors by activating the sympathetic nervous system. Data suggest that sustained adrenergic signaling can induce tumor growth, secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, and macrophage infiltration. Our goal was to study the role of adrenergic-stimulated macrophages in ovarian cancer biology. Cytokine arrays were used to assess the effect of adrenergic stimulation in pro-tumoral cytokine networks. An orthotopic model of ovarian cancer was used to assess the in vivo effect of daily restraint stress on tumor growth and adrenergic-induced macrophages. Cytokine analyses showed that adrenergic stimulation modulated pro-inflammatory cytokine secretion in a SKOV3ip1 ovarian cancer cell/U937 macrophage co-culture system. Among these, platelet-derived growth factor AA (PDGF-AA), epithelial cell-derived neutrophil-activating peptide (ENA-78), Angiogenin, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), interleukin-5 (IL-5), Lipocalin-2, macrophage migration inhibitory factor (MIF), and transferrin receptor (TfR) were upregulated. Enriched biological processes included cytokine-mediated signaling pathways and positive regulation of cell proliferation. In addition, daily restraint stress increased ovarian cancer growth, infiltration of CD68+ macrophages, and expression of PDGF-AA in orthotopic models of ovarian cancer (SKOV3ip1 and HeyT30), while zoledronic acid, a macrophage-depleting agent, abrogated this effect. Furthermore, in ovarian cancer patients, high PDGFA expression correlated with worse outcomes. Here, it is shown that the adrenergic regulation of macrophages and PDGFA might play a role in ovarian cancer progression.

Role of TLR4 as a prognostic factor for survival in various cancers: a meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Accumulating evidence showed that high expression of toll like receptor 4 (TLR4) was significantly associated with the outcome of patients with solid cancers. However, other studies failed to draw a similar conclusion. Thus, a systematic meta-analysis was performed to assess the prognostic value of TLR4 in solid tumors.

RESULTS

Data from 15 studies and 1294 patients were enrolled. Among the 15 studies, 14 studies demonstrated the association between overall survival(OS) and TLR4 expression, and 7 studies described the relationship between disease-free survival(DFS) and TLR4 expression. High expression of TLR4 was significantly associated with poor OS (pooled hazard ratio (HR) = 2.05; 95% confidence interval (CI) (1.49, 2,49), P < 0.001). The results of meta regression analysis indicated that the subgroups of ethnic (PD = 0.924), tumor type (PD = 0.669), HR obtained method (PD = 0.945), analysis type (PD = 0.898), and cut-off value(PD = 0.835) were not the resource of heterogeneity. Moreover, patients with elevated TLR4 had a significantly worse DFS (pooled HR = 1.79; 95% CI (1.11, 2.88), P < 0.05).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We searched PubMed, Embase and the Cochrane Library (last update by April 18, 2017) to identify literatures evaluating the value of TLR4 in cancer patients. Combined hazard ratios (HRs) for OS and DFS were assessed using fixed-effects models and random effects models respectively.

CONCLUSIONS

The meta-analysis suggests that elevated expression of TLR4 is associated with poor OS and shorter DFS of patients with solid tumors. The results indicate that TLR4, as a novel prognostic biomarker in solid tumors, could potentially help to improve treatment decision-making of solid tumors in clinical.

Lipopolysaccharide-induced toll-like receptor 4 signaling in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma promotes tumor proliferation and regulates inflammatory cytokines expression

Emerging evidence suggests toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) signaling contributes to cancer development and progression. However, the consequences of signaling via the TLR4 pathway in esophageal squamous cell carcinoma (ESCC) are still unclear. Here, we investigated the impact of Lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced TLR4 signaling on ESCC cell proliferation, inflammatory cytokines expression, and downstream molecular mechanisms. Seventy-eight ESCC and 26 normal esophageal specimens were analyzed by immunohistochemistry, and two cell lines (Eca-109 and TE-1) were used for in vitro studies. LPS, a natural agonist of TLR4, was used to activate TLR4 signaling. The effects of LPS-TLR4 signaling on cell proliferation and inflammatory cytokines regulation were examined. Specific inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) (extracellular regulated protein kinase [ERK] and p38) signaling pathways were used to investigate the role of each pathway in LPS-TLR4 signaling. TLR4 protein was increased in ESCC tumor tissues compared with the adjacent normal tissues. TLR4 over-expression was significantly correlated with tumor differentiation grade, lymph node metastasis, and UICC stage. LPS-induced activation of TLR4 signaling promoted cancer cell proliferation, increased production of proinflammatory or immunosuppressive cytokines TNF-α, TGF-β and inhibited the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-10. LPS-TLR4 signaling was associated with the activation of ERK and p38 MAPK signaling pathways. Further inactivation of the two pathways by specific inhibitors attenuated cell proliferation and inflammatory cytokines expression induced by LPS. Our results indicate that LPS-TLR4 signaling in cancer cells contributes to the progression of human ESCC.

Serum Cytokinome Profile Evaluation: A Tool to Define New Diagnostic and Prognostic Markers of Cancer Using Multiplexed Bead-Based Immunoassays

In recent years, many researchers are focusing their attention on the link between inflammation and cancer. The inflammation is involved in the tumor development and suppression, by stimulating the immune response. In particular, the transition from chronic inflammation to cancer produces angiogenic and growth factors able to repair the tissue and to promote cancer cell survival, implantation, and growth. In this contest, the cytokines contribute to the development of these processes becoming active before and during the inflammatory process and playing an important function at the various disease levels. Thus, these proteins can represent specific markers of tumor development and progression. Therefore the "cytokinome" term is used to indicate the evaluation of cytokine pattern by using an "omics" approach. Newly, specific protein chips of considerable and improved sensitivity are being developed to determine simultaneously several and different cytokines. This can be achieved by a multiplex technology that, through the use of small amounts of serum or other fluids, is used to determine the presence and the levels of underrepresented cytokines. Since this method is an accurate, sensitive, and reproducible cytokine assay, it is already used in many different studies. Thus, this review focuses on the more latest aspects related to cytokinome profile evaluation in different cancers.

Anti-Inflammatory Effects of a Methanol Extract from the Marine Sponge Geodia cydonium on the Human Breast Cancer MCF-7 Cell Line

Many research groups are working to find new possible anti-inflammatory molecules, and marine sponges represent a rich source of biologically active compounds with pharmacological applications. In the present study, we tested different concentrations of the methanol extract from the marine sponge, Geodia cydonium, on normal human breast epithelial cells (MCF-10A) and human breast cancer cells (MCF-7). Our results show that this extract has no cytotoxic effects on both cell lines whereas it induces a decrease in levels of VEGF and five proinflammatory cytokines (CCL2, CXCL8, CXCL10, IFN-γ, and TNF-α) only in MCF-7 cells in a dose-dependent manner, thereby indicating an anti-inflammatory effect. Moreover, interactomic analysis suggests that all six cytokines are involved in a network and are connected with some HUB nodes such as NF-kB subunits and ESR1 (estrogen receptor 1). We also report a decrease in the expression of two NFKB1 and c-Rel subunits by RT-qPCR experiments only in MCF-7 cells after extract treatment, confirming NF-kB inactivation. These data highlight the potential of G. cydonium for future drug discovery against major diseases, such as breast cancer.

Increased Neutrophil-Lymphocyte Ratio Is a Poor Prognostic Factor in Patients with Esophageal Cancer in a High Incidence Area in China

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Neutrophil-lymphocyte ratio (NLR) and the platelet-lymphocyte ratio (PLR) have been assumed to be a marker to predict the survival of patients with different types of cancer. We undertook this study to verify the prognostic value of the NLR and the PLR for predicting the survival rate of patients with esophageal cancer in a high incidence area in China.

METHODS

In total, 820 cases from a high incidence area that had pathologically confirmed esophageal cancers initially diagnosed at the Fourth Hospital of Hebei Medical University from 2007-2008 were analyzed. The medical record system was used to collect patient information regarding personal details, cancer type, treatment, and routine blood examinations at the time of admission. Follow-up evaluations were conducted by the established follow-up system at the hospital. We used Kaplan-Meier method to calculate overall survival (OS) rate. We used Cox regression analysis to analyze the factors that may affect the OS rate of the patients. SPSS 13.0 and Excel software packages were used for statistical analysis.

RESULTS

In total, 864 cases were consistent with the inclusion criterion. At the end of the study, 820 cases received follow-up evaluation. Follow-up rate was 94.91%. Among the 820 cases, 334 died of esophageal cancer, whereas 486 remain alive as of March 15, 2014. Five-year OS rate of the patients with esophageal cancer was 40.66%. Patients in the NLR ≥3.5 group demonstrated shorter OS than patients in the NLR <3.5 group (53.2 vs. 33.4 months, p = 0.001). Multivariate analysis indicated that age, pathological type, TNM stage, surgery and NLR were all independent risk factors for esophageal cancer. OR of NLR ≥3.5 group was 1.287 (1.049-1.580).

CONCLUSIONS

NLR may be an independent prognostic factor for esophageal cancer in high incidence areas.

A Prospective Evaluation of the Association between a Single Nucleotide Polymorphism rs3775291 in Toll-Like Receptor 3 and Breast Cancer Relapse

Background

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) regulate the balance between the innate and adaptive immune responses. Missense single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) in TLRs might be functional and thus influence the risks of chronic infection and cancer development. Here, we investigated the association of two missense SNPs, rs3775291 (c.1234G>A) in the TLR3 gene and rs4833095 (c.743T>C) in the TLR1 gene, with relapse-free survival (RFS) in a cohort of prospectively observed breast cancer patients.

Methods

In this prospective observational study, rs3775291 in TLR3 and rs4833095 in TLR1 were genotyped in 715 patients with primary breast cancer in a Chinese population.

Results

Univariate analysis revealed that the patients with the AA genotype of rs3775291 had a shorter RFS compared with those carrying the G allele in the recessive model (P<0.01), but this finding was not observed with the dominant model (P = 0.31). The results remained significant after adjusting for the clinical parameters in the recessive model (HR = 3.53, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.98–6.31, P<0.01). Further survival analysis indicated that this SNP was significant in the luminal-B, triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), and human epidermal growth factor receptor 2-positive (HER2+) patients using the recessive model but that it was not significant in the luminal-A patients. The SNP rs4833095 showed a non-significant tendency toward an increased RFS rate in the patients with the TT genotype.

Conclusion

Our results suggest that the SNP rs3775291 in TLR3 may influence patient outcome. Further studies with larger sample sizes should be conducted to validate our findings.

Prognostic value of myeloid differentiation primary response 88 and Toll-like receptor 4 in breast cancer patients

PURPOSE

Breast cancer remains a major cause of death in women worldwide, and tumor metastasis is the leading cause of death in breast cancer patients after conventional treatment. Chronic inflammation is often related to the occurrence and growth of various malignancies. This study evaluated the prognosis of breast cancer patients based on contributors to the innate immune response: myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88) and Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4).

METHODS

We analyzed data from 205 breast invasive ductal carcinoma (IDC) patients who were treated at the Department of Breast Surgery, Key Laboratory of Breast Cancer in Shanghai, Fudan University Shanghai Cancer Center, from 2002 to 2006. Overall survival (OS) and disease-free survival (DFS) were compared.

RESULTS

In total, 152 patients (74.15%) were disease-free without relapse or metastasis, whereas 53 (25.85%) patients developed recurrence or metastasis. A significant positive correlation was observed between MyD88 and TLR4 expression (p<0.001). Patients with high expression were more likely to experience death and recurrence/metastasis events (p<0.05). Patients with low MyD88 or TLR4 expression levels had better DFS and OS than patients with high expression levels (log-rank test: p<0.001). Patients with low MyD88 and TLR4 expression levels had better DFS and OS than patients with high expression levels of either (log-rank test: p<0.001). In a multivariate analysis, high MyD88 expression was an independent predictive factor for decreased DFS (adjusted HR, 3.324; 95% CI, 1.663-6.641; p = 0.001) and OS (adjusted HR, 4.500; 95% CI, 1.546-13.098; p = 0.006).

CONCLUSIONS

TLR4-MyD88 signaling pathway activation or MyD88 activation alone may be a risk factor for poor prognosis in breast cancer. Therefore, TLR4-MyD88 signaling pathway activation in tumor biology provides a novel potential target for breast cancer therapy.

Genetic variants of chemokine CCL2 and chemokine receptor CCR2 genes and risk of prostate cancer

Chemokines and their receptors acts as mediators of migration of immune cells to the site of inflammation and deregulated inflammatory response is associated with increased risk of cancer. We performed a case-control study to analyze the frequencies of CCL2 (I/D, rs3917887), -2518 (A > G, rs1024611), and CCR2 (G > A, rs1799864) polymorphisms for prostate cancer (PCa) risk. In this hospital-based case-control study, histologically confirmed 195 PCa patients and 250 unrelated healthy controls of similar ethnicity were genotyped by PCR-RFLP. The result showed that heterozygous ID (odds ratio (OR) = 1.71; p = 0.010) carrier genotype of CCL2 gene were at increased risk for developing PCa. Variant allele D carriers (ID + DD) demonstrated a 1.67-fold increased risk (OR = 1.67; p = 0.010), suggesting a dominant effect model involved in PCa risk. Similarly, variant allele D of CCL2 gene also had a higher risk (OR = 1.53; p = 0.040) for developing PCa. High risk to PCa was also observed with respect to diplotypes, I-G (OR = 1.83; Bonferroni corrected p value (P c) = 0.004) and D-A (OR = 2.11; P c = 0.004) of CCL2 I/D and -2518 (A > G). In association of genotypes with clinic-pathological grade of tumor, homozygous DD (OR = 7.40; P c = 0.042) and variant allele carrier ID + DD (OR = 2.42; P c = 0.036) genotypes of CCL2 gene conferred risk in high Gleason grade tumor of PCa. We observed a significantly enhanced risk for PCa due to interaction between CCL2 I/D, -2518 (A > G), and CCR2 (G > A) genotypes. However, -2518 (A > G) and CCR2 V64I (G > A) gene polymorphisms were not significantly associated with PCa risk. Our results supported that CCL2 I/D gene variant contribute to the susceptibility and clinic-pathological characteristic of PCa and could be considered as an important risk factor for this malignancy in North Indian men.

Cytokinome profile evaluation in patients with hepatitis C virus infection

The ‘‘omics sciences’’ (genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics) are often used to study living organisms as a whole system by evaluating the complex expression patterns of genes, miRNA, proteins, and metabolites. This study aimed, through bioinformatics and systems biology, to decipher the cytokinome profile in the evolution of inflammatory processes leading to cancer. The cytokinome was defined as the totality of cytokines and their interactions in and around biological cells. The system biology approach would provide a better understanding of the complex interaction network of cytokines, especially in cancer patients. Acquired knowledge would enable health providers with tools to evaluate disease onset through progression as well as identifying innovative therapeutic strategies. Understanding the role each cytokine plays in the metabolic network is of great importance. This paper reviews our group’s ‘‘omics’’ work. In particular, it addresses the role cytokines play in liver disease in six different scenarios. The first is the role the cytokines play in chronic inflammatory diseases and cancers. The second is the significance of the cytokinome profile. The third is the role of liver cirrhosis as an inflammatory disease. The fourth is the comparison of cytokine levels evaluated in patients with chronic hepatitis C virus (HCV) or with HCV-related cirrhosis. The fifth is the comparison of cytokine levels evaluated in patients with HCV-related cirrhosis in the presence and absence of type 2 diabetes. And lastly, we present a comparison of cytokine levels evaluated in patients with HCV-related cirrhosis in the presence and absence of hepatocellular carcinoma.

Synergistic antitumor effect of Doxorubicin and tacrolimus (FK506) on hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines

Hepatocellular carcinoma is the fifth most common cancer worldwide and shows a complex clinical course, poor response to pharmacological treatment, and a severe prognosis. Thus, the aim of this study was to investigate whether tacrolimus (FK506) has synergistic antitumor effects with doxorubicin on two human hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines, Huh7 and HepG2. Cell viability was analyzed by Sulforhodamine B assay and synergic effect was evaluated by the software CalcuSyn. Cell apoptosis was evaluated using Annexin V and Dead Cell assay. Apoptosis-related protein PARP-1 cleaved and autophagy-related protein expressions (Beclin-1 and LC3B) were measured by western blotting analysis. Cytokines concentration in cellular supernatants after treatments was studied by Bio-Plex assay. Interestingly the formulation with doxorubicin and tacrolimus induced higher cytotoxicity level on tumor cells than single treatment. Moreover, our results showed that the mechanisms involved were (i) a strong cell apoptosis induction, (ii) contemporaneous decrease of autophagy activation, understood as prosurvival process, and (iii) downregulation of proinflammatory cytokines. In conclusion, future studies could relate to the doxorubicin/tacrolimus combination effects in mice models bearing HCC in order to see if this formulation could be useful in HCC treatment.

Dissimilar cytokine patterns in different human liver and colon cancer cell lines

An accurate and simultaneous estimate of cellular levels of a large cytokine number is very useful to obtain information about an organ dysfunction leading to cancer because through the understanding of the evolution of cytokine patterns we can recognize and predict the disease progression. Cancer cell lines are commonly used to study the cancer microenvironment, to analyze their chemosensitivity and carcinogenesis as well as to test in vitro the effect of molecules, such as drugs or anti-oxidants, on the inflammation status and its progression. We noted that various cell lines commonly used as a model for studies on liver and colon cancer possess different patterns of cytokines. This aspect may generate data not comparable in laboratories using different cell lines; thus, to investigate the origin of these abnormalities we compared the cell lines HepG2 and Huh7, and HT-29 and HCT-116, for liver and colon cancer, respectively. In this context we have evaluated and compared the levels of cytokines, chemokines and growth factors in the supernatants of these cellular lines. Our aim was to identify what cytokines were significantly different correlating similarities and differences to the specific inflammation status of each cellular model of cancer.

Study of TLR3, TLR4, and TLR9 in prostate carcinomas and their association with biochemical recurrence

BACKGROUND

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have garnered an extraordinary amount of interest in cancer research due to their role in tumor progression. By activating the production of several biological factors, TLRs induce type I interferons and other cytokines, which drive an inflammatory response and activate the adaptive immune system. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression and clinical relevance of TLR3, 4, and 9 in prostate cancer.

METHODS

The expression levels of TLR3, TLR4, and TLR9 were analyzed on tumors from 133 patients with prostate cancer. The analyses were performed by immunohistochemistry on tissue arrays and real time-PCR.

RESULTS

Cancerous cells showed high expression levels of TLRs compared with controls. Samples of carcinomas with recurrence exhibited a significant increase in the mRNA levels of TLR3, TLR4, and TLR9. In addition, the tumors that showed high TLR3 or TLR9 expression levels were significantly associated with higher probability of biochemical recurrence.

CONCLUSION

TLR expression is associated with prostate cancer with recurrence and the role of TLR receptors in the biology of malignancy merits study. Therapeutic strategies to boost or block TLRs may be of interest.

Study of TLR3, TLR4 and TLR9 in breast carcinomas and their association with metastasis

Background

Toll-like receptors (TLRs) have garnered an extraordinary amount of interest in cancer research due to their role in tumor progression. By activating the production of several biological factors, TLRs induce type I interferons and other cytokines, which drive an inflammatory response and activate the adaptive immune system. The aim of this study was to investigate the expression and clinical relevance of TLR3, 4 and 9 in breast cancer.

Methods

The expression levels of TLR3, TLR4 and TLR9 were analyzed on tumors from 74 patients with breast cancer. The analysis was performed by immunohistochemistry.

Results

Samples of carcinomas with recurrence exhibited a significant increase in the mRNA levels of TLR3, TLR4 and TLR9. Tumors showed high expression of TLRs expression levels by cancer cells, especially TLR4 and 9. Nevertheless, a significant percentage of tumors also showed TLR4 expression by mononuclear inflammatory cells (21.6%) and TLR9 expression by fibroblast-like cells (57.5%). Tumors with high TLR3 expression by tumor cell or with high TLR4 expression by mononuclear inflammatory cells were significantly associated with higher probability of metastasis. However, tumours with high TLR9 expression by fibroblast-like cells were associated with low probability of metastasis.

Conclusions

The expression levels of TLR3, TLR4 and TLR9 have clinical interest as indicators of tumor aggressiveness in breast cancer. TLRs may represent therapeutic targets in breast cancer.

CDMS (Clinical Data Mining Software): a cytokinome data mining system for a predictive medicine of chronic inflammatory diseases

The cytokines, main players of the chronic inflammation progression leading to serious diseases such as diabetes or cancer, represent a target for better clinical prognosis and innovative therapeutic strategies. To investigate the immunopathogenetic progression of these diseases, the evaluation of serum cytokines profiles made of many different proteins is much more informative than single protein measurements. We developed a Clinical Data Mining Software to collect cytokine profiles evaluated on healthy subjects and patients by multiplex immunoassays also annotated with their clinical and laboratory data, to compare patient profiles by statistical tools and to evaluate their disease progression.

Inflammatory genetic markers of prostate cancer risk

Prostate cancer is the most common cancer in Western society males, with incidence rates predicted to rise with global aging. Etiology of prostate cancer is however poorly understood, while current diagnostic tools can be invasive (digital rectal exam or biopsy) and/or lack specificity for the disease (prostate-specific antigen (PSA) testing). Substantial histological, epidemiological and molecular genetic evidence indicates that inflammation is important in prostate cancer pathogenesis. In this review, we summarize the current status of inflammatory genetic markers influencing susceptibility to prostate cancer. The focus will be on inflammatory cytokines regulating T-helper cell and chemokine homeostasis, together with the Toll-like receptors as key players in the host innate immune system. Although association studies indicating a genetic basis for prostate cancer are presently limited mainly due to lack of replication, larger and more ethnically and clinically defined study populations may help elucidate the true contribution of inflammatory gene variants to prostate cancer risk.