Enhancement of immune responses to influenza vaccine (H3N2) by ginsenoside Re

Multi-layered effects of Panax notoginseng on immune system

Recent research has demonstrated the immunomodulatory potential of Panax notoginseng in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases and cerebral hemorrhage, suggesting its significance in clinical practice. Nevertheless, the complex immune activity of various components has hindered a comprehensive understanding of the immune-regulating properties of Panax notoginseng, impeding its broader utilization. This review evaluates the effect of Panax notoginseng to various types of white blood cells, elucidates the underlying mechanisms, and compares the immunomodulatory effects of different Panax notoginseng active fractions, aiming to provide the theory basis for future immunomodulatory investigation.

Ginsenoside Re protects rhinovirus-induced disruption of tight junction through inhibition of ROS-mediated phosphatases inactivation in human nasal epithelial cells

Maintaining tight junction integrity significantly contributes to epithelial barrier function. If the barrier function is destroyed, the permeability of the cells increases, and the movement of the pathogens is promoted, thereby further increasing the susceptibility to secondary infection. Ginsenoside components have multiple biological activities, including antiviral effects. In this study, we examined the protective effects of ginsenoside Re against rhinovirus-induced tight junction disruption in primary human nasal epithelial cells (HNE). Incubation with human rhinovirus resulted in marked disruption of tight junction proteins (ZO-1, E-cadherin, claudin-1, and occludin) in human nasal epithelial cells. Rhinovirus-induced disruption of tight junction proteins was strongly inhibited by the treatment of cells with ginsenoside Re. Indeed, significant amounts of reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been detected in human nasal epithelial cells co-incubated with rhinovirus. Moreover, rhinovirus-induced ROS generation was markedly reduced by the ginsenoside Re. However, ginsenosides Rb1 and Rc did not inhibit tight junction disruption or ROS generation in nasal epithelial cells following incubation with rhinovirus. Furthermore, incubation with rhinovirus resulted in a marked decrease in protein phosphatase activity and an increase in protein tyrosine phosphorylation levels in nasal epithelial cells. Treatment of cells with ginsenoside Re inhibited rhinovirus-induced inactivation of phosphatases and phosphorylation of tyrosine. Our results identified ginsenoside Re as an effective compound that prevented rhinovirus-induced tight junction disruption in human nasal epithelial cells.

Medicinal Herbs: Promising Immunomodulators for the Treatment of Infectious Diseases

Humans are constantly at high risk of emerging pandemics caused by viral and bacterial infections. The emergence of new pandemics is mainly caused by evolved viruses and bacteria that are highly resistant to existing medications. The rapid evolution of infectious agents demands the urgent investigation of new therapeutic strategies to prevent and treat these infections at an early stage. One of these therapeutic strategies includes the use of medicinal herbs for their antibacterial and antiviral properties. The use of herbal medicines as remedies is very ancient and has been employed for centuries. Many studies have confirmed the antimicrobial activities of herbs against various pathogens in vitro and in vivo. The therapeutic effect of medicinal herbs is mainly attributed to the natural bioactive molecules present in these plants such as alkaloids, flavonoids, and terpenoids. Different mechanisms have been proposed for how medicinal herbs enhance the immune system and combat pathogens. Such mechanisms include the disruption of bacterial cell membranes, suppression of protein synthesis, and limitation of pathogen replication through the inhibition of nucleic acid synthesis. Medicinal herbs have been shown to treat a number of infectious diseases by modulating the immune system's components. For instance, many medicinal herbs alleviate inflammation by reducing pro-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-1, IL-6) while promoting the production of anti-inflammatory cytokines (e.g., IL-10). Medicinal herbs also play a role in defense against viral and intracellular infections by enhancing the proliferation and functions of natural killer cells, T-helper-1 cells, and macrophages. In this review, we will explore the use of the most common herbs in preventing and treating infectious and non-infectious diseases. Using current and recently published studies, we focus on the immunomodulatory and therapeutic effects induced by medicinal herbs to enhance immune responses during diseases.

New perspective on the immunomodulatory activity of ginsenosides: Focus on effective therapies for post-COVID-19

More than 700 million confirmed cases of Coronavirus Disease-2019 (COVID-19) have been reported globally, and 10-60% of patients are expected to exhibit "post-COVID-19 symptoms," which will continue to affect human life and health. In the absence of safer, more specific drugs, current multiple immunotherapies have failed to achieve satisfactory efficacy. Ginseng, a traditional Chinese medicine, is often used as an immunomodulator and has been used in COVID-19 treatment as a tonic to increase blood oxygen saturation. Ginsenosides are the main active components of ginseng. In this review, we summarize the multiple ways in which ginsenosides affect post-COVID-19 symptoms, including inhibition of lipopolysaccharide, tumor necrosis factor signaling, modulation of chemokine receptors and inflammasome activation, induction of macrophage polarization, effects on Toll-like receptors, nuclear factor kappa-B, the mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway, lymphocytes, intestinal flora, and epigenetic regulation. Ginsenosides affect virus-mediated tissue damage, local or systemic inflammation, immune modulation, and other links, thus alleviating respiratory and pulmonary symptoms, reducing the cardiac burden, protecting the nervous system, and providing new ideas for the rehabilitation of patients with post-COVID-19 symptoms. Furthermore, we analyzed its role in strengthening body resistance to eliminate pathogenic factors from the perspective of ginseng-epidemic disease and highlighted the challenges in clinical applications. However, the benefit of ginsenosides in modulating organismal imbalance post-COVID-19 needs to be further evaluated to better validate the pharmacological mechanisms associated with their traditional efficacy and to determine their role in individualized therapy.

Ginseng and health outcomes: an umbrella review

Background: Ginseng consumption has been associated with various health outcomes. However, there are no review articles summarizing these reports. Methods: PubMed, Embase, the Cochrane Library of Systematic Reviews, Scopus, CNKI and Wanfang databases were searched from inception to 31 July 2022. The Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews-2 (AMSTAR-2) and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE) systems were used to assess the methodological quality and quality of evidence in each meta-analysis, and the results were summarized in a narrative form. Results: Nineteen meta-analyses that met the eligibility criteria were identified from among 1,233 papers. The overall methodological quality was relatively poor, with only five studies being low-quality, and 14 critically low-quality. When compared with control treatments (mainly placebo), ginseng was beneficial for improving fatigue and physical function, sexual function, menopausal symptoms, metabolic indicators, inflammatory markers, unstable angina and respiratory diseases. Adverse events included gastrointestinal symptoms and potential bleeding; however, no serious adverse events were reported. Conclusion: This umbrella review suggests that ginseng intake has beneficial therapeutic effects for diverse diseases. However, the methodological quality of studies needs to be improved considerably. In addition, it is imperative to establish the clinical efficacy of ginseng through high-quality randomized controlled trials.

Recent advances in ginsenosides against respiratory diseases: Therapeutic targets and potential mechanisms

BACKGROUND

Respiratory diseases mainly include asthma, influenza, pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, pulmonary hypertension, lung fibrosis, and lung cancer. Given their high prevalence and poor prognosis, the prevention and treatment of respiratory diseases are increasingly essential. In particular, the development for the novel strategies of drug treatment has been a hot topic in the research field. Ginsenosides are the major component of Panax ginseng C. A. Meyer (ginseng), a food homology and well-known medicinal herb. In this review, we summarize the current therapeutic effects and molecular mechanisms of ginsenosides in respiratory diseases.

METHODS

The reviewed studies were retrieved via a thorough analysis of numerous articles using electronic search tools including Sci-Finder, ScienceDirect, PubMed, and Web of Science. The following keywords were used for the online search: ginsenosides, asthma, influenza, pneumonia, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary hypertension (PH), lung fibrosis, lung cancer, and clinical trials. We summarized the findings and the conclusions from 176 manuscripts on ginsenosides, including research articles and reviews.

RESULTS

Ginsenosides Rb1, Rg1, Rg3, Rh2, and CK, which are the most commonly reported ginsenosides for treating of respiratory diseases, and other ginsenosides such as Rh1, Rk1, Rg5, Rd and Re, all primarily reduce pneumonia, fibrosis, and inhibit tumor progression by targeting NF-κB, TGF-β/Smad, PI3K/AKT/mTOR, and JNK pathways, thereby ameliorating respiratory diseases.

CONCLUSION

This review provides novel ideas and important aspects for the future research of ginsenosides for treating respiratory diseases.

Chitosan/Calcium-Coated Ginsenoside Rb1 Phosphate Flower-like Microparticles as an Adjuvant to Enhance Immune Responses

Simple Summary

The field-level control over IBD is primarily via vaccination. The development of high effective IBV vaccine has drawing great attentions worldwide. Herein, the GRb1 was encap-sulated into Calcium phosphate and chitosan core-structure nanoparticles microspheres, which con-stitute a novel system for nanoparticle delivery (GRb1/IL-4@CS/Cap). The new nano-adjuvant de-livery system could induce the activation of chicken dendritic cells ( DCs ), with up-regulate the expression of MHC II and CD80, and increase the production of IL-1β and TNF-α. At the same time, it can trigger higher levels of IBDV-specific IgG and higher IgG2a/IgG1 ratio, and promote the production of IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-6, IL-1α, and IL-1βand other cytokines in chicken serum after vaccination, it provides an effective adjuvant system for the development of chicken IBDV attenu-ated vaccine.

Abstract

Infectious bursal disease (IBD) is a highly contagious immunocompromising disorder that caused great economic losses in the poultry industry. The field-level control over IBD is primarily via vaccination. The development of a highly effective IBV vaccine has drawn great attention worldwide. Chitosan/Calcium Phosphate (CS/CaP) nanoparticle was a newly developed effective biological delivery system for drug and antigen. Ginsenoside Rb1 is one of the main bioactive components of ginseng root extract, which has antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and immunological enhancement effects. Until now, the combined effect of CS/CaP and ginsenoside Rb1 on the chicken immune response had remained unknown. In this study, the GRb1 and IL-4 were encapsulated into Calcium phosphate and chitosan core structure nanoparticles microspheres (GRb1/IL-4@CS/CaP), and the effect of a newly developed delivery system on an infectious bursal disease virus (IBDV) attenuated vaccine was further evaluated. The results demonstrated that GRb1/IL-4@CS/CaP treatment could induce the activation of chicken dendritic cells (DCs), with the upregulated expression of MHCII and CD80, and the increased production of IL-1β and TNF-α. Importantly, GRb1/IL-4@CS/CaP could trigger a higher level of IBDV-specific IgG and a higher ratio of IgG2a/IgG1 than the traditional adjuvant groups, promoting the production of cytokine, including IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-4, IL-6, IL-1α, and IL-1β, in chicken serum after 28 d and 42 d post-vaccine. Taken in all, GRb1/IL-4@CS/CaP could elicit prolonged vigorous immune responses for IBDV attenuated vaccine in chicken, which might provide an effective adjuvant system for avian vaccine development.

Development of (Inhalable) Dry Powder Formulations of AS01B-Containing Vaccines Using Thin-Film Freeze-Drying

AS01_B is a liposomal formulation of two immunostimulants namely 3-O-desacyl-4́-monophosphoryl lipid A (MPL) and QS-21. The liposomal formulation of AS01_B reduces the endotoxicity of MPL and the lytic activity of QS-21. The AS01_B-adjuvanted Shingrix vaccine is marketed in a two-vial presentation, with the liquid AS01_B liposomes in one vial and the antigen as a dry powder in another vial. In the present study, we tested the feasibility of applying thin-film freeze-drying (TFFD) to engineer dry powders of the AS01_B liposomal adjuvant alone or vaccines containing AS01_B as an adjuvant. Initially, we showed that after the AS01_B liposomal adjuvant was subjected to TFFD using sucrose as a stabilizer at 4% w/v, the particle size distribution of AS01_B liposomes reconstituted from the dry powder was identical to the liquid adjuvant before drying. We then showed using ovalbumin (OVA) as a model antigen adjuvanted with AS01_B (AS01_B/OVA) that subjecting the AS01_B/OVA vaccine to TFFD and subsequent reconstitution did not negatively affect the AS01_B liposome particle size, nor the immunogenicity of the vaccine. Importantly, the thin-film freeze-dried AS01_B/OVA vaccine, unlike its liquid counterpart, was not sensitive to repeated freezing-and-thawing. The developed AS01_B/OVA dry powder also showed the desirable aerosol properties (i.e., fine particle fraction of 66.3 ± 4.9% and mass median aerodynamic diameter of 2.4 ± 0.1 µm) for potential pulmonary administration. Finally, the feasibility of using TFFD to prepare dry powders of AS01_B-adjuvanted vaccines was further confirmed using AS01_B-adjuvanted Fluzone Quadrivalent and Shingrix, which contains AS01_B. It is concluded that the TFFD technology can enable the formulation of AS01_B-adjuvanted vaccines as freezing-insensitive, inhalable dry powders in a single-vial presentation.

Immunomodulatory Effect of Ginsenoside Rb2 Against Cyclophosphamide-Induced Immunosuppression in Mice

Ginsenoside Rb2 (Rb2), a fundamental saponin produced and isolated from ginseng (Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer), has a wide range of biological actions. The objective of this investigation was to see if ginsenoside Rb2 has any immunomodulatory properties against cyclophosphamide (CTX)-induced immunosuppression. For the positive control group, levamisole hydrochloride (LD) was used. We discovered that intraperitoneal injection of Rb2 (5, 10, 20 mg/kg) could relieve CTX-induced immunosuppression by enhanced immune organ index, reduced the pathological characteristics of immunosuppression, promoted natural killer (NK) cells viability, improved cell-mediated immune response, boosted the IFN-γ (Interferon-gamma), TNF-α (Tumor necrosis factor-alpha), IL-2 (Interleukin-2), and IgG (Immunoglobulin G), as well as macrophage activity like carbon clearance and phagocytic index. Rb2 significantly elevated the mRNA expression of IL-4 (Interleukin-4), SYK (Tyrosine-protein kinase-SYK), IL-2, TNF-α, and IL-6 (Interleukin-6) in the spleen of CTX-injected animals. Molecular docking results showed that Rb2 had excellent binding properties with IL-4, SYK, IL-2, TNF, and IL-6, indicating the target protein might be strongly correlated with the immunomodulatory effect of Rb2. Taken together, ginsenoside Rb2 can improve the immune function that is declined in CTX-induced immunosuppressed mice, the efficacy maybe due to the regulation of related cytokine and mRNA expression.

Pharmacological Properties of Ginsenoside Re

Ginsenoside Re is a protopanaxatriol-type saponin extracted from the berry, leaf, stem, flower bud, and root of Panax ginseng. In recent years, ginsenoside Re (Re) has been attracting attention as a dietary phytochemical. In this review, studies on Re were compiled by searching a combination of keywords, namely “pharmacology,” “pharmacokinetics,” and “toxicology,” in the Google Scholar, NCBI, PubMed, and Web of Science databases. The aim of this review was to provide an exhaustive overview of the pharmacological activities, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of Re, focusing on clinical evidence that has shown effectiveness in specific diseases, such as diabetes mellitus, nervous system diseases, inflammation, cardiovascular disease, and cancer. Re is also known to eliminate virus, enhance the immune response, improve osteoporosis, improve skin barrier function, enhance intracellular anti-oxidant actions, regulate cholesterol metabolism, alleviate allergic responses, increase sperm motility, reduce erectile dysfunction, promote cyclic growth of hair follicles, and reduce gastrointestinal motility dysfunction. Furthermore, this review provides data on pharmacokinetic parameters and toxicological factors to examine the safety profile of Re. Such data will provide a theoretical basis and reference for Re-related studies and future applications.

Multi-residue screening of pesticides in Panax Ginseng C. A. Meyer by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography with quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

In this study, an efficient screening method based on a modified quick, easy, cheap, effective, rugged, and safe extraction method combined with ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to tandem quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry was established for the determination of 90 pesticides residues in Panax Ginseng. The accuracy of the method was then verified by analyzing the false positive rate and the screening detection limit in Ginseng. The results revealed that the screening detection limit of 33 of 90 pesticide residues were 0.01mg·kg^-1 , 22 species were 0.05 mg·kg^-1 , 11 species were 0.10 mg·kg^-1 , 8 species were 0.20 mg·kg^-1 , and another 16 species were greater than 0.20 mg·kg^-1 . A total of 73 pesticides were ultimately suitable to be practically applied for rapid analysis of pesticide residues in Ginseng. Finally, the established method was used to analyze the pesticide residues in 35 Ginseng samples available on the market. And the residual of Dimethomorph, Azoxystrobin, Tebuconazole, Pyraclostrobin was relatively severe in Ginseng samples. This work expanded the range of pesticides detected and provided a rapid, effective method for pesticides screening in Ginseng. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Immunomodulatory functional foods and their molecular mechanisms

The immune system comprises a complex group of processes that provide defense against diverse pathogens. These defenses can be divided into innate and adaptive immunity, in which specific immune components converge to limit infections. In addition to genetic factors, aging, lifestyle, and environmental factors can influence immune function, potentially affecting the susceptibility of the host to disease-causing agents. Chemical compounds in certain foods have been shown to regulate signal transduction and cell phenotypes, ultimately impacting pathophysiology. Research has shown that the consumption of specific functional foods can stimulate the activity of immune cells, providing protection against cancer, viruses, and bacteria. Here, we review a number of functional foods reported to strengthen immunity, including ginseng, mushrooms, chlorella, and probiotics (Lactobacillus plantarum). We also discuss the molecular mechanisms involved in regulating the activity of various types of immune cells. Identifying immune-enhancing functional foods and understanding their mechanisms of action will support new approaches to maintain proper health and combat immunological diseases.

Evidence is building to support the idea that specific ‘functional foods’ can stimulate the activity of cells and signaling systems of the immune system to provide protection against cancer, viruses and bacteria. Sanguine Byun and colleagues at Yonsei University in Seoul, South Korea, review research into a range of functional foods, foods thought to have health benefits beyond their nutritional value. These include ginseng, mushrooms, the green algae called Chlorella and the probiotic bacteria Lactobacillus plantarum. They also consider individual components of foods such as poly-gamma-glutamate, a natural polymer made by bacteria. A wide body of research is revealing diverse molecular mechanisms through which biochemicals in functional foods can modulate different aspects of the immune system. These include effects on both non-specific innate immunity and adaptive immunity, which targets specific invading pathogens and diseased cells.

Pharmacological Efficacy of Ginseng against Respiratory Tract Infections

Respiratory tract infections are underestimated, as they are mild and generally not incapacitating. In clinical medicine, however, these infections are considered a prevalent problem. By 2030, the third most comprehensive reason for death worldwide will be chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), according to the World Health Organization. The current arsenal of anti-inflammatory drugs shows little or no benefits against COPD. For thousands of years, herbal drugs have been used to cure numerous illnesses; they exhibit promising results and enhance physical performance. Ginseng is one such herbal medicine, known to alleviate pro-inflammatory chemokines and cytokines (IL-2, IL-4, IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8) formed by macrophages and epithelial cells. Furthermore, the mechanisms of action of ginsenoside are still not fully understood. Various clinical trials of ginseng have exhibited a reduction of repeated colds and the flu. In this review, ginseng’s structural features, the pathogenicity of microbial infections, and the immunomodulatory, antiviral, and anti-bacterial effects of ginseng were discussed. The focus was on the latest animal studies and human clinical trials that corroborate ginseng’s role as a therapy for treating respiratory tract infections. The article concluded with future directions and significant challenges. This review would be a valuable addition to the knowledge base for researchers in understanding the promising role of ginseng in treating respiratory tract infections. Further analysis needs to be re-focused on clinical trials to study ginseng’s efficacy and safety in treating pathogenic infections and in determining ginseng-drug interactions.

Adaptogenic effects of Panax ginseng on modulation of immune functions

Traditional medicinal practices have used natural products such as adaptogens to treat inflammatory, autoimmune, neurodegenerative, bacterial, and viral diseases since the early days of civilization. Panax ginseng Myer is a common herb used in East Asian countries for millennia, especially in Korea, China, and Japan. Numerous studies indicate that ginseng can modulate the immune system and thereby prevent diseases. Although the human immune system comprises many different types of cells, multiple studies suggest that each type of immune cell can be controlled or stimulated by ginseng or its derivatives. Provisional lists of ginseng's potential for use against viruses, bacteria, and other microorganisms suggest it may prove to be a valuable pharmaceutical resource, particularly if higher-quality evidence can be found. Here, we reviewed the role of ginseng as an immune-modulating agent in attempt to provide a valuable starting point for future studies on the herb and the human immune system.

Ginseng alleviates microbial infections of the respiratory tract: a review

The detrimental impact of air pollution as a result of frequent exposure to fine particles posed a global public health risk mainly to the pulmonary disorders in pediatric and geriatric population. Here, we reviewed the current literature regarding the role of ginseng and/or its components as antimicrobials, especially against pathogens that cause respiratory infections in animal and in vitro models. Some of the possible mechanisms for ginseng-mediated viral inhibition suggested are improvements in systemic and mucosa-specific antibody responses, serum hemagglutinin inhibition, lymphocyte proliferation, cell survival rate, and viral clearance in the lungs. In addition, ginseng reduces the expression levels of proinflammatory cytokines (IFN-γ, TNF-α, IL-2, IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8) and chemokines produced by airway epithelial cells and macrophages, thus preventing weight loss. In case of bacterial infections, ginseng acts by alleviating inflammatory cytokine production, increasing survival rates, and activating phagocytes and natural killer cells. In addition, ginseng inhibits biofilm formation and induces the dispersion and dissolution of mature biofilms. Most clinical trials revealed that ginseng, at various dosages, is a safe and effective method of seasonal prophylaxis, relieving the symptoms and reducing the risk and duration of colds and flu. Taken together, these findings support the efficacy of ginseng as a therapeutic and prophylactic agent for respiratory infections.

A Solution with Ginseng Saponins and Selenium as Vaccine Diluent to Increase Th1/Th2 Immune Responses in Mice

Pseudorabies is an important infectious disease of swine, and immunization using attenuated pseudorabies virus (aPrV) vaccine is a routine practice to control this disease in swine herds. This study was to evaluate a saline solution containing ginseng stem-leaf saponins (GSLS) and sodium selenite (Se) as a vaccine adjuvant for its enhancement of immune response to aPrV vaccine. The results showed that aPrV vaccine diluted with saline containing GSLS-Se (aP-GSe) induced significantly higher immune responses than that of the vaccine diluted with saline alone (aP-S). The aP-GSe promoted higher production of gB-specific IgG, IgG1, and IgG2a, neutralizing antibody titers, secretion of Th1-type (IFN-γ, IL-2, IL-12), and Th2-type (IL-4, IL-6, IL-10) cytokines, and upregulated the T-bet/GATA-3 mRNA expression when compared to aP-S. In addition, cytolytic activity of NK cells, lymphocyte proliferation, and CD4⁺/CD8⁺ ratio was also significantly increased by aP-GSe. More importantly, aP-GSe conferred a much higher resistance of mice to a field virulent pseudorabies virus (fPrV) challenge. As the present study was conducted in mice, further study is required to evaluate the aP-GSe to improve the vaccination against PrV in swine.

Inhibition of Herpes Simplex Viruses, Types 1 and 2, by Ginsenoside 20(S)-Rg3

Infections by herpes simplex viruses have an immense impact on humans, ranging from selflimiting, benign illness to serious, life-threatening diseases. While nucleoside analog drugs are available, resistance has been increasing and currently no vaccine exists. Ginsenosides derived from Panax ginseng have been documented to inhibit several viruses and bolster immune defenses. This study evaluated 12 of the most relevant ginsenosides from P. ginseng for toxicities and inhibition of herpes simplex viruses types 1 and 2 in Vero cells. The effects of test compounds and virus infection were determined using a PrestoBlue cell viability assay. Time course studies were also conducted to better understand at what points the virus life cycle was affected. Non-toxic concentrations of the ginsenosides were determined and ranged from 12.5 µM to greater than 100 µM. Ginsenoside 20(S)-Rg3 demonstrated the greatest inhibitory effect and was active against both HSV-1 and HSV-2 with an IC₅₀ of approximately 35 µM. The most dramatic inhibition-over 100% compared to controls-occurred when the virus was exposed to 20(S)-Rg3 for 4 h prior to being added to cells. 20(S)-Rg3 holds promise as a potential chemotherapeutic agent against herpes simplex viruses and, when used together with valacyclovir, may prevent increased resistance to drugs.

Pharmacological effects of ginseng on infectious diseases

Ginseng has been traditionally used as an herbal nutritional supplement in Asian countries, including Korea, China, Japan, and Vietnam for several millennia. Most studies have focused on the role of ginseng on anti-oxidative stress, anti-inflammatory, and anti-cancer activities. Recently, modulator activities of ginseng on the immune responses during pathogenic bacterial and viral infections and beneficial effects of ginseng in infectious diseases have been elucidated. In vivo and in vitro studies revealed the potential of ginseng extracts and ginsenosides Rg1, Rg3, Rb1, Rb2, Rb3, compound K, Re, Rd, Rh2 for treatment of several infectious diseases. The molecular mechanisms of these effects mainly involve inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-6, IL-1β, IFN-γ, IL-10), apoptotic pathway (bcl-2, bcl-xL), PI3K/Akt pathway, MAPKs pathway, JAK2/STAT5, NF-κB pathway, and the inflammasome. In this review, we will summarize the current knowledge on the effects of ginseng in the immune responses during the infections and its bioactivities on the prevention of infectious diseases as well as its underlying mechanisms. Moreover, the therapeutic potential of ginseng as an anti-bacterial and anti-viral medication and vaccine adjuvant will be discussed as well.

Ginsenoside Rk1 inhibits cell proliferation and promotes apoptosis in lung squamous cell carcinoma by calcium signaling pathway

Ginsenoside Rk1 (Rk1) is a rare saponin extracted from Sun Ginseng (SG) and has been shown to have an anti-tumor effect; however, the potential role of its in lung squamous cell carcinoma remains elusive. In this study, we investigated the anti-proliferative activity and involved mechanism of Rk1 against lung squamous cell carcinoma in vitro and in vivo. First, MTT assay, cell colony formation assay and cell cycle assay showed that Rk1 effectively inhibited cell proliferation and colony formation, and induced cell arrest at G1 phase. Following AV/PI staining, JC-10 staining, Western blot and immunohistochemistry indicated that Rk1 induced caspase-dependent apoptosis. In addition, Rk1 induced ER stress, causing the release of Ca2+, resulting in intracellular calcium and mitochondrial calcium overload. Intracellular calcium overload activated the calpain-caspase-12 and calpain-caspase-7-PARP pathways, while mitochondrial calcium overload caused mitochondrial membrane potential reduced, and the release of cytochrome c. BAPTA-AM (Ca2+ scavengers) and calpeptin (calpain inhibitors) significantly attenuated Rk1-induced apoptosis. Moreover, Rk1 significantly inhibited the growth of SK-MES-1 xenograft tumors with low toxic side effects. In summary, this study for the first time demonstrated that Rk1 had significant antitumor effects against lung squamous cell carcinoma and great potential to serve as a novel anticancer agent.

Integrated Metabolomics and Network Pharmacology Study on Immunoregulation Mechanisms of Panax ginseng through Macrophages

Panax ginseng (PG) is a widely used functional food and herbal with immunoregulation activity. Currently, immunoregulation studies of PG mainly focused on the specific actions of individual constituents. However, the integral immunoregulation mechanisms of PG need further research. In this study, an integrated metabolomics and network pharmacology approach were used to investigate it. High-content screening was used to evaluate macrophage phagocytosis activity of PG. Untargeted metabolomics profiling of murine macrophage cells with UHPLC-Q-TOF-MS and a multivariate data method were performed to discover the potential biomarkers and metabolic pathways. Then, a macrophage phenotype related "ingredients-targets-metabolites" network of PG was constructed using network pharmacology for further research. As a result, PG can significantly enhance macrophage phagocytosis of GFP-E. coli. A total of twenty potential biomarkers and ten main pathways for which levels changed markedly upon treatment were identified, including glycerophospholipid metabolism, glutathione metabolism, choline metabolism, and taurine metabolism. Twenty compounds of PG associated with metabolomic changes were selected by the network pharmacology analysis, including ginsenoside Re, ginsenoside Rg1, frutinone A, and kaempferol. The network pharmacology results also showed that PG can polarize macrophages to both M1 and M2 phenotype but may be prone to M2 phenotype. In conclusion, our results indicated that PG may be prone to polarize macrophages to M2 phenotype by mainly regulating the glutathione and choline metabolism, which was related to twenty compounds of PG.

Safety and long-lasting immunity of the combined administration of a modified-live virus vaccine against porcine reproductive and respiratory syndrome virus 1 and an inactivated vaccine against porcine parvovirus and Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae in breeding pigs

BACKGROUND

In the field, vaccination schedules based on modified-live virus (MLV) vaccines administered twice in gilts and every three to four months in sows are commonly used to immunize breeding herds against porcine reproductive and respiratory virus (PRRSV). Breeding sows are repeatedly vaccinated against several other agents. Thus, the combined administration of vaccines for their simultaneous use can simplify such complex immunization schedules. Here, we evaluated the safety and long-term immunity of the authorized combined administration of a PRRSV MLV vaccine and an inactivated vaccine against porcine parvovirus (PPV) and Erysipelothrix rhusiopathiae for their simultaneous use.Six-month-old naïve healthy gilts were vaccinated at day 0 and revaccinated at days 21 and 147, mimicking the abovementioned vaccination schedule. Systemic and local reactions, as well as body temperature, were measured. The excretion of PRRSV1 MLV was evaluated in oral fluids. Humoral responses against the three antigens were measured by ELISA. For PRRSV, homologous neutralizing antibodies (NAs) and homologous and heterologous cell-mediated immunity (CMI) were also assessed.

RESULTS

The combined administration of the tested vaccines, applied according to the manufacturer's instructions, was safe based on all evaluated parameters. Overall, we detected antibodies against PPV and PRRSV in all vaccinated pigs already after the first vaccination, whereas antibodies against E. rhusiopathiae were observed in all animals after revaccination. After subsequent revaccinations, we observed boosts for the humoral response for PPV at days 28 and 154 and at day 154 for E. rhusiopathiae. No boosts were detected during the experiment by PRRSV ELISA. In all vaccinated animals, homologous NAs against MLV were already detected before revaccination (day 21). After revaccination, there was a boost with mean titres of homologous NAs remaining constant thereafter. Concerning CMI, PRRSV-specific IFN-γ-secreting cells were already detected at day 21 for all evaluated strains and we observed boosts for all PRRSV1 strains after revaccination and recall revaccination.

CONCLUSIONS

We showed that the combined administration of tested vaccines described here using a vaccination schedule against PRRSV commonly implemented for breeding pigs in the field is safe and induces long-lasting humoral and cellular immunity against PRRSV, PPV, and E. rhusiopathiae.

Antiviral Activity of Fermented Ginseng Extracts against a Broad Range of Influenza Viruses

Ginseng products used as herb nutritional supplements are orally consumed and fermented to ginsenoside compounds by the intestinal microbes. In this study, we investigated antiviral protective effects of fermented ginseng extracts against different strains of influenza viruses in genetically diverse mouse models. Intranasal coinoculation of mice with fermented ginseng extract and influenza virus improved survival rates and conferred protection against H1N1, H3N2, H5N1, and H7N9 strains, with the efficacy dependent on the dose of ginseng samples. Antiviral protection by fermented ginseng extract was observed in different genetic backgrounds of mice and in the deficient conditions of key adaptive immune components (CD4, CD8, B cell, MHCII). The mice that survived primary virus inoculation with fermented ginseng extract developed immunity against the secondary infection with homologous and heterosubtypic viruses. In vitro cell culture experiments showed moderate virus neutralizing activity by fermented ginseng extract, probably by inhibiting hemagglutination and neuraminidase activity. This study suggests that fermented ginseng extracts might provide a means to treat influenza disease regardless of virus strains.

Ginsenoside Drug Nanocomposites Prepared by the Aerosol Solvent Extraction System for Enhancing Drug Solubility and Stability

Ginsenosides are the pharmacologically active constituents of ginseng. So far, more than 30 ginsenosides have been identified and widely used in pharmaceutical formulations. However, the therapeutic applications of ginsenosides are hampered by their poor solubility and low bioavailability. In this study, we selected two of the most important ginsenosides-Re and Rh₂ as model drugs to prepare ginsenoside drug nanocomposites (NanoGS) using the simple aerosol solvent extraction system (ASES) technique to address the poor solubility and bioavailability of these compounds. Compared with raw ginsenosides, NanoGS exhibited significantly enhanced dissolution rate owing to their low crystallinity and high surface area. Furthermore, in vitro cellular investigations showed that NanoGS-Rh₂ exhibited outstanding anticancer activity against MCF-7 cancer cells. Therefore, this study is expected to provide a promising strategy that could optimize and broaden the applications of ginsenosides, as well as other water-insoluble drugs in pharmaceutical formulations.

Protective Effect of Panax notoginseng Root Water Extract against Influenza A Virus Infection by Enhancing Antiviral Interferon-Mediated Immune Responses and Natural Killer Cell Activity

Influenza is an acute respiratory illness caused by the influenza A virus, which causes economic losses and social disruption mainly by increasing hospitalization and mortality rates among the elderly and people with chronic diseases. Influenza vaccines are the most effective means of preventing seasonal influenza, but can be completely ineffective if there is an antigenic mismatch between the seasonal vaccine virus and the virus circulating in the community. In addition, influenza viruses resistant to antiviral drugs are emerging worldwide. Thus, there is an urgent need to develop new vaccines and antiviral drugs against these viruses. In this study, we conducted in vitro and in vivo analyses of the antiviral effect of Panax notoginseng root (PNR), which is used as an herbal medicine and nutritional supplement in Korea and China. We confirmed that PNR significantly prevented influenza virus infection in a concentration-dependent manner in mouse macrophages. In addition, PNR pretreatment inhibited viral protein (PB1, PB2, HA, NA, M1, PA, M2, and NP) and viral mRNA (NS1, HA, PB2, PA, NP, M1, and M2) expression. PNR pretreatment also increased the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines [tumor necrosis factor alpha and interleukin 6] and interferon (IFN)-beta and the phosphorylation of type-I IFN-related proteins (TANK-binding kinase 1, STAT1, and IRF3) in vitro. In mice exposed to the influenza A H1N1 virus, PNR treatment decreased mortality by 90% and prevented weight loss (by approximately 10%) compared with the findings in untreated animals. In addition, splenocytes from PNR-administered mice displayed significantly enhanced natural killer (NK) cell activity against YAC-1 cells. Taking these findings together, PNR stimulates an antiviral response in murine macrophages and mice that protects against viral infection, which may be attributable to its ability to stimulate NK cell activity. Further investigations are needed to reveal the molecular mechanisms underlying the protective effects of PNR and its components against influenza virus A infection.

A Review on Hepatoprotective and Immunomodulatory Herbal Plants

The liver is the most important organ that plays an important role in maintaining various physiological processes in the body. Hepatitis is an inflammation of the liver and is characterized by the presence of inflammatory cells in the tissue of the organ. There are five main viruses, referred to as types A, B, C, D, and E. These five types are of the greatest concern because of the burden of illness and death. Liver injury or liver dysfunction is a major health problem that challenges not only health care professionals but also the drug regulatory agencies and the pharmaceutical industry. Herbal medicines have been used in the treatment of liver disease for a long time. The immune system is the part of body that diagnoses the pathogen by using a specific receptor to reveal immediate response by the activation of immune components cells, chemokines, and cytokines, and also the release of the inflammatory mediator. They potentiate and modulate the immune system. The plant-derived phytoconstituents (polysaccharides, proteins and flavanoids, lignans, rotenoids, etc.) stimulate the immune system and maintained hepatic diseases. There are a number of hepatoprotective and immunomodulatory herbs that have been reported. The present review is aimed at compiling data on promising phytochemicals from hepatoprotective and immunomodulatory herbs.

Proteomic Analyses Provide Novel Insights into Plant Growth and Ginsenoside Biosynthesis in Forest Cultivated Panax ginseng (F. Ginseng)

F. Ginseng (Panax ginseng) is planted in the forest to enhance the natural ginseng resources, which have an immense medicinal and economic value. The morphology of the cultivated plants becomes similar to that of wild growing ginseng (W. Ginseng) over the years. So far, there have been no studies highlighting the physiological or functional changes in F. Ginseng and its wild counterparts. In the present study, we used proteomic technologies (2DE and iTRAQ) coupled to mass spectrometry to compare W. Ginseng and F. Ginseng at various growth stages. Hierarchical cluster analysis based on protein abundance revealed that the protein expression profile of 25-year-old F. Ginseng was more like W. Ginseng than less 20-year-old F. Ginseng. We identified 192 differentially expressed protein spots in F. Ginseng. These protein spots increased with increase in growth years of F. Ginseng and were associated with proteins involved in energy metabolism, ginsenosides biosynthesis, and stress response. The mRNA, physiological, and metabolic analysis showed that the external morphology, protein expression profile, and ginsenoside synthesis ability of the F. Ginseng increased just like that of W. Ginseng with the increase in age. Our study represents the first characterization of the proteome of F. Ginseng during development and provides new insights into the metabolism and accumulation of ginsenosides.

Ginsenoside Rg1 and 20(S)-Rg3 Induce IgA Production by Mouse B Cells

Ginsenosides are the major components of ginseng, which is known to modulate blood pressure, metabolism, and immune function, and has been used to treat various diseases. It has been reported that ginseng and several ginsenosides have immunoregulatory effects on the innate and T cell-mediated immune response. However, their effects on the humoral immune response have not been fully explored. The present study examined the direct effects of red ginseng extract (RGE) and ginsenosides on mouse B cell proliferation and on antibody production and the expression of germline transcripts (GLT) by mouse B cells in vitro. RGE slightly reduced B cell proliferation, but increased IgA production by LPS-stimulated B cells. Furthermore, ginsenoside Rg1 and 20(S)-Rg3 selectively induced IgA production and expression of GLTα transcripts by LPS-stimulated B cells. Collectively, these results suggest that ginsenoside Rg1 and 20(S)-Rg3 can drive the differentiation of B cells into IgA-producing cells through the selective induction of GLTα expression.

The antimicrobial properties of ginseng and ginseng extracts

Ginseng is commonly used in traditional Chinese medicine as a tonic and an adaptogen to reduce fatigue and boost the immune system. In recent years, ginseng extracts are shown to have both bacteriostatic and bactericidal actions and seem to exert their effects by several mechanisms, including disruption of biofilms, inhibition of quorum-sensing and virulence factors, and altering motility. Also, ginseng extracts are shown to have antifungal properties as demonstrated by their ability to inhibit the growth of several mold and yeast species. Extracts from ginseng root have a strong antiviral activity against the RNA viruses in cell cultures and animal models. In addition to the antimicrobial activities, ginseng extracts are shown to possess immunomodulatory properties involved in the amelioration of infections. The present paper describes the antimicrobial effects of ginseng and its extracts.

Ginseng, the natural effectual antiviral: Protective effects of Korean Red Ginseng against viral infection

Korean Red Ginseng (KRG) is a heat-processed ginseng developed by the repeated steaming and air-drying of fresh ginseng. Compared with fresh ginseng, KRG has been shown to possess greater pharmacological activities and stability because of changes that occur in its chemical constituents during the steaming process. In addition to anticancer, anti-inflammatory, and immune-modulatory activities, KRG and its purified components have also been shown to possess protective effects against microbial infections. Here, we summarize the current knowledge on the properties of KRG and its components on infections with human pathogenic viruses such as respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus, influenza virus, human immunodeficiency virus, human herpes virus, hepatitis virus, norovirus, rotavirus, enterovirus, and coxsackievirus. Additionally, the therapeutic potential of KRG as an antiviral and vaccine adjuvant is discussed.

Protective effect of ginsenosides Rg1 and Re on lipopolysaccharide-induced sepsis by competitive binding to Toll-like receptor 4

We previously demonstrated that ginsenosides Rg1 and Re enhanced the immune response in C3H/HeB mice but not in C3H/HeJ mice carrying a mutation in the Tlr4 gene. The results of the present study showed that both Rg1 and Re inhibited mRNA expression and production of proinflammatory mediators that included tumor necrosis factor α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, cyclooxygenase-2, and inducible nitric oxide synthase from lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-stimulated macrophages. Rg1 was found to be distributed both extracellularly and intracellularly but Re was located only extracellularly to compete with LPS for binding to Toll-like receptor 4. Preinjection of Rg1 and Re into rats suppressed LPS-induced increases in body temperature, white blood cell counts, and levels of serum proinflammatory mediators. Preinjection of Rg1 and Re into mice prevented the LPS-induced decreases in total white blood cell counts and neutrophil counts, inhibited excessive expression of multiple proinflammatory mediators, and successfully rescued 100% of the mice from sepsis-associated death. More significantly, when administered after lethal LPS inoculation, Rg1, but not Re, still showed a potent antisepsis effect and protected 90% of the mice from death. The better protection efficacy of Rg1 could result from its intracellular distribution, suggesting that Rg1 may be an ideal antisepsis agent.

Comparative phenolic compound profiles and antioxidative activity of the fruit, leaves, and roots of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) according to cultivation years

Background

The study of phenolic compounds profiles and antioxidative activity in ginseng fruit, leaves, and roots with respect to cultivation years, and has been little reported to date. Hence, this study examined the phenolic compounds profiles and 2, 2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free-radical-scavenging activities in the fruit, leaves, and roots of Korean ginseng (Panax ginseng Meyer) as a function of cultivation year.

Methods

Profiling of 23 phenolic compounds in ginseng fruit, leaves, and roots was investigated using ultra-high performance liquid chromatography with the external calibration method. Antioxidative activity of ginseng fruit, leaves, and roots were evaluated using the method of DPPH free-radical-scavenging activity.

Results

The total phenol content in ginseng fruit and leaves was higher than in ginseng roots (p < 0.05), and the phenol content in the ginseng samples was significantly correlated to the DPPH free-radical-scavenging activity (r = 0.928****). In particular, p-coumaric acid (r = 0.847****) and ferulic acid (r = 0.742****) greatly affected the DPPH activity. Among the 23 phenolic compounds studied, phenolic acids were more abundant in ginseng fruit, leaves, and roots than the flavonoids and other compounds (p < 0.05). In particular, chlorogenic acid, gentisic acid, p- and m-coumaric acid, and rutin were the major phenolic compounds in 3–6-yr-old ginseng fruit, leaves, and roots.

Conclusion

This study provides basic information about the antioxidative activity and phenolic compounds profiles in fruit, leaves, and roots of Korean ginseng with cultivation years. This information is potentially useful to ginseng growers and industries involved in the production of high-quality and nutritional ginseng products.

Ginsenoside Re inhibits pacemaker potentials via adenosine triphosphate-sensitive potassium channels and the cyclic guanosine monophosphate/nitric oxide-dependent pathway in cultured interstitial cells of Cajal from mouse small intestine

Background

Ginseng belongs to the genus Panax. Its main active ingredients are the ginsenosides. Interstitial cells of Cajal (ICCs) are the pacemaker cells of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract. To understand the effects of ginsenoside Re (GRe) on GI motility, the authors investigated its effects on the pacemaker activity of ICCs of the murine small intestine.

Methods

Interstitial cells of Cajal were dissociated from mouse small intestines by enzymatic digestion. The whole-cell patch clamp configuration was used to record pacemaker potentials in cultured ICCs. Changes in cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP) content induced by GRe were investigated.

Results

Ginsenoside Re (20–40μM) decreased the amplitude and frequency of ICC pacemaker activity in a concentration-dependent manner. This action was blocked by guanosine 5′-[β-thio]diphosphate [a guanosine-5'-triphosphate (GTP)-binding protein inhibitor] and by glibenclamide [an adenosine triphosphate (ATP)-sensitive K⁺ channel blocker]. To study the GRe-induced signaling pathway in ICCs, the effects of 1H-[1,2,4]oxadiazolo[4,3-a]quinoxalin-1-one (a guanylate cyclase inhibitor) and RP-8-CPT-cGMPS (a protein kinase G inhibitor) were examined. Both inhibitors blocked the inhibitory effect of GRe on ICC pacemaker activity. L-NG-nitroarginine methyl ester (100μM), which is a nonselective nitric oxide synthase (NOS) inhibitor, blocked the effects of GRe on ICC pacemaker activity and GRe-stimulated cGMP production in ICCs.

Conclusion

In cultured murine ICCs, GRe inhibits the pacemaker activity of ICCs via the ATP-sensitive potassium (K⁺) channel and the cGMP/NO-dependent pathway. Ginsenoside Re may be a basis for developing novel spasmolytic agents to prevent or alleviate GI motility dysfunction.

Ginseng diminishes lung disease in mice immunized with formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus after challenge by modulating host immune responses

Formalin-inactivated respiratory syncytial virus (FI-RSV) immunization is known to cause severe pulmonary inflammatory disease after subsequent RSV infection. Ginseng has been used in humans for thousands of years due to its potential health benefits. We investigated whether ginseng would have immune modulating effects on RSV infection in mice previously immunized with FI-RSV. Oral administration of mice with ginseng increased IgG2a isotype antibody responses to FI-RSV immunization, indicating T-helper type 1 (Th1) immune responses. Ginseng-treated mice that were nonimmunized or previously immunized with FI-RSV showed improved protection against RSV challenge compared with control mice without ginseng treatment. Ginseng-mediated improved clinical outcomes after live RSV infection were evidenced by diminished weight losses, decreased interleukin-4 cytokine production but increased interferon-γ production, modulation of CD3 T-cell populations toward a Th1 response, and reduced inflammatory response. Ginseng-mediated protective host immune modulation against RSV pulmonary inflammation was observed in different strains of wild-type and mutant mice. These results indicate that ginseng can modulate host immune responses to FI-RSV immunization and RSV infection, resulting in protective effects against pulmonary inflammatory disease.

Effects of radix ginseng on microbial infections: a narrative review

OBJECTIVE

To summarized the antimicrobial-like effects of Radix Ginseng, which provide important information to the relevant researchers and clinicians, and will benefit the clinical treatment of infectious diseases.

METHODS

PubMed and Google were used to search for and collect scientific publications related to Radix Ginseng and microbial infections. The authors read, classified, and discussed the associated scientific results or evidences, and summarized the corresponding results.

RESULTS

In this review, recent studies on the beneficial effects of Radix Ginseng extracts on microbial and biofilm infections were reviewed. The importance and significance of Radix Ginseng's beneficial effects are discussed. Evidence for the favorable effects of Radix Ginseng extracts on viral, bacterial, fungal, and parasitic infections and the possible underlying mechanisms are summarized.

CONCLUSION

Radix Ginseng might be a promising supplemental remedy for the prevention and treatment of infectious diseases.

Antiviral activity of ginsenosides against coxsackievirus B3, enterovirus 71, and human rhinovirus 3

Background

Ginsenosides are the major components responsible for the biochemical and pharmacological actions of ginseng, and have been shown to have various biological activities. In this study, we investigated the antiviral activities of seven ginsenosides [protopanaxatriol (PT) type: Re, Rf, and Rg2; protopanaxadiol (PD) type: Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd)] against coxsackievirus B3 (CVB3), enterovirus 71 (EV71), and human rhinovirus 3 (HRV3).

Methods

Assays of antiviral activity and cytotoxicity were evaluated by the sulforhodamine B method using the cytopathic effect (CPE) reduction assay.

Results

The antiviral assays demonstrated that, of the seven ginsenosides, the PT-type ginsenosides (Re, Rf, and Rg2) possess significant antiviral activities against CVB3 and HRV3 at a concentration of 100 μg/mL. Among the PT-type ginsenosides, only ginsenoside Rg2 showed significant anti-EV71 activity with no cytotoxicity to cells at 100 μg/mL. The PD-type ginsenosides (Rb1, Rb2, Rc, and Rd), by contrast, did not show any significant antiviral activity against CVB3, EV71, and HRV3, and exhibited cytotoxic effects to virus-infected cells. Notably, the antiviral efficacies of PT-type ginsenosides were comparable to those of ribavirin, a commonly used antiviral drug.

Conclusion

Collectively, our findings suggest that the ginsenosides Re, Rf, and Rg2 have the potential to be effective in the treatment of CVB3, EV71, and HRV3 infection.

Ginsenoside Re as an adjuvant to enhance the immune response to the inactivated rabies virus vaccine in mice

The inactivated rabies virus vaccine (RV) is a relatively expensive vaccine, prone to failure in some cases. Ginsenoside Re (Re) is a saponin isolated from Panax ginseng, and has an adjuvant property. Here the adjuvant effect of Re to improve the immune response to the RV is evaluated in mice. ICR mice were immunized with saline, 2.50mg/kg Re, 20μl RV, 100μl RV, or 20μl of RV adjuvanted with Re (1.25, 2.50 or 5.00mg/kg). Different time points after boosting, we measured serum antibodies in blood samples and separated splenocytes to detect lymphocyte proliferation and the production of IL-4, IL-10, IL-12, and IFN-γ in vitro. We also compared immunizations containing 20μl RV and 20μl RV adjuvanted with Re (5.00mg/kg) for the expression of CD4(+) and CD8(+) T-cell subsets at different time points. Results indicated that co-administration of Re significantly enhanced serum antibody titers, increased the CD4(+):CD8(+) ratio, and enhanced both proliferation responses and IL-4, IL-10, IL-12 and IFN-γ secretions. Both Th1 and Th2 immune responses were activated. The supplementation of the Re (5.00mg/kg) to 20μl of RV significantly amplified serum antibody responses and Th1/Th2 responses inducing similar protection as did 100μl of RV. This suggests that Re could be used to reduce the dose, and therefore the cost, of the RV to achieve the same effective protection. Re merits further studies for use with vaccines of mixed Th1/Th2 immune responses.

Red Ginseng-containing diet helps to protect mice and ferrets from the lethal infection by highly pathogenic H5N1 influenza virus

The highly pathogenic (HP) H5N1 influenza virus is endemic in many countries and has a great potential for a pandemic in humans. The immune-enhancing prowess of ginseng has been known for millennia. We aimed to study whether mice and ferrets fed with Red Ginseng could be better protected from the lethal infections of HP H5N1 influenza virus than the infected unfed mice and ferrets. We fed mice and ferrets with Red Ginseng prior to when they were infected with HP H5N1 influenza virus. The mice and ferrets fed with a 60-day diet containing Red Ginseng could be protected from lethal infections by HP H5N1 influenza virus (survival rate of up to 45% and 40%, respectively). Interferon-α and -γ antiviral cytokines were significantly induced in the lungs of mice fed Red Ginseng, compared to mice fed an unsupplemented diet. These data suggest that the diet with the immune-enhancing Red Ginseng could help humans to overcome the infections by HP H5N1 influenza virus.

Ginseng, the 'Immunity Boost': The Effects of Panax ginseng on Immune System

Thousands of literatures have described the diverse role of ginseng in physiological processes such as cancer, neurodegenerative disorders, insulin resistance, and hypertension. In particular, ginseng has been extensively reported to maintain homeostasis of the immune system and to enhance resistance to illness or microbial attacks through the regulation of immune system. Immune system comprises of different types of cells fulfilling their own specialized functions, and each type of the immune cells is differentially influenced and may be simultaneously controlled by ginseng treatment. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the effects of ginseng on immune system. We discuss how ginseng regulates each type of immune cells including macrophages, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, T cells, and B cells. We also describe how ginseng exhibits beneficial effects on controlling inflammatory diseases and microbial infections.

Antiviral effect of korean red ginseng extract and ginsenosides on murine norovirus and feline calicivirus as surrogates for human norovirus

Korean red ginseng has been studied various biological activities such as immune, anti-oxidative, anti-microbial, and anticancer activities but antiviral mechanism needs further studies. In this study, we aimed to examine the antiviral effects of Korea red ginseng extract and ginsenosides on norovirus surrogate, including murine norovirus (MNV) and feline calicivirus (FCV). We evaluated the pre-, co-, and post-treatment effects of Korean red ginseng (KRG), ginsenosides Rb₁ and Rg₁. To measure the antiviral effect and cytotoxicity of KRG extract, and ginsenosides Rb₁ and Rg₁, we treated Crandell-Reese Feline Kidney for FCV or RAW264.7 cells for MNV with concentrations of 0, 5, 6.7, 10, 20 ug/mL total saponin. There was cytotoxic effect in the highest concentration 20 ug/mL of KRG extract so this concentration was excluded in this study. The FCV titer was significantly reduced to 0.23-0.83 log₁₀ 50% tissue culture infectious dose (TCID₅₀)/mL in groups pre-treated with red ginseng extract or ginsenosides. The titer of MNV was significantly reduced to 0.37-1.48 log₁₀ TCID₅₀/mL in groups pre-treated with red ginseng extract or ginsenosides. However, there was no observed antiviral effect in groups co-treated or post-treated with KRG and its constituents. Our data suggest that KRG extract has an antiviral effect against norovirus surrogates. The antiviral mechanisms of KRG and ginsenosides should be addressed in future studies.

Chronic toxicity of ginsenoside Re on Sprague-Dawley rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ginseng has been widely used for hundreds of years in both China and other countries. It is well accepted that the pharmacological effects of ginseng are attributed to ginsenosides. Ginsenoside Re is one of the active ingredients in ginseng. The present study was carried out to characterize the toxicity of ginsenoside Re after repeated oral administration in Sprague-Dawley rats.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Rats (60 males, 60 females) were administrated ginsenoside Re orally in 0, 38, 113, or 375 mg/kg/day doses for 26 weeks (n=15/group each sex). Clinical signs, mortality, body weights, feed consumption, urinalysis, hematology, serum biochemistry, gross findings, organ weights and histopathology were examined at the end of the test period, as well as after the 4-week recovery period.

RESULTS

Ginsenoside Re did not induce death, adverse effects or dose-dependent changes in feed consumption, or body weight gain. Some statistically significant differences were observed in hematological and biochemical parameters, as well as in body weights of rats treated with ginsenoside Re. However, there was no abnormality of any organs noted in both gross and histopathological examinations.

CONCLUSIONS

Ginsenoside Re is well tolerated up to a 375 mg/kg/day oral dosage level and non-toxic in both male and female rats.

Adjuvant effect of docetaxel on the immune responses to influenza A H1N1 vaccine in mice

BACKGROUND

Vaccination remains one of the most effective approaches to prevent the spread of infectious diseases. Immune responses to vaccination can be enhanced by inclusion of adjuvant in a vaccine. Paclitaxel extracted from the bark of the Pacific yew tree Taxus brevifola was previously demonstrated to have adjuvant property. Compared to paclitaxel, docetaxel is another member of taxane family, and is more soluble in water and easier to manipulate in medication. To investigate the adjuvant effect of this compound, we measured the immune responses induced by co-administration of a split inactivated influenza H1N1 vaccine antigen with docetaxel.

RESULTS

When co-administered with docetaxel, lower dose antigen (equivalent to 10 ng HA) induced similar levels of IgG and IgG isotypes as well as HI titers to those induced by higher dose antigen (equivalent to 100 ng HA). Docetaxel promoted splenocyte responses to H1N1 antigen, ConA and LPS, mRNA expressions of cytokines (IFN-gamma, IL-12, IL-4 and IL-10) and T-bet/GATA-3 by splenocytes. The enhanced immunity was associated with up-expressed microRNAs (miR-155, miR-150 and miR-146a) in docetaxel-stimulated RAW264.7 cells. Docetaxel promoted similar IgE level to but alum promoted significantly higher IgE level than the control.

CONCLUSION

Docetaxel has adjuvant effect on the influenza H1N1 vaccine by up-regulation of Th1/Th2 immune responses. Considering its unique vaccine adjuvant property as well as the safe record as an anti-neoplastic agent clinically used in humans during a long period, docetaxel should be further studied for its use in influenza vaccine production.

Structural characterization and immunological activities of the water-soluble oligosaccharides isolated from the Panax ginseng roots

Water-soluble ginseng oligosaccharides (designated as WGOS) with a degree of polymerization ranging from 2 to 10 were obtained from warm-water extract of Panax ginseng roots, and fractionated into five purified fractions (i.e., WGOS-0, WGOS-1, WGOS-2, WGOS-3, and WGOS-4) by gel-filtration chromatography. In order to ascertain the monosaccharide residues in the WGOS, a technique that combines acid hydrolysis and high-performance liquid chromatography was employed. It was found that only glucose residues were present in the WGOS. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry provided the sequence, linkage, and configuration information. It is noteworthy that α-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-Glcp, α-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-Glcp-(1 → 4)-α-Glcp, α-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-Glcp-(1 → 6)-α-Glcp-(1 → 4)-α-Glcp, and other six malto-oligosaccharides (i.e., maltopentaose, maltohexaose, maltoheptaose, maltooctaose, maltononaose, and maltodecaose) were detected in ginseng. Preliminary immunological tests in vitro indicated that WGOS were potent B and T-cell stimulators and WGOS-1 has the highest immunostimulating effect on lymphocyte proliferation among those purified fractions. It is hoped that the WGOS will be developed into functional food or medicine.

Ginsenosides Rg1 and Re act as adjuvant via TLR4 signaling pathway

Previous studies have demonstrated that ginsenosides Rg1 and Re extracted from the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer have adjuvant properties. However, the molecular mechanisms behind their adjuvant activities remain unclear. In the present study, we first investigated the adjuvant effect of Rg1 and Re on the immune responses to a model antigen ovalbumin (OVA) in C3H/HeB mice as well as in C3H/HeJ mice carrying a defective toll-like receptor-4 (TLR4) gene, and then evaluated Rg1 and Re for their stimulation of phosphorylation of nuclear factor-kappa B (NF-κB) p65 in the macrophages from above two different strains of mice. In addition, Rg1 and Re were also evaluated for their induction of NF-κB in RAW-Blue™ cells. The results showed that Rg1 and Re had adjuvant activities in stimulating IgG, splenocyte proliferation, and mRNA expression of cytokines IL-4, IL-10, IL-12 and IFN-γ as well as transcription factors GATA-3 and T-bet by splenocytes in C3H/HeB mice but not in C3H/HeJ mice. Rg1 and Re induced phosphorylation of NF-κB p65 at Ser536 in macrophages from C3H/HeB mice but not from C3H/HeJ mice. Both Rg1 and Re induced expression of NF-κB in RAW-Blue™ cells. These results suggested that TLR4 signaling pathway is involved in the adjuvant activities of Rg1 and Re. Nevertheless, pretreatment with anti-TLR4 antibody suppressed the Re- but not Rg1-induced expression of NF-κB, indicating that Rg1 may trigger both extracellular and intracellular TLR4 by passing through the cell membrane while Re only activate extracellular TLR4 as it fails to enter inside of the cells to stimulate intracellular TLR4.