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Bundil I, Baltruschat S, Zhang J. Characterising and differentiating cognitive and motor speed in older adults: structural equation modelling on a UK longitudinal birth cohort. BMJ Open 2024; 14:e083968. [PMID: 39160108 PMCID: PMC11337668 DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2024-083968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2024] [Accepted: 07/29/2024] [Indexed: 08/21/2024] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Information processing speed (IPS) has been proposed to be a key component in healthy ageing and cognitive functioning. Yet, current studies lack a consistent definition and specific influential characteristics. This study aimed to investigate IPS as a multifaceted concept by differentiating cognitive and motor IPS. DESIGN, SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS A retrospective data analysis using data from the Medical Research Council National Survey of Health and Development (a population-based cohort of UK adults born in 1946) at childhood (ages 8, 11 and 15) and adulthood (ages 60-64 and 68-70). Using structural equation modelling, we constructed two models of IPS with 2124 and 1776 participants, respectively. OUTCOME MEASURES Measures of interest included IPS (ie, letter cancellation, simple and choice reaction time), intelligence (ie, childhood intelligence and National Adult Reading Test), verbal memory, socioeconomic status (SES) and cognitive functions measured by the Addenbrooke's Cognitive Examination III, as well as a variety of health indexes. RESULTS We found distinct predictors for cognitive and motor IPS and how they relate to other cognitive functions in old age. In our first model, SES and antipsychotic medication usage emerged as significant predictors for cognitive IPS, intelligence and smoking as predictors for motor IPS while both share sex, memory and antiepileptic medication usage as common predictors. Notably, all differences between both IPS types ran in the same direction except for sex differences, with women performing better than men in cognitive IPS and vice versa in motor IPS. The second model showed that both IPS measures, as well as intelligence, memory, antipsychotic and sedative medication usage, explain cognitive functions later in life. CONCLUSION Taken together, these results shed further light on IPS as a whole by showing there are distinct types and that these measures directly relate to other cognitive functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Indra Bundil
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
| | | | - Jiaxiang Zhang
- School of Psychology, Cardiff University, Cardiff, UK
- Department of Computer Science, Swansea University, Swansea, UK
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2
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Petermann-Rocha F, Deo S, Lyall D, Orkaby AR, Quinn TJ, Sattar N, Celis-Morales C, Pell JP, Ho FK. Association Between the AHA Life's Essential 8 Score and Incident All-Cause Dementia: A Prospective Cohort Study from UK Biobank. Curr Probl Cardiol 2023; 48:101934. [PMID: 37422047 DOI: 10.1016/j.cpcardiol.2023.101934] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/04/2023] [Indexed: 07/10/2023]
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the association between the Life's Essential 8 (LE8) score and incident all-cause dementia (including Alzheimer's disease [AD] and vascular dementia) in UK Biobank. A total of 259,718 participants were included in this prospective study. Smoking, non-HDL cholesterol, blood pressure, body mass index, HbA1c, physical activity, diet, and sleep were used to create the Life's Essential 8 (LE8) score. Associations between the score (both continuous and as quartiles) and outcomes were investigated using adjusted Cox proportional hazard models. The potential impact fractions of 2 scenarios and the rate advancement periods were also calculated. Over a median follow-up of 10.6 years, 4958 participants were diagnosed with any dementia. Higher LE8 scores were associated with lower risk of all-cause and vascular dementia in an exponential decay pattern. Compared with individuals in the healthiest quartile, those in the least healthy quartile had a higher risk of all-cause dementia (HR: 1.50 [95% CI: 1.37-1.65] and vascular dementia (HR: 1.86 [1.44-2.42]). A targeted intervention that increased the score by 10-points among individuals in the lowest quartile could have prevented 6.8% of all-cause dementia cases. Individuals in the least healthy LE8 quartile might develop all-cause dementia 2.45 years earlier than their counterparts. In conclusion, individuals with higher LE8 scores had lower risk of all-cause and vascular dementia. Because of nonlinear associations, interventions targeted at the least healthy individuals might produce greater population-level benefits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanny Petermann-Rocha
- School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Health, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom; Centro de Investigación Biomédica, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Diego Portales, Santiago, Chile
| | - Salil Deo
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom; Division of Cardiothoracic Surgery Surgical Services, Louis Stokes Cleveland VA Medical Center, Cleveland, OH; Case School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH
| | - Donald Lyall
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Ariela R Orkaby
- New England Geriatric Research, Education, and Clinical Center (GRECC), VA Boston Healthcare System, Boston, MA; Division of Aging, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA
| | - Terence J Quinn
- School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Health, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Naveed Sattar
- School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Health, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Carlos Celis-Morales
- School of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Health, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom; Human Performance Laboratory, Education, Physical Activity and Health Research Unit, Universidad Católica del Maule, Talca, Chile
| | - Jill P Pell
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Frederick K Ho
- School of Health and Wellbeing, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
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3
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Wheater E, Shenkin SD, Muñoz Maniega S, Valdés Hernández M, Wardlaw JM, Deary IJ, Bastin ME, Boardman JP, Cox SR. Birth weight is associated with brain tissue volumes seven decades later but not with MRI markers of brain ageing. NEUROIMAGE-CLINICAL 2021; 31:102776. [PMID: 34371238 PMCID: PMC8358699 DOI: 10.1016/j.nicl.2021.102776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/25/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022]
Abstract
Larger birth weight is associated with larger brain tissue volumes at age 73. Birth weight is not associated with age-associated brain features. Effect of birth weight on brain volumes is independent of overall body size. Early life growth is likely to confer brain tissue reserve in later life.
Birth weight, an indicator of fetal growth, is associated with cognitive outcomes in early life (which are predictive of cognitive ability in later life) and risk of metabolic and cardiovascular disease across the life course. Brain health in older age, indexed by MRI features, is associated with cognitive performance, but little is known about how variation in normal birth weight impacts on brain structure in later life. In a community dwelling cohort of participants in their early seventies we tested the hypothesis that birth weight is associated with the following MRI features: total brain (TB), grey matter (GM) and normal appearing white matter (NAWM) volumes; whiter matter hyperintensity (WMH) volume; a general factor of fractional anisotropy (gFA) and peak width skeletonised mean diffusivity (PSMD) across the white matter skeleton. We also investigated the associations of birth weight with cortical surface area, volume and thickness. Birth weight was positively associated with TB, GM and NAWM volumes in later life (β ≥ 0.194), and with regional cortical surface area but not gFA, PSMD, WMH volume, or cortical volume or thickness. These positive relationships appear to be explained by larger intracranial volume, rather than by age-related tissue atrophy, and are independent of body height and weight in adulthood. This suggests that larger birth weight is linked to more brain tissue reserve in older life, rather than age-related brain structural features, such as tissue atrophy or WMH volume.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emily Wheater
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Susan D Shenkin
- Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Geriatric Medicine, Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Susana Muñoz Maniega
- Geriatric Medicine, Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Lothian Birth Cohorts, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Scottish Imaging Network, A Platform for Scientific Excellence Collaboration (SINAPSE), Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Maria Valdés Hernández
- Geriatric Medicine, Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Lothian Birth Cohorts, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Scottish Imaging Network, A Platform for Scientific Excellence Collaboration (SINAPSE), Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Joanna M Wardlaw
- Geriatric Medicine, Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Lothian Birth Cohorts, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Scottish Imaging Network, A Platform for Scientific Excellence Collaboration (SINAPSE), Edinburgh, United Kingdom; UK Dementia Research Institute Centre at the University of Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Ian J Deary
- Lothian Birth Cohorts, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Department Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Mark E Bastin
- Geriatric Medicine, Usher Institute, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Lothian Birth Cohorts, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Scottish Imaging Network, A Platform for Scientific Excellence Collaboration (SINAPSE), Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - James P Boardman
- MRC Centre for Reproductive Health, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Centre for Clinical Brain Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Simon R Cox
- Lothian Birth Cohorts, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Scottish Imaging Network, A Platform for Scientific Excellence Collaboration (SINAPSE), Edinburgh, United Kingdom; Department Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
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4
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Eisma YB, de Winter J. How Do People Perform an Inspection Time Task? An Examination of Visual Illusions, Task Experience, and Blinking. J Cogn 2020; 3:34. [PMID: 33043244 PMCID: PMC7528665 DOI: 10.5334/joc.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
In the inspection time (IT) paradigm, participants view two lines of unequal length (called the Pi-figure) for a short exposure time, and then judge which of the two lines was longer. Early research has interpreted IT as a simple index of mental speed, which does not involve motor activity. However, more recent studies have associated IT with higher-level cognitive mechanisms, including focused attention, task experience, and the strategic use of visual illusions. The extent to which these factors affect IT is still a source of debate. We used an eye-tracker to capture participants' (N = 147) visual attention while performing IT trials. Results showed that blinking was time-dependent, with participants blinking less when the Pi-figure was visible as compared to before and after. Blinking during the presentation of the Pi-figure correlated negatively with response accuracy. Also, participants who reported seeing a brightness illusion had a higher response accuracy than those who did not. The first experiment was repeated with new participants (N = 159), enhanced task instructions, and the inclusion of practice trials. Results showed substantially improved response accuracy compared to the first experiment, and no significant difference in response accuracy between those who did and did not report illusions. IT response accuracy correlated modestly (r = 0.18) with performance on a short Raven's advanced progressive matrices task. In conclusion, performance at the IT task is affected by task familiarity and involves motor activity in the form of blinking. Visual illusions may be an epiphenomenon of understanding the IT task.
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5
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Formenti D, Cavaggioni L, Duca M, Trecroci A, Rapelli M, Alberti G, Komar J, Iodice P. Acute Effect of Exercise on Cognitive Performance in Middle-Aged Adults: Aerobic Versus Balance. J Phys Act Health 2020; 17:773-780. [PMID: 32702659 DOI: 10.1123/jpah.2020-0005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2020] [Revised: 04/20/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2020] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent evidence has suggested that chronic physical activities including balance exercises have positive effects on cognition, but their acute effects are still unknown. In the present study, the authors tested the hypothesis that an acute bout of balance exercise would enhance cognitive performance compared with aerobic activity. METHODS A total of 20 healthy middle-aged adults completed 2 acute 30-minute balance and moderate-intensity aerobic exercise sessions on 2 counterbalanced separate occasions. To assess cognitive functions, performance tasks in executive control, perceptual speed, and simple reaction time were tested before and immediately after each exercise session. RESULTS Although there were no significant interactions (time × exercise condition, P > .05), the main effects of time were significant in executive control (P < .05), perceptual speed (P < .05), and simple reaction time (P < .001), showing improvements after both exercises. CONCLUSIONS These findings highlight that both types of exercise (aerobic, more metabolic and less cognitively demanding; balance, more cognitively and less metabolically demanding) were able to positively affect simple reaction time performance, perceptual speed, and executive control independently of physiological adjustments occurring during aerobic or balance exercise.
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6
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Karampela O, Madison G, Holm L. Motor timing training improves sustained attention performance but not fluid intelligence: near but not far transfer. Exp Brain Res 2020; 238:1051-1060. [PMID: 32206850 PMCID: PMC7181559 DOI: 10.1007/s00221-020-05780-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
Associations between cognitive and motor timing performance are documented in hundreds of studies. A core finding is a correlation of about - 0.3 to - 0.5 between psychometric intelligence and time interval production variability and reaction time, but the nature of the relationship remains unclear. Here, we investigated whether this relation is subject to near and far transfer across a battery of cognitive and timing tasks. These tasks were administered pre- and post-five daily 30 min sessions of sensorimotor synchronization training with feedback for every interval. The training group exhibited increased sustained attention performance in Conners' Continuous Performance Test II, but no change in the block design and figure weights subtests from the WAIS-IV. A passive control group exhibited no change in performance on any of the timing or cognitive tests. These findings provide evidence for a direct involvement of sustained attention in motor timing as well as near transfer from synchronization to unpaced serial interval production. Implications for the timing-cognition relationship are discussed in light of various putative timing mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Guy Madison
- Department of Psychology, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden
| | - Linus Holm
- Department of Psychology, Umeå University, 901 87, Umeå, Sweden.
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7
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MacPherson SE, Allerhand M, Cox SR, Deary IJ. Individual differences in cognitive processes underlying Trail Making Test-B performance in old age: The Lothian Birth Cohort 1936. INTELLIGENCE 2019; 75:23-32. [PMID: 31293282 PMCID: PMC6588265 DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2019.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The Trail Making Test Part B (TMT-B) is commonly used as a brief and simple neuropsychological assessment of executive dysfunction. The TMT-B is thought to rely on a number of distinct cognitive processes that predict individual differences in performance. The current study examined the unique and shared contributions of latent component variables in a large cohort of older people. Five hundred and eighty-seven healthy, community-dwelling older adults who were all born in 1936 were assessed on the TMT-B and multiple tasks tapping cognitive domains of visuospatial ability, processing speed, memory and reading ability. Firstly, a first-order measurement model examining independent contributions of the four cognitive domains was fitted; a significant relationship between TMT-B completion times and processing speed was found (β = −0.610, p < .001). Secondly, a bifactor model examined the unique influence of each cognitive ability when controlling for a general cognitive factor. Importantly, both a general cognitive factor (g; β = −0.561, p < .001) and additional g-independent variance from processing speed (β = −0.464, p < .001) contributed to successful TMT-B performance. These findings suggest that older adults' TMT-B performance is influenced by both general intelligence and processing speed, which may help understand poor performance on such tasks in clinical populations. Speed and general cognitive ability (g) contribute to Trail Making completion times. Faster processing speed was associated with faster completion times. Higher g was a strong contributor to faster completion times. Visuospatial and crystallized ability did not uniquely contribute to completion times. Memory did not independently contribute to completion times.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah E MacPherson
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, UK.,Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Michael Allerhand
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, UK.,Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Simon R Cox
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, UK.,Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK.,Scottish Imaging Network, a Platform for Scientific Excellence (SINAPSE) Collaboration, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Ian J Deary
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, UK.,Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, UK
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8
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Beier ME, Kell HJ, Lang JWB. Commenting on the "Great Debate": General Abilities, Specific Abilities, and the Tools of the Trade. J Intell 2019; 7:E5. [PMID: 31162384 PMCID: PMC6526427 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence7010005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2019] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We review papers in the special issue regarding the great debate on general and specific abilities. Papers in the special issue either provided an empirical examination of the debate using a uniform dataset or they provided a debate commentary. Themes that run through the papers and that are discussed further here are that: (1) the importance of general and specific ability predictors will largely depend on the outcome to be predicted, (2) the effectiveness of both general and specific predictors will largely depend on the quality and breadth of how the manifest indicators are measured, and (3) research on general and specific ability predictors is alive and well and more research is warranted. We conclude by providing a review of potentially fruitful areas of future research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Margaret E Beier
- Department of Psychological Sciences, Rice University, Houston, TX 77005, USA.
| | - Harrison J Kell
- Academic to Career Research Center, Research & Development, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ 08541, USA.
| | - Jonas W B Lang
- Department of Personnel Management, Work, and Organizational Psychology, Ghent University, Henri Dunantlaan 2, 9000 Ghent, Belgium.
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9
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Gale CR, Deary IJ, Batty GD. Cognitive ability and risk of death from lower respiratory tract infection: findings from UK Biobank. Sci Rep 2019; 9:1342. [PMID: 30718728 PMCID: PMC6362031 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-38126-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Dementia increases the risk of lower respiratory tract infection, but it is unclear whether risk varies across the normal range of cognitive ability. People with higher cognitive ability tend to behave in a healthier fashion as regards risk factors for lower respiratory tract infection and there is evidence that they have a lower risk of dying from respiratory disease as a whole. We therefore investigated the relationship between cognitive ability and mortality from lower respiratory tract infection. Participants were 434,413 people from UK Biobank (54% female). Cognitive ability was measured using tests of reaction time and reasoning. Data on deaths from lower respiratory infection were obtained from death certificates. Over a mean follow-up period of 6.99 years, 1,282 people died of lower respiratory infection. Mortality from lower respiratory tract infection fell as cognitive ability increased. For a standard deviation faster reaction time, the age- and sex-adjusted hazard ratio (95% confidence interval) was 0.80 (0.76, 0.83) and the multivariable-adjusted hazard ratio was 0.87 (0.83, 0.91). There were similar though weaker associations when cognitive ability was assessed using a reasoning test. These findings suggest that variation across the normal range of cognitive ability increase risk of dying from lower respiratory tract infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catharine R Gale
- MRC Lifecourse Epidemiology Unit, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK. .,Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK. .,Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
| | - Ian J Deary
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - G David Batty
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.,Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College, London, UK
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10
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Johnson W. A Tempest in A Ladle: The Debate about the Roles of General and Specific Abilities in Predicting Important Outcomes. J Intell 2018; 6:jintelligence6020024. [PMID: 31162451 PMCID: PMC6480782 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence6020024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The debate about the roles of general and specific abilities in predicting important outcomes is a tempest in a ladle because we cannot measure abilities without also measuring skills. Skills always develop through exposure, are specific rather than general, and are executed using different strategies by different people, thus tapping into varied specific abilities. Relative predictive validities of measurement formats depend on the purpose: the more general and long-term the purpose, the better the more general measure. The more specific and immediate the purpose, the better the closely related specific measure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wendy Johnson
- Department of Psychology, University of Edinburgh, 7 George Square, Edinburgh EH8 9JZ, UK.
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11
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McFarland DJ. How neuroscience can inform the study of individual differences in cognitive abilities. Rev Neurosci 2018; 28:343-362. [PMID: 28195556 DOI: 10.1515/revneuro-2016-0073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2016] [Accepted: 12/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Theories of human mental abilities should be consistent with what is known in neuroscience. Currently, tests of human mental abilities are modeled by cognitive constructs such as attention, working memory, and speed of information processing. These constructs are in turn related to a single general ability. However, brains are very complex systems and whether most of the variability between the operations of different brains can be ascribed to a single factor is questionable. Research in neuroscience suggests that psychological processes such as perception, attention, decision, and executive control are emergent properties of interacting distributed networks. The modules that make up these networks use similar computational processes that involve multiple forms of neural plasticity, each having different time constants. Accordingly, these networks might best be characterized in terms of the information they process rather than in terms of abstract psychological processes such as working memory and executive control.
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12
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Van Biesen D, McCulloch K, Janssens L, Vanlandewijck YC. The relation between intelligence and reaction time in tasks with increasing cognitive load among athletes with intellectual impairment. INTELLIGENCE 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2017.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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13
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Mathias SR, Knowles EEM, Barrett J, Leach O, Buccheri S, Beetham T, Blangero J, Poldrack RA, Glahn DC. The Processing-Speed Impairment in Psychosis Is More Than Just Accelerated Aging. Schizophr Bull 2017; 43:814-823. [PMID: 28062652 PMCID: PMC5472152 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbw168] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
Processing speed is impaired in patients with psychosis, and deteriorates as a function of normal aging. These observations, in combination with other lines of research, suggest that psychosis may be a syndrome of accelerated aging. But do patients with psychosis perform poorly on tasks of processing speed for the same reasons as older adults? Fifty-one patients with psychotic illnesses and 90 controls with similar mean IQ (aged 19-69 years, all African American) completed a computerized processing-speed task, reminiscent of the classic digit-symbol coding task. The data were analyzed using the drift-diffusion model (DDM), and Bayesian inference was used to determine whether psychosis and aging had similar or divergent effects on the DDM parameters. Psychosis and aging were both associated with poor performance, but had divergent effects on the DDM parameters. Patients had lower information-processing efficiency ("drift rate") and longer nondecision time than controls, and psychosis per se did not influence response caution. By contrast, the primary effect of aging was to increase response caution, and had inconsistent effects on drift rate and nondecision time across patients and controls. The results reveal that psychosis and aging influenced performance in different ways, suggesting that the processing-speed impairment in psychosis is more than just accelerated aging. This study also demonstrates the potential utility of computational models and Bayesian inference for finely mapping the contributions of cognitive functions on simple neurocognitive tests.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samuel R. Mathias
- Neurocognition, Neurocomputation and Neurogenetics (n3) Division, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 40 Temple Street, Room 694, New Haven, CT 06511
| | - Emma E. M. Knowles
- Neurocognition, Neurocomputation and Neurogenetics (n3) Division, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 40 Temple Street, Room 694, New Haven, CT 06511;,Olin Neuropsychiatry Research Center, Institute of Living, Hartford, CT
| | - Jennifer Barrett
- Olin Neuropsychiatry Research Center, Institute of Living, Hartford, CT
| | - Olivia Leach
- Olin Neuropsychiatry Research Center, Institute of Living, Hartford, CT
| | | | - Tamara Beetham
- Neurocognition, Neurocomputation and Neurogenetics (n3) Division, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 40 Temple Street, Room 694, New Haven, CT 06511
| | - John Blangero
- South Texas Diabetes and Obesity Institute, University of Texas Rio Grande Valley School of Medicine, Brownsville, TX
| | | | - David. C. Glahn
- Neurocognition, Neurocomputation and Neurogenetics (n3) Division, Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, 40 Temple Street, Room 694, New Haven, CT 06511;,Olin Neuropsychiatry Research Center, Institute of Living, Hartford, CT
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14
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Iveson MH, Della Sala S, Anderson M, MacPherson SE. Goal neglect, fluid intelligence and processing speed: Manipulating instruction load and inter-stimulus interval. Acta Psychol (Amst) 2017; 176:1-10. [PMID: 28315594 DOI: 10.1016/j.actpsy.2017.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2016] [Revised: 03/08/2017] [Accepted: 03/12/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Goal maintenance is the process where task rules and instructions are kept active to exert their control on behavior. When this process fails, an individual may ignore a rule while performing the task, despite being able to describe it after task completion. Previous research has suggested that the goal maintenance system is limited by the number of concurrent rules which can be maintained during a task, and that this limit is dependent on an individual's level of fluid intelligence. However, the speed at which an individual can process information may also limit their ability to use task rules when the task demands them. In the present study, four experiments manipulated the number of instructions to be maintained by younger and older adults and examined whether performance on a rapid letter-monitoring task was predicted by individual differences in fluid intelligence or processing speed. Fluid intelligence played little role in determining how frequently rules were ignored during the task, regardless of the number of rules to be maintained. In contrast, processing speed predicted the rate of goal neglect in older adults, where increasing the presentation rate of the letter-monitoring task increased goal neglect. These findings suggest that goal maintenance may be limited by the speed at which it can operate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew H Iveson
- Human Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, UK; Laboratory of Experimental Psychology, Suor Orsola Benincasa University, Italy.
| | - Sergio Della Sala
- Human Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, UK
| | - Mike Anderson
- School of Psychology and Exercise Science, Murdoch University, Australia
| | - Sarah E MacPherson
- Human Cognitive Neuroscience, Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, UK
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Specific Abilities in the Workplace: More Important Than g? J Intell 2017; 5:jintelligence5020013. [PMID: 31162404 PMCID: PMC6526462 DOI: 10.3390/jintelligence5020013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 03/30/2017] [Accepted: 04/04/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
A frequently reported finding is that general mental ability (GMA) is the best single psychological predictor of job performance. Furthermore, specific abilities often add little incremental validity beyond GMA, suggesting that they are not useful for predicting job performance criteria once general intelligence is accounted for. We review these findings and their historical background, along with different approaches to studying the relative influence of g and narrower abilities. Then, we discuss several recent studies that used relative importance analysis to study this relative influence and that found that specific abilities are equally good, and sometimes better, predictors of work performance than GMA. We conclude by discussing the implications of these findings and sketching future areas for research.
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16
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Delane L, Bayliss DM, Campbell C, Reid C, French N, Anderson M. Poor executive functioning in children born very preterm: Using dual-task methodology to untangle alternative theoretical interpretations. J Exp Child Psychol 2016; 152:264-277. [PMID: 27580448 DOI: 10.1016/j.jecp.2016.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Two alternative theoretical explanations have been proposed for the difficulties with executive functioning observed in children born very preterm (VP; ⩽32 weeks): a general vulnerability (i.e., in attentional and processing capacities), which has a cascading impact on increasingly complex cognitive functions, and a selective vulnerability in executive-level cognitive processes. It is difficult to tease apart this important theoretical distinction because executive functioning tasks are, by default, complex tasks. In the current study, an experimental dual-task design was employed to control for differences in task difficulty in order to isolate executive control. Participants included 50 VP children (mean age=7.29 years) and 39 term peer controls (mean age=7.28 years). The VP group exhibited a greater dual-task cost relative to controls despite experimental control for individual differences in baseline ability on the component single tasks. This group difference also remained under a condition of reduced task difficulty. These results suggest a selective vulnerability in executive-level processes that can be separated from any general vulnerability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louise Delane
- Neurocognitive Development Unit, School of Psychology, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia.
| | - Donna M Bayliss
- Neurocognitive Development Unit, School of Psychology, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia
| | - Catherine Campbell
- Centre for Neonatal Research and Education, School of Paediatrics and Child Health, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia; Neonatal Clinical Care Unit, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Subiaco, Perth, WA 6904, Australia
| | - Corinne Reid
- School of Psychology and Exercise Science, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Perth, WA 6150, Australia
| | - Noel French
- Centre for Neonatal Research and Education, School of Paediatrics and Child Health, The University of Western Australia, Crawley, Perth, WA 6009, Australia; Neonatal Clinical Care Unit, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Subiaco, Perth, WA 6904, Australia
| | - Mike Anderson
- School of Psychology and Exercise Science, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Perth, WA 6150, Australia
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The genetic architecture of correlations between perceptual timing, motor timing, and intelligence. INTELLIGENCE 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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18
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Abstract
A suite of recent studies has reported positive genetic correlations between autism risk and measures of mental ability. These findings indicate that alleles for autism overlap broadly with alleles for high intelligence, which appears paradoxical given that autism is characterized, overall, by below-average IQ. This paradox can be resolved under the hypothesis that autism etiology commonly involves enhanced, but imbalanced, components of intelligence. This hypothesis is supported by convergent evidence showing that autism and high IQ share a diverse set of convergent correlates, including large brain size, fast brain growth, increased sensory and visual-spatial abilities, enhanced synaptic functions, increased attentional focus, high socioeconomic status, more deliberative decision-making, profession and occupational interests in engineering and physical sciences, and high levels of positive assortative mating. These findings help to provide an evolutionary basis to understanding autism risk as underlain in part by dysregulation of intelligence, a core human-specific adaptation. In turn, integration of studies on intelligence with studies of autism should provide novel insights into the neurological and genetic causes of high mental abilities, with important implications for cognitive enhancement, artificial intelligence, the relationship of autism with schizophrenia, and the treatment of both autism and intellectual disability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernard J Crespi
- Department of Biological Sciences and Human Evolutionary Studies Program, Simon Fraser University Burnaby, BC, Canada
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Genome-wide association study of cognitive functions and educational attainment in UK Biobank (N=112 151). Mol Psychiatry 2016; 21:758-67. [PMID: 27046643 PMCID: PMC4879186 DOI: 10.1038/mp.2016.45] [Citation(s) in RCA: 235] [Impact Index Per Article: 29.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2015] [Revised: 01/14/2016] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
People's differences in cognitive functions are partly heritable and are associated with important life outcomes. Previous genome-wide association (GWA) studies of cognitive functions have found evidence for polygenic effects yet, to date, there are few replicated genetic associations. Here we use data from the UK Biobank sample to investigate the genetic contributions to variation in tests of three cognitive functions and in educational attainment. GWA analyses were performed for verbal-numerical reasoning (N=36 035), memory (N=112 067), reaction time (N=111 483) and for the attainment of a college or a university degree (N=111 114). We report genome-wide significant single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP)-based associations in 20 genomic regions, and significant gene-based findings in 46 regions. These include findings in the ATXN2, CYP2DG, APBA1 and CADM2 genes. We report replication of these hits in published GWA studies of cognitive function, educational attainment and childhood intelligence. There is also replication, in UK Biobank, of SNP hits reported previously in GWA studies of educational attainment and cognitive function. GCTA-GREML analyses, using common SNPs (minor allele frequency>0.01), indicated significant SNP-based heritabilities of 31% (s.e.m.=1.8%) for verbal-numerical reasoning, 5% (s.e.m.=0.6%) for memory, 11% (s.e.m.=0.6%) for reaction time and 21% (s.e.m.=0.6%) for educational attainment. Polygenic score analyses indicate that up to 5% of the variance in cognitive test scores can be predicted in an independent cohort. The genomic regions identified include several novel loci, some of which have been associated with intracranial volume, neurodegeneration, Alzheimer's disease and schizophrenia.
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Hagger-Johnson G, Deary IJ, Davies CA, Weiss A, Batty GD. Reaction time and mortality from the major causes of death: the NHANES-III study. PLoS One 2014; 9:e82959. [PMID: 24489645 PMCID: PMC3906008 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0082959] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2013] [Accepted: 10/30/2013] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Studies examining the relation of information processing speed, as measured by reaction time, with mortality are scarce. We explored these associations in a representative sample of the US population. METHODS Participants were 5,134 adults (2,342 men) aged 20-59 years from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES III, 1988-94). RESULTS Adjusted for age, sex, and ethnic minority status, a 1 SD slower reaction time was associated with a raised risk of mortality from all-causes (HR = 1.25, 95% CI 1.12, 1.39) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) (HR = 1.36, 95% CI 1.17, 1.58). Having 1 SD more variable reaction time was also associated with greater risk of all-cause (HR = 1.36, 95% CI 1.19, 1.55) and CVD (HR = 1.50, 95% CI 1.33, 1.70) mortality. No associations were observed for cancer mortality. The magnitude of the relationships was comparable in size to established risk factors in this dataset, such as smoking. INTERPRETATION Alongside better-established risk factors, reaction time is associated with increased risk of premature death and cardiovascular disease. It is a candidate risk factor for all-cause and cause-specific mortality.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gareth Hagger-Johnson
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom
| | - Ian J. Deary
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Carolyn A. Davies
- Medical Research Council (MRC)/Chief Scientist Office (CSO) Social and Public Health Sciences Unit, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Alexander Weiss
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - G. David Batty
- Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London (UCL), London, United Kingdom
- Department of Psychology, Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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Woodley MA, te Nijenhuis J, Murphy R. Were the Victorians cleverer than us? The decline in general intelligence estimated from a meta-analysis of the slowing of simple reaction time. INTELLIGENCE 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.intell.2013.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Deary IJ, Gow AJ, Pattie A, Starr JM. Cohort profile: the Lothian Birth Cohorts of 1921 and 1936. Int J Epidemiol 2011; 41:1576-84. [PMID: 22253310 DOI: 10.1093/ije/dyr197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 276] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
This cohort profile describes the origins, tracing, recruitment, testing and follow-up of the University of Edinburgh-based Lothian Birth Cohorts of 1921 (LBC1921; N = 550) and 1936 (LBC1936; N = 1091). The participants undertook a general intelligence test at age 11 years and were recruited for these cohorts at mean ages of 79 (LBC1921) and 70 (LBC1936). The LBC1921 have been examined at mean ages of 79, 83, 87 and 90 years. The LBC1936 have been examined at mean ages of 70 and 73 years, and are being seen at 76 years. Both samples have an emphasis on the ageing of cognitive functions as outcomes. As they have childhood intelligence test scores, the cohorts' data have been used to search for determinants of lifetime cognitive changes, and also cognitive change within old age. The cohorts' outcomes also include a range of physical and psycho-social aspects of well-being in old age. Both cohorts have a wide range of variables: genome-wide genotyping, demographics, psycho-social and lifestyle factors, cognitive functions, medical history and examination, and biomarkers (from blood and urine). The LBC1936 participants also have a detailed structural magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) brain scan. A range of scientific findings is described, to illustrate the possible uses of the cohorts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ian J Deary
- Centre for Cognitive Ageing and Cognitive Epidemiology, University of Edinburgh, UK.
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