Alpinetin ameliorates inflammatory response in LPS-induced endometritis in mice

Multimodal modulation of hepatic ischemia/reperfusion-induced injury by phytochemical agents: A mechanistic evaluation of hepatoprotective potential and safety profiles

BACKGROUND

Hepatic ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is a clinically fundamental phenomenon that occurs through liver resection surgery, trauma, shock, and transplantation.

AIMS OF THE REVIEW

This review article affords an expanded and comprehensive overview of various natural herbal ingredients that have demonstrated hepatoprotective effects against I/R injury through preclinical studies in animal models.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

For the objective of this investigation, an extensive examination was carried out utilizing diverse scientific databases involving PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB), and Research Gate. The investigation was conducted based on specific identifiable terms, such as hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury, liver resection and transplantation, cytokines, inflammation, NF-kB, interleukins, herbs, plants, natural ingredients, phenolic extract, and aqueous extract.

RESULTS

Bioactive ingredients derived from ginseng, curcumin, resveratrol, epigallocatechin gallate, quercetin, lycopene, punicalagin, crocin, celastrol, andrographolide, silymarin, and others and their effects on hepatic IRI were discussed. The specific mechanisms of action, signaling pathways, and clinical relevance for attenuation of liver enzymes, cytokine production, immune cell infiltration, oxidative damage, and cell death signaling in rodent studies are analyzed in depth. Their complex molecular actions involve modulation of pathways like TLR4, NF-κB, Nrf2, Bcl-2 family proteins, and others.

CONCLUSION

The natural ingredients have promising values in the protection and treatment of various chronic aggressive clinical conditions, and that need to be evaluated on humans by clinical studies.

Therapeutic effect of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells and their conditioned medium on LPS-induced endometritis in mice

AIM

To explore the effect of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUC-MSCs) and their conditioned medium (MSC-CM) in repairing the endometritis mouse model in vivo.

METHODS

Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) was used to induce acute inflammation in endometritis mouse model. Mice were treated in six groups: control group (PBS), model group (LPS), LPS+MSC-CM (6 h) group, LPS+MSC-CM (12 h) group, LPS+MSCs (6 h) group and LPS+MSCs (12 h) group. Morphological and histological changes of mouse uterus were observed, and mouse uterine inflammation index myeloperoxidase (MPO) and related immune index TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β levels were detected by ELISA.

RESULTS

There exist remarkable inflammatory response and an obvious increase in the value of MPO, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 in the endometritis mouse model compared with the control group. Morphological and histological appearances were relieved after treated with hUC-MSCs and MSC-CM. Besides, the value of MPO, TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6 showed different degrees of decline. In comparison with LPS+MSC-CM (12 h) and LPS+MSCs (12 h) group, there was significant decrease in inflammatory indicators in LPS+MSC-CM (6 h) and LPS+MSCs (6 h) group.

CONCLUSIONS

Intrauterine infusion of hUC-MSCs and MSC-CM can alleviate LPS induced endometritis.

Lack of Annexin A1 Exacerbates Inflammatory Response in Acute Endometritis Model

Annexin A1 (AnxA1) is a glucocorticoid-inducible protein and an important endogenous modulator of inflammation. However, its effect in the endometrial microenvironment is poorly explained. This study aimed to evaluate the role of endogenous AnxA1 in an endometritis mouse model induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Female C57BL/6 wild-type (WT) and AnxA1-/- mice were divided into two groups: SHAM and LPS. To induce endometritis, mice received a vaginal infusion of 50 μL of LPS (1 mg/mL) dissolved in phosphate-buffered saline. After 24 h, the mice were euthanized, and blood and uteri samples were collected. The endometrium inflammatory scores were significantly increased in the LPS-treated group. AnxA1-/- mice from the LPS group demonstrated a significant increase in the number of degranulated mast cell levels compared to AnxA1-/- SHAM mice. The Western blotting analysis revealed that a lack of AnxA1 promoted the upregulation of NLRP3 and pro-IL-1β in the acute endometritis animal model compared to WT LPS animals. LPS-induced endometritis increased the number of blood peripheral leukocytes in both WT and AnxA1-/- mice compared with SHAM group mice (p < 0.001). AnxA1-/- mice also showed increased plasma levels of IL-1β (p < 0.01), IL-6, IL-10, IL-17, and TNF-α (p < 0.05) following LPS-induced endometritis. In conclusion, a lack of endogenous AnxA1 exacerbated the inflammatory response in an endometritis model via NLRP3 dysregulation, increased uterine mast cell activation, and plasma pro-inflammatory cytokine release.

Inflammatory setting, therapeutic strategies targeting some pro-inflammatory cytokines and pathways in mitigating ischemia/reperfusion-induced hepatic injury: a comprehensive review

Ischemia/reperfusion injury (IRI) is a key determining agent in the pathophysiology of clinical organ dysfunction. It is characterized by an aseptic local inflammatory reaction due to a decrease in blood supply, hence deprivation of dependent oxygen and nutrients. In instances of liver transplantation, this injury may have irreversible implications, resulting in eventual organ rejection. The deterioration associated with IRI is affected by the hepatic health status and various factors such as alterations in metabolism, oxidative stress, and pro-inflammatory cytokines. The primary cause of inflammation is the initial immune response of pro-inflammatory cytokines, while Kupffer cells (KFCs) and neutrophil-produced chemokines also play a significant role. Upon reperfusion, the activation of inflammatory responses can elicit further cellular damage and organ dysfunction. This review discusses the interplay between chemokines, pro-inflammatory cytokines, and other inflammatory mediators that contribute to the damage to hepatocytes and liver failure in rats following IR. Furthermore, it delves into the impact of anti-inflammatory therapies in safeguarding against liver failure and hepatocellular damage in rats following IR. This review investigates the correlation between cytokine factors and liver dysfunction via examining databases, such as PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct, Egyptian Knowledge Bank (EKB), and Research Gate.

Rosiglitazone alleviates LPS-induced endometritis via suppression of TLR4-mediated NF-κB activation

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to investigate the anti-inflammatory effect of Rosiglitazone (RGZ) on lipopolysaccharide (LPS) -induced Endometritis and explore its possible mechanism.

METHODS

The preventive and therapeutic effects of RGZ on Endometritis were studied in vivo and in vitro. A total of 40 female C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into the following 4 groups: RGZ+LPS, RGZ control, LPS and DMSO control. The mice uterine tissue sections were performed with HE and immunohistochemical staining. Human endometrial stromal cells (HESCs) were cultured, and different concentrations of LPS stimulation groups and RGZ and/or a TLR4 signaling inhibitor TAK-242 pretreatment +LPS groups were established to further elucidate the underlying mechanisms of this protective effect of RGZ.

RESULTS

The HE results in mice showed that RGZ+LPS group had less tissue loss than LPS group. Immunohistochemical staining (IHC) results showed that the expression of TLR4 after RGZ treatment was significantly lower than that in LPS group. These findings suggested that RGZ effectively improves the pathological changes associated with LPS-induced endometritis by inhibiting TLR4. Reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction and western blot analysis demonstrated that RGZ pretreatment suppresses the expression of Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and its downstream activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB). In vitro, RGZ inhibited LPS-stimulated expression of proinflammatory cytokines in a dose-dependent manner and also downregulated LPS induced toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) expression and inhibited phosphorylation of LPS-induced nuclear transcription factor-kappa B (NF-κB) P65 protein.

CONCLUSIONS

These results suggest that RGZ may inhibit LPS-induced endometritis through the TLR4-mediated NF-κB pathway.

Platelet rich plasma alleviates endometritis induced by lipopolysaccharide in mice via inhibiting TLR4/NF-κB signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Endometritis is an inflammatory reaction of the lining of uterus, leading to the occurrence of infertility. Platelet rich plasma (PRP) has been proven to exhibit extremely effective for the treatment of endometrium-associated infertility, but the mechanism of its prevention for endometritis remains unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The present study aimed to investigate the protective effect of PRP against endometritis induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and elucidate the mechanism underlying these effects.

METHODS

Mouse model of endometritis was established by intrauterine perfusion of LPS. PRP intrauterine infusion was administered at 24 h after LPS induction. After another 24 h, the uterine tissues were harvested to observe histopathological changes, production of proinflammatory cytokines, variation of the Toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor κB (TLR4/NF-κB) signaling pathways, and validated the anti-inflammatory effect of PRP. The myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and concentration of nitric oxide (NO) were determined using assay kit. Proinflammatory chemokines (tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), interleukin-1β (IL-1β), and interleukin-6 (IL-6)) were measured by ELISA and Real-Time PCR. The activity of TLR4/NF-κB pathway in uterine tissues was measured by Western blotting.

RESULTS

Hematoxylin-eosin staining (H&E) appeared that PRP remarkably relieved the impairment of uterine tissues. Detection of MPO activity and concentration of NO revealed that PRP treatment distinctly mitigated infiltration of inflammatory cells in mice with endometritis induced by LPS. PRP treatment significantly affected the expression of TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6. PRP was also found to suppress LPS-induced activation of TLR4/NF-κB pathway.

CONCLUSION

PRP effectively alleviates LPS-induced endometritis via restraining the signal pathway of TLR4/NF-κB. These findings provide a solid foundation for PRP as a potential therapeutic agent for endometritis.

Melatonin Alleviates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Endometritis by Inhibiting the Activation of NLRP3 Inflammasome through Autophagy

Bovine endometritis is characterized by reduced milk production and high rates of infertility. Prior research has indicated that melatonin may possess anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties that can counteract the progression of inflammatory diseases. In this research, we attempted to elucidate the protective effects of melatonin on LPS-induced endometritis. The results obtained from enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) and quantitative real-time PCR (qRT-PCR) revealed that melatonin effectively reduced the production and release of pro-inflammatory cytokines in an LPS-induced bovine endometrial epithelial cell line (BEND cells). Furthermore, western blotting demonstrated that melatonin treatment reduced the expression levels of the NOD-like receptor family pyrin domain-containing 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome-related proteins, including NLRP3, activated caspase-1, and cleaved IL-1β. Importantly, we further demonstrated that the anti-inflammatory effect of melatonin on BEND cells was related to autophagy by western blotting. Moreover, we used western blotting to detect autophagy-related proteins, MitoSOX to detect mitochondrial reactive oxygen species production (mtROS), and mitochondrial membrane potential (MMP) assay to detect mitochondrial membrane potential. The administration of melatonin demonstrated a significant enhancement in autophagy within BEND cells, leading to the effective elimination of impaired mitochondria. This process resulted in a reduction in the generation of reactive oxygen species within the mitochondria, restoration of mitochondrial membrane potential, and inhibition of the NLRP3 inflammasome activation. Moreover, in a mouse model of LPS-induced endometritis, melatonin treatment repressed the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines by ELISA and qRT-PCR, alleviated pathological changes by hematoxylin-eosin staining (H&E), and inhibited myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity. In conclusion, our study showed that melatonin inhibited the activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome in BEND cells through autophagy, which may provide a novel therapeutic strategy for bovine endometritis.

The mechanism of action of safflower total flavonoids in the treatment of endometritis caused by incomplete abortion based on network pharmacology and 16S rDNA sequencing

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Safflower is a traditional Chinese medicine used for treating gynaecological diseases. However, its material basis and mechanism of action in the treatment of endometritis induced by incomplete abortion are still unclear.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to reveal the material basis and mechanism of action of safflower in the treatment of endometritis induced by incomplete abortion through comprehensive methods, including network pharmacology and 16S rDNA sequencing.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Network pharmacology and molecular docking methods were used to screen the main active components and potential mechanisms of action of safflower in the treatment of endometritis induced by incomplete abortion in rats. A rat model of endometrial inflammation by incomplete abortion was established. The rats were treated with safflower total flavonoids (STF) based on forecasting results, serum levels of inflammatory cytokines were analysed, and immunohistochemistry, Western blots, and 16S rDNA sequencing were performed to investigate the effects of the active ingredient and the treatment mechanism.

RESULTS

The network pharmacology prediction results showed 20 active components with 260 targets in safflower, 1007 targets related to endometritis caused by incomplete abortion, and 114 drug-disease intersecting targets, including TNF, IL6, TP53, AKT1, JUN, VEGFA, CASP3 and other core targets, PI3K/AKT, MAPK and other signalling pathways may be closely related to incomplete abortion leading to endometritis. The animal experiment results showed that STF could significantly repair uterine damage and reduce the amount of bleeding. Compared with the model group, STF significantly down-regulated the levels of pro-inflammatory factors (IL-6, IL-1β, NO, TNF-α) and the expression of JNK, ASK1, Bax, caspase3, and caspase11 proteins. At the same time, the levels of anti-inflammatory factors (TGF-β and PGE2) and the protein expression of ERα, PI3K, AKT, and Bcl2 were up-regulated. Significant differences in the intestinal flora were seen between the normal group and the model group, and the intestinal flora of the rats was closer to the normal group after the administration of STF.

CONCLUSIONS

The characteristics of STF used in the treatment of endometritis induced by incomplete abortion were multi-targeted and involved multiple pathways. The mechanism may be related to the activation of the ERα/PI3K/AKT signalling pathway by regulating the composition and ratio of the gut microbiota.

Selenomethionine protects against Escherichia coli-induced endometritis by inhibiting inflammation and necroptosis via regulating the PPAR-γ/NF-κB pathway

Endometritis, inflammation of the endometrium, is a major cause of subfertility in women. Selenomethionine (SeMet)is known to exert anti-inflammatory activity. We aimed to verify the protective roles of SeMet on Escherichia coli (E.coli)-induced endometritis. The extent of uterus damage was assessed by detecting histopathology and inflammatory mediators. The results revealed that SeMet significantly prevented E.coli-induced endometritis by attenuating uterine histopathology and inflammatory cytokine production. E.coli-induced MPO activity and MDA content were inhibited by SeMey. E.coli-induced ZO-1 and occludin were upregulated by SeMet. E.coli-induced necroptosis was also inhibited by SeMet. Additionally, E.coli-induced NF-κB activation was alleviated by SeMet. PPAR-γ expression was upregulated by SeMet. Notably, the protective effects of SeMet on endometritis were abolished by a PPAR-γ inhibitor. In conclusion, SeMet inhibits E.coli-induced endometritis by attenuating inflammation and necroptosis, which is mediated by the PPAR-γ/NF-κB signaling pathway.

Inhibiting mitochondrial inflammation through Drp1/HK1/NLRP3 pathway: A mechanism of alpinetin attenuated aging-associated cognitive impairment

Mitochondrial inflammation triggered by abnormal mitochondrial division and regulated by the Drp1/HK1/NLRP3 pathway is correlated with the progression of aging-associated cognitive impairment (AACI). Alpinetin is a novel flavonoid derived from Zingiberaceae that has many bioactivities such as antiinflammation and anti-oxidation. However, whether alpinetin alleviates AACI by suppressing Drp1/HK1/NLRP3 pathway-inhibited mitochondrial inflammation is still unknown. In the present study, D-galactose (D-gal)-induced aging mice and BV-2 cells were used, and the effects of alpinetin on learning and memory function, neuroprotection and activation of the Drp1/HK1/NLRP3 pathway were investigated. Our data indicated that alpinetin significantly alleviated cognitive dysfunction and neuronal damage in the CA1 and CA3 regions of D-gal-treated mice. Moreover, D-gal-induced microglial activation was markedly reduced by alpinetin by inhibiting the Drp1/HK1/NLRP3 pathway-suppressed mitochondrial inflammation, down-regulating the levels of p-Drp1 (s616), VDAC, NLRP3, ASC, Cleaved-caspase 1, IL-18, and IL-1β, and up-regulating the expression of HK1. Furthermore, after Drp1 inhibition by Mdivi-1 in vitro, the inhibitory effect of alpinetin on Drp1/HK1/NLRP3 pathway was more evident. In summary, the current results implied that alpinetin attenuated aging-related cognitive deficits by inhibiting the Drp1/HK1/NLRP3 pathway and suppressing mitochondrial inflammation, suggesting that the inhibition of the Drp1/HK1/NLRP3 pathway is one of the mechanisms by which alpinetin attenuates AACI.

Alpinetin alleviates osteoporosis by promoting osteogenic differentiation in BMSCs by triggering autophagy via PKA/mTOR/ULK1 signaling

Osteoporosis, a systemic bone disease that is characterized by a reduction in bone mass and destruction of bone microstructure, is becoming a serious problem worldwide. Bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells (BMSCs) can differentiate into bone-forming osteoblasts, and play an important role in maintaining homeostasis of bone metabolism, thus being a potential therapeutic target for osteoporosis. Although the phytochemical alpinetin (APT) has been reported to possess a variety of pharmacological activities, it is still unclear whether APT can influence the osteogenic differentiation of on BMSCs and if it can improve osteoporosis. In this study, we found that APT treatment was able to enhance osteogenic differentiation levels of human BMSCs in vitro and mouse ones in vivo as revealed by multiple osteogenic markers including increased alkaline phosphatase activity and osteocalcin expression. Mechanistically, the protein kinase A (PKA)/mTOR/ULK1 signaling was involved in the action of APT to enhance the osteogenic differentiation of BMSCs. In addition, oral administration of APT significantly mitigated the bone loss in a dexamethasone-induced mouse model of osteoporosis through strengthening PKA signaling and autophagy. Altogether, these data demonstrate that APT promotes osteogenic differentiation in BMSCs by augmenting the PKA/mTOR/ULK1 autophagy signaling, highlighting its potential therapeutic application for treating osteoporotic diseases.

Protective effects of chicoric acid on LPS-induced endometritis in mice via inhibiting ferroptosis by Nrf2/HO-1 signal axis

Chicoric acid (CA), a natural phenolic acid extracted from Mediterranean vegetable chicory, has anti-oxidative effect. We aimed to investigate the effects of CA on endometritis and clarify the underlying mechanism. C57BL/6 mice were divided into five groups: control group, LPS group, and LPS + CA groups. All mice except control group were infused of LPS into the uterus. The mice of LPS + CA groups were intraperitoneally injected CA 1 h before LPS challenge. CA significantly alleviatedLPS-induced pathological damage, MPO activity, and inflammatory cytokine production. CA significantly suppressed ferroptosis in LPS-induced endometritis. CA also attenuated LPS-induced NF-κB activation. Furthermore, Nrf2 and HO-1 expression were increased by CA. Moreover, the inhibition of CA on LPS-induced endometritis and ferroptosis were markedly prevented in Nrf2 knockdown mice. In conclusion, the results suggested CA protected mice against LPS-induced endometritisthrough inhibiting ferroptosis via Nrf2/HO-1 signaling pathway.

Enhanced expression of miR-26a ameliorates lipopolysaccharide-induced endometritis by targeting MAP3K8 to inactivate MAPK signaling pathway

Endometritis is a severe postpartum inflammatory disease that puts cows' reproductive health at risk and causes the dairy industry to suffer significant financial losses. The present study aimed to investigate the regulatory role of miR‑26a in LPS‑induced bovine endometrial epithelial cells (bEECs) and the implication for endometritis. Here, we found inflammatory cell infiltration and destruction of endometrial structure in cow uterus, and dramatic increase in myeloperoxidase (MPO) activity and upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNF-α, and IL-6) in endometritis. Meanwhile, miR-26a was down-regulated, but MAP3K8 was increased in the uterine tissue of endometritis. Similarly, the expression of miR-26a was significantly decreased in LPS-stimulated bEECs, while MAP3K8 was risen. In addition, we further verified that MAP3K8 was a target of miR-26a by dual-luciferase reporter assay. Under LPS stress, over-expressing miR-26a markedly decreased MAP3K8 expression levels, along with the reduced expression of inflammatory factors, such as IL-1β, TNF-α and IL-6, whereas this effect was countered by the inhibition of miR-26a. Furthermore, we demonstrated that miR-26a overexpression prevented the MAPK pathway from being activated by targeting MAP3K8. Then we carried out experiments in LPS-stimulated mice uterus to expound that MAP3K8 was essential in endometritis development, which further confirmed the reliability of the above results. In conclusion, overexpression of miR-26a effectively inhibited the expression of MAP3K8 in LPS-induced bEECs and thereby partially suppressed the activation of MAPK signaling pathway. miR-26a and MAP3K8 may be a promising biomarker and therapeutic target for dairy cow endometritis.

Alpinetin suppresses CYP3A4, 2C9, and 2E1 activity in vitro

CONTEXT

Alpinetin, the major active constitutes of Alpinia katsumata Hayata (Zingiberaceae), has been demonstrated to possess the activity of anti-breast cancer. Cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYP450s) plays vital roles in the biotransformation of various drugs.

OBJECTIVE

To assess the effect of alpinetin on the activity of CYP450s and estimate the inhibition characteristics.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The activity of CYP450s was evaluated in pooled human liver microsomes with corresponding substrates and marker reactions. The effect of alpinetin was compared with blank control (negative control) and corresponding inhibitors (positive control). The dose-dependent and time-dependent experiments were conducted in the presence of 0, 2.5, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 μM alpinetin and incubated for 0, 5, 10, 15, and 30 min.

RESULTS

Alpinetin suppressed CYP3A4, 2C9, and 2E1 activity. All the inhibitions were significantly influenced by alpinetin contration with the IC₅₀ values of 8.23 μM (CYP3A4), 12.64 μM (CYP2C9), and 10.97 μM (CYP2E1), respectively. The inhibition of CYP3A4 was fitted with the non-competitive model with a Ki value of 4.09 μM and was time-dependent with KI and Kinact values of 4.67 min and 0.041 μM^-1, respectively. While CYP2C9 and 2E1 were inhibited by alpinetin competitively with Ki values of 6.42 (CYP2C9) and 5.40 μM (CYP2E1), respectively, in a time-independent manner.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The in vitro inhibitory effect of alpineticn on CYP3A, 2C9, and 2E1 implied the potential interaction of alpinetin or its origin herbs with the drugs metabolised by those CYP450s, which needs further in vivo validation.

Effects of Genistein on Common Kidney Diseases

Genistein is a naturally occurring phytoestrogen (soy or soybean products) that is classified as an isoflavone, and its structure is similar to that of endogenous estrogens; therefore, genistein can exert an estrogen-like effect via estrogen receptors. Additionally, genistein is a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, which enables it to block abnormal cell growth and proliferation signals through the inhibition of tyrosine kinase. Genistein is also an angiogenesis inhibitor and an antioxidant. Genistein has effects on kidney cells, some of the kidney’s physiological functions, and a variety of kidney diseases. First, genistein exerts a protective effect on normal cells by reducing the inflammatory response, inhibiting apoptosis, inhibiting oxidative stress, inhibiting remodeling, etc., but after cell injury, the protective effect of genistein decreases or even has the opposite effect. Second, genistein can regulate renin intake to maintain blood pressure balance, regulate calcium uptake to regulate Ca²⁺ and Pi balances, and reduce vasodilation to promote diuresis. Third, genistein has beneficial effects on a variety of kidney diseases (including acute kidney disease, kidney cancer, and different chronic kidney diseases), such as reducing symptoms, delaying disease progression, and improving prognosis. Therefore, this paper reviews animal and human studies on the protective effects of genistein on the kidney in vivo and in vitro to provide a reference for clinical research in the future.

Alpinetin Suppresses Effects of TGF-β1 on Stimulating the Production and Organization of Fibrotic Markers in Human Primary Dermal Fibroblasts

Overgrowths of dermal fibroblasts and myofibroblast phenoconversion in response to TGF-β stimulation are the hallmarks of skin fibrosis. Constitutive activation of dermal fibroblasts by TGF-β induces the excessive production of extracellular matrix as well as certain key intracellular proteins which form a complex interaction network. Current therapies include monoclonal anti-bodies against TGF-β and surgery, but these treatments generally elicit a limited effect on certain kinds of skin fibrosis. In the current study, we investigated the effects of alpinetin (AP) on human primary dermal fibroblasts (HPDFs) stimulated with TGF-β1. Results demonstrated that AP exhibited strong inhibitory effects on TGF-β1-induced proliferation and migration of HPDFs. AP also inhibited TGF-β1-induced morphological changes of fibroblasts to myofibroblasts, and these were found to be from its effects on blocking actin stress fiber formation and organization. The expression of major fibrotic molecules including α-SMA and type I collagen upon TGF-β1 stimulation was also inhibited by AP. In addition, AP attenuated TGF-β1-induced production and organization of vimentin, β-catenin, and N-cadherin, important for the pathophysiology of skin fibrosis. In conclusion, we revealed that AP has an ability to reverse the fibrotic effects of TGF-β1 at the cellular level, and this discovery suggests the therapeutic potential of AP for skin fibrosis.

Alpinetin: a Dietary Flavonoid with Diverse Anticancer Effects

Cancer is  a global burden and mechanistically complex disease with a plethora of genetic, physiological, metabolic, and environmental alterations. The development of dietary nutraceuticals into cancer chemotherapeutics has emerged as a new paradigm in cancer treatment. Alpinetin (ALPI) is a novel flavonoid component of multiple edible and medicinal plants and possesses a wide range of biological and pharmacological activities including antibacterial, anti-hemostatic, anti-oxidative, anti-hepatotoxic, stomachic, immunosuppressive, and anti-inflammatory. Recently, ALPI has been reported as a bioactive dietary nutraceutical with promising anticancer activity in various human cancers through multiple mechanisms. The purpose of this review is to compile the data on natural sources of ALPI, and its anticancer activity including cellular targets and anticancer mechanism in various human cancers. Moreover, this review will set the stage for further design and conduct pre-clinical and clinical trials to develop ALPI into a lead structure for oncological therapy.

Alpinetin inhibits macrophage infiltration and atherosclerosis by improving the thiol redox state: Requirement of GSk3β/Fyn-dependent Nrf2 activation

Alpinetin is a plant flavonoid isolated from Alpinia katsumadai Hayata with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Monocyte infiltration into the intima promotes atherosclerotic development and causes plaque instability at the later stage, which is profoundly influenced by various oxidants. In this study, we investigated whether alpinetin restores the redox state to inhibit monocyte infiltration and ameliorates atherosclerosis. ApoE-deficient (ApoE^-/- ) mice were fed a high-fat diet and treated with alpinetin. We found that alpinetin significantly attenuated atherosclerotic lesions and reduced necrotic core size associated with the reduction in infiltrated macrophages within the plaques. Alpinetin inhibited macrophage adhesion and migration, and the expression of chemokines and adhesion molecules, such as MCP-1, VCAM-1, and ICAM-1. Intraplaque MMP2 and MMP9 were reduced, while collagen contents were increased and elastin fiber was prevented from degradation in the alpinetin-treated mice. Data further showed that alpinetin reduced reactive oxygen species generation and promoted thiol-dependent glutathione and thioredoxin antioxidant systems in macrophages. Alpinetin activated Nfr2, an upstream activator of the thiol-dependent redox signaling by increasing the nuclear translocation. The nuclear accumulation of Nrf2 was enhanced by reducing nuclear export, which was achieved through the regulation of the GSk3β/Fyn pathway. Finally, inhibition of Nrf2 in HFD-apoE^-/- mice blockaded the effect of alpinetin, which increased aortic macrophage recruitment and aggravated atherosclerosis concurrently with elevating the expression of MCP-1, VCAM-1, and ICAM-1. Altogether, these findings indicated that alpinetin improved Nrf2-mediated redox homeostasis, which consequently inhibited macrophage infiltration and atherosclerosis, suggesting a useful compound for treating atherosclerosis.

Alpinetin: A Review of Its Pharmacology and Pharmacokinetics

Flavonoids isolated from medicinal herbs have been utilized as valuable health-care agents due to their virous biological applications. Alpinetin is a natural flavonoid that emerges in many widely used medicinal plants, and has been frequently applied in Chinese patent drugs. Accumulated evidence has demonstrated that alpinetin possesses a broad range of pharmacological activities such as antitumor, antiinflammation, hepatoprotective, cardiovascular protective, lung protective, antibacterial, antiviral, neuroprotective, and other properties through regulating multiple signaling pathways with low systemic toxicity. However, pharmacokinetic studies have documented that alpinetin may have poor oral bioavailability correlated to its extensive glucuronidation. Currently, the reported pharmacological properties and pharmacokinetics profiles of alpinetin are rare to be scientifically reviewed. In this article, we aimed to highlight the mechanisms of action of alpinetin in various diseases to strongly support its curative potentials for prospective clinical applications. We also summarized the pharmacokinetics properties and proposed some viable strategies to convey an appreciable reference for future advances of alpinetin in drug development.

Nrf2/HO-1 pathway is involved the anti-inflammatory action of intrauterine infusion of platelet-rich plasma against lipopolysaccharides in endometritis

OBJECTIVE(S)

Endometritis is the inflammatory response of the uterine lining which is linked to infertility. Administration of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) represents a well-recommended strategy for the treatment of endometrium-associated infertility. In this study, we set to characterize the role and molecular mechanism of PRP intrauterine infusion in mice with endometritis.

METHODS

A mouse model of endometritis was established using lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Mouse endometrial epithelial cells were obtained in primary culture. PRP-treated cells were assayed for proliferative and apoptotic activities. Moreover, iNOS expression and chemokine and inflammatory factor contents in cells were assessed using RT-qPCR and ELISA. The mice were subjected to PRP intrauterine infusion. The expression of genes related to uterine development was analyzed by qPCR and the ki-67 content and caspase-3 activation in endometrial tissues were examined by immunohistochemistry. Finally, the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway activity in tissues was examined by Western blot.

RESULTS

LPS induced inflammatory cell recruitment and tissue damage in the endometrium of mice, along with significantly increased levels of inflammatory and chemokine factors. PRP significantly enhanced endometrial epithelial cell activity, decreased apoptosis, and reduced inflammatory factor secretion. In addition, PRP intrauterine infusion significantly increased the expression of genes related to uterine development, promoted tissue proliferation, decreased apoptosis, and diminished inflammatory response in endometrial tissues of mice. PRP intrauterine infusion significantly elevated Nrf2/HO-1 pathway activity in endometrial epithelial cells and tissues.

CONCLUSION

PRP intrauterine infusion significantly inhibited endometrial cell injury and alleviated the inflammatory response through activating the Nrf2/HO-1 pathway.

Ginsenoside Rb1 Mitigates Escherichia coli Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Endometritis through TLR4-Mediated NF-κB Pathway

Endometritis is the inflammatory response of the endometrial lining of the uterus and is associated with low conception rates, early embryonic mortality, and prolonged inter-calving intervals, and thus poses huge economic losses to the dairy industry worldwide. Ginsenoside Rb1 (GnRb1) is a natural compound obtained from the roots of Panax ginseng, having several pharmacological and biological properties. However, the anti-inflammatory properties of GnRb1 in lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-challenged endometritis through the TLR4-mediated NF-κB signaling pathway has not yet been researched. This study was planned to evaluate the mechanisms of how GnRb1 rescues LPS-induced endometritis. In the present research, histopathological findings revealed that GnRb1 ameliorated LPS-triggered uterine injury. The ELISA and RT-qPCR assay findings indicated that GnRb1 suppressed the expression level of pro-inflammatory molecules (TNF-α, IL-1β and IL-6) and boosted the level of anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokine. Furthermore, the molecular study suggested that GnRb1 attenuated TLR4-mediated NF-κB signaling. The results demonstrated the therapeutic efficacy of GnRb1 in the mouse model of LPS-triggered endometritis via the inhibition of the TLR4-associated NF-κB pathway. Taken together, this study provides a baseline for the protective effect of GnRb1 to treat endometritis in both humans and animals.

Alpinetin Attenuates Persistent Inflammation, Immune Suppression, and Catabolism Syndrome in a Septic Mouse Model

Patients who survive the acute phase of sepsis can progress to persistent inflammation, immunosuppression, and catabolism syndrome (PICS), which usually results in extended recovery periods and multiple complications. Alpinetin is a flavonoid isolated from Alpinia katsumadai Hayata that has been demonstrated to have anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, and antioxidant activities. The aim of this study was to investigate whether the administration of alpinetin could attenuate PICS in a septic mouse model. Mice were randomly divided into four groups: the (1) sham-operated group, (2) sham+alpinetin (1 mg/kg intravenously infused for once per day after sham operation), (3) cecal ligation and puncture (CLP), and (4) CLP+alpinetin (50 mg/kg intravenously infused for once per day after CLP). Eight days after sham operation or CLP surgery, mice were euthanized for subsequent examination. Alpinetin significantly improved the survival of septic mice. Also, it attenuated the CLP-induced persistent inflammation, immunosuppression, and catabolism syndrome. The level of plasma proinflammatory cytokines and apoptosis of T lymphocytes were obviously decreased by alpinetin as well. Moreover, oxidative stress in the organs was compelling lower in the alpinetin-treated CLP mice. In this clinically relevant model of sepsis, alpinetin ameliorates CLP-induced organ dysfunction and improves the likelihood of survival, possibly through suppressing the inflammatory response, oxidative stress, and apoptosis. These findings suggested that alpinetin could be a potential novel therapeutic approach to prevent sepsis-induced PICS.

MiR-193a-3p targets LGR4 to promote the inflammatory response in endometritis

Solving the reproductive barriers of dairy cows has become one of the most critical factors determining the dairy industry's development. Clinically, inflammation disease like endometritis is the most crucial cause in reducing dairy production's financial viability. MiR-193 family can induce cell apoptosis and differentiation has been reported in various diseases. LGR4 plays a vital role in reproductive system development and immune system regulation, and it is closely related to animal reproductive function and cytokine regulation. In this study, we observed a negative relationship between miR-193a-3p and LGR4 expression level in both inflammatory tissues and cells. The expression level of miR-193a-3p and LGR4 in bovine endometrial epithelial cells (BENDs) is regulated by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation time and dose-dependent. Subsequently, miR-193a-3p mimics and inhibitors were used to explore its functions in the inflammation response process, finding that overexpression of miR-193a-3p markedly increases the expression level of pro-inflammatory cytokines induced by LPS, such as IL-1β, IL-6 and TNF-α, while the group in which transfected inhibitor is on the contrary. Of note, immunofluorescence and western blot results showed that miR-193a-3p enhanced LPS-induced NF-κB p65 phosphorylation through targeting LGR4, whereas inhibiting miR-193a-3p could suppress the activation of NF-κB pathway significantly. In conclusion, our study firstly reported the mechanism by which miR-193a-3p targets LGR4 to elevate the inflammatory response in bovine endometrium injury, thereby implying that knockdown miR-193a-3p may lay the theoretical and practical basis for drug development of alleviating endometritis in dairy cows.

Alpinetin protects against hepatic ischemia/reperfusion injury in mice by inhibiting the NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathways

Liver damage induced by ischemia/reperfusion (I/R) remains a primary issue in liver transplantation and resection. Alpinetin, a novel plant flavonoid derived from Alpinia katsumadai Hayata, is widely used to treat various inflammatory diseases. However, the effects of alpinetin on hepatic I/R injury remain unclear. The present study investigated the protective effects of alpinetin pretreatment on hepatic I/R injury in mice. C57BL/6 mice were subjected to 1 h of partial hepatic ischemia followed by 6 h of reperfusion. Alpinetin (50 mg/kg) was given by intraperitoneal injection 1 h before liver ischemia. The blood and liver tissues were collected to assess biochemical indicators, hepatocyte damage, and levels of proteins related to signaling pathways. Furthermore, a hepatocytes hypoxia/reoxygenation (H/R) model was established for in vitro experiments. In vivo, we observed that alpinetin significantly attenuated the increases in alanine aminotransferase, aspartate transaminase, proinflammatory cytokines, hepatocyte damage, and apoptosis caused by hepatic I/R. Moreover, the hepatic I/R-induced nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB)/mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways were suppressed by alpinetin. In vitro, we also observed that alpinetin inhibited the inflammatory response, apoptosis, and activation of the NF-κB/MAPK pathways in hepatocytes after H/R treatment. Our data indicate that alpinetin ameliorated the inflammatory response and apoptosis induced by hepatic I/R injury in mice. The protective effects of alpinetin on hepatic I/R injury may be due to its ability to inhibit the NF-κB/MAPK signaling pathways. These results suggest that alpinetin is a promising potential therapeutic reagent for hepatic I/R injury.

Anti-Inflammatory Potential Exhibited by Amomum subulatum Fruits Mitigates Experimentally Induced Acute and Chronic Inflammation in Mice: Evaluation of Antioxidant Parameters, Pro-Inflammatory Mediators and HO-1 Pathway

OBJECTIVE

Conventional anti-inflammatory drugs are associated with serious adverse effects which bring about an ever-increasing demand to supersede them with natural and safe anti-inflammatory agents. Hence, the prime objective of this study was to evaluate the anti- inflammatory potential of an underutilized culinary spice "Amomum subulatum".

METHODS

To assess anti-inflammatory activity of MEAS, acute and chronic inflammation studies were carried out in carrageenan and formalin induced mice paw edema models respectively. Paw volume was measured by vernier caliper. Status of antioxidant enzymes and oxidative stress markers were determined in paw tissue homogenates following standard protocols. Histopathology and immunohistochemistry analysis of paw tissue samples were also performed. Levels of proinflammatory cytokines in serum were quantified by ELISA. Effect of MEAS on vascular permeability was evaluated by evans blue dye extravasation assay. Involvement of heme oxygenase (HO)-1 pathway in anti-inflammatory action of MEAS was investigated by pretreating mice with zinc protoporphyrin (ZnPP) IX, a specific inhibitor of HO-1.

RESULTS

MEAS administration significantly reduced paw edema, as evidenced by paw volume measurement and histopathology analysis. Additionally, pretreatment with MEAS markedly reduced vascular permeability, serum proinflammatory cytokine levels, cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) and inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS). Further, the anti-inflammatory mechanism of MEAS showed the involvement of HO-1 pathway when HO-1 was inhibited by ZnPPIX.

CONCLUSION

Our results manifested strong anti-inflammatory activity of MEAS, suggesting its potential use as a therapeutic alternative for treating inflammatory disorders.

Alpinetin prevents inflammatory responses in OVA-induced allergic asthma through modulating PI3K/AKT/NF-κB and HO-1 signaling pathways in mice

Allergic asthma is the most common type of asthma which characterized by inflammatory responses of the airways. Alpinetin, a flavonoid compound derived from the ginger family of medicinal herbs, possesses various biological properties including anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant and other medical effects. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of alpinetin on OVA-induced allergic asthma, and further to examine its molecular mechanisms underlying these processes in vivo and in vitro. Mice were sensitized and challenged with OVA to build allergic asthma model in vivo. Bronchoalveolar lavage fluid (BALF) was collected for inflammatory cells analysis and lung tissues were examined for histopathological examination. The levels of IL-5, IL-13, IL-4, IgE, TNF-α, IL-6 and IL-1β were determined by the respective ELISA kits. The PI3K/AKT/NF-κB and HO-1 signaling pathways were examined by western blot analysis. The results showed that alpinetin significantly ameliorated OVA-induced pathologic changes of lungs, such as decreasing massive inflammatory cell infiltration and mucus hypersecretion, and reduced the number of inflammatory cells in BALF. Alpinetin also decreased the OVA-induced levels of IL-4, IL-5, IL-13 and IgE. Furthermore, alpinetin inhibited OVA-induced phosphorylation of p65, IκB, PI3K and AKT, and the activity of HO-1 in vivo. More importantly, these anti-inflammatory effects and molecular mechanisms of alpinetin has also been confirmed in LPS-stimulated RAW 264.7 macrophages in vitro. In conclusion, above results indicate that alpinetin exhibites a potent anti-inflammatory activity in allergic asthma through modulating PI3K/AKT/NF-κB and HO-1 signaling pathways, which would be used as a promising therapy agent for allergic asthma.

Increasing the Chemical Variety of Small-Molecule-Based TLR4 Modulators: An Overview

Toll-Like Receptor 4 (TLR4) is one of the receptors of innate immunity. It is activated by Pathogen- and Damage-Associated Molecular Patterns (PAMPs and DAMPs) and triggers pro-inflammatory responses that belong to the repertoire of innate immune responses, consequently protecting against infectious challenges and boosting adaptive immunity. Mild TLR4 stimulation by non-toxic molecules resembling its natural agonist (lipid A) provided efficient vaccine adjuvants. The non-toxic TLR4 agonist monophosphoryl lipid A (MPLA) has been approved for clinical use. This suggests the development of other TLR4 agonists as adjuvants or drugs for cancer immunotherapy. TLR4 excessive activation by a Gram-negative bacteria lipopolysaccharide (LPS) leads to sepsis, while TLR4 stimulation by DAMPs is a common mechanism in several inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. TLR4 inhibition by small molecules and antibodies could therefore provide access to innovative therapeutics targeting sepsis as well as acute and chronic inflammations. The potential use of TLR4 antagonists as anti-inflammatory drugs with unique selectivity and a new mechanism of action compared to corticosteroids or other non-steroid anti-inflammatory drugs fueled the search for compounds of natural or synthetic origin able to block or inhibit TLR4 activation and signaling. The wide spectrum of clinical settings to which TLR4 inhibitors can be applied include autoimmune diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory bowel diseases), vascular inflammation, neuroinflammations, and neurodegenerative diseases. The last advances (from 2017) in TLR4 activation or inhibition by small molecules (molecular weight <2 kDa) are reviewed here. Studies on pre-clinical validation of new chemical entities (drug hits) on cellular or animal models as well as new clinical studies on previously developed TLR4 modulators are reported. Innovative TLR4 modulators discovered by computer-assisted drug design and an artificial intelligence approach are described. Some "old" TLR4 agonists or antagonists such as MPLA or Eritoran are under study for repositioning in different pharmacological contexts. The mechanism of action of the molecules and the level of TLR4 involvement in their biological activity are critically discussed.

MiR-643 inhibits lipopolysaccharide-induced endometritis progression by targeting TRAF6

Endometritis is a prevalent disease with inflammation of uterus endangering women reproductive health. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) play important roles in inflammatory disorders, including endometritis. However, the role and mechanism of miR-643 in endometritis development remain unclear. This study aimed to investigate the effect of miR-643 on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced inflammatory response and clarify the potential mechanism. LPS-treated human endometrial epithelial cells (HEECs) were cultured to investigate the role of miR-643 in vitro. The expression levels of miR-643 and tumor necrosis factor receptor-associated factor 6 (TRAF6) were measured via quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction and western blot, respectively. LPS-induced inflammatory response was assessed by inflammatory cytokines secretion via enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. The activation of nuclear factor-κB (NF-κB) pathway was investigated by western blot. The interaction between miR-643 and TRAF6 was validated by bioinformatics analysis, luciferase reporter assay, and RNA immunoprecipitation. The expression of miR-643 was decreased and TRAF6 protein level was enhanced in LPS-treated HEECs. The overexpression of miR-643 suppressed LPS-induced secretion of inflammatory cytokines (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β [IL-1β], and IL-6) and activation of NF-κB pathway. The knockdown of TRAF6 inhibited LPS-induced inflammatory response in HEECs. TRAF6 was validated as a target of miR-643 and TRAF6 restoration reversed the effect of miR-643 on inflammation response in LPS-treated HEECs. Collectively, miR-643 attenuated LPS-induced inflammatory response by targeting TRAF6, indicating a novel avenue for the treatment of endometritis.

Evidence of anti-inflammatory activity of Schizandrin A in animal models of acute inflammation

Schisandrin A (Sch A) is a lignin extracted from the fruit of Schisandra chinensis, which has potential anti-inflammatory properties and is used for treating various inflammatory diseases. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of Sch A and the underlying mechanisms in animal models of acute inflammation. First, the anti-inflammatory effects of Sch A were evaluated preliminarily in an animal model of xylene-induced ear edema. Sch A pretreatment significantly decreased the degree of edema and inhibited telangiectasia in the ear. Second, a mouse model of paw edema was used to investigate the anti-inflammatory effects and mechanisms of Sch A. Pretreatment with Sch A significantly inhibited carrageenan-induced paw edema in mice. Hematoxylin-eosin (HE) staining of paw tissues demonstrated that Sch A inhibited the infiltration of inflammatory cells in the mouse model of paw edema. Enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) results indicated that the levels of inflammatory factors decreased. The western blot and immunohistochemical assay results revealed that the toll-like receptor 4/nuclear factor kappa-B (TLR4/NF-κB) pathway could play a role in the anti-inflammatory functions of Sch A. The findings demonstrated that Sch A exerts anti-inflammatory effects and may provide possible strategies for the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Inhibitory effect of alpinetin on IL-6 expression by promoting cytosine methylation in CpG islands in the IL-6 promoter region

Background

Alpinetin is a flavonoid which exerts antibacterial and anti‐inflammatory functions. In order to prove that the induced methylation is an important mechanism for alpinetin in regulating the expression of inflammatory factor Interleukin‐6 (IL‐6), we detected the dinucleotide methylation status of CpG islands in the IL‐6 promoter region and IL‐6 level after treatment of RAW246.7 murine macrophages with alpinetin.

Methods

After RAW246.7 murine macrophages were treated with alpinetin, alpinetin + GW9662 (the peroxisome proliferator‐activated receptor (PPAR) antagonist), and alpinetin + DNA methyltransferase 3 alpha (DNMT3A) siRNA for 96 hr, CpG islands were analyzed using time‐of‐flight mass spectrophotometry (TOF‐MS) and bisulfite sequencing polymerase chain reaction (BSP). Dinucleotide methylation status of the CpG islands in the IL‐6 promoter region was analyzed by methylation‐specific Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR). IL‐6 level was detected using the enzyme‐linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) method. Pearson's correlation analysis was conducted to test for potential correlation between the methylation status of CpG islands in the IL‐6 promoter region and IL‐6 level in RAW 246.7 cells.

Results

Alpinetin promoted dinucleotide methylation status of two CpG islands in the IL‐6 promoter region stretching 500–2500 bp upstream of the transcriptional start site (TSS) (p < .05). This promoting effect was more significant for the CpG island stretching 500–1500 bp long. The methylation ratio of dinucleotide at this position was significantly inversely correlated with the level of IL‐6 (p < .05). PPAR antagonist GW9662 and interference of DNMT3A could reverse both the alpinetin‐induced methylation and inhibitory effects on IL‐6 expression.

Conclusion

Alpinetin could induce dinucleotide methylation status of CpG islands in the IL‐6 promoter region by activating methyltransferase, thus inhibiting IL‐6 expression in murine macrophages.

Metabolic Profiling of Alpinetin in Rat Plasma, Urine, Bile and Feces after Intragastric Administration

Alpinetin, a bioactive flavonoid, has been known to have a diverse therapeutic effect, with namely anti-inflammatory, anticancer and antioxidant effects with low systemic toxicity. This study aimed to obtain metabolic profiles of alpinetin in orally administrated rats. The metabolites of alpinetin were systematically analyzed and identified by ultra-performance liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-Q-TOF-MS). The chromatographic separation was achieved on a High Strength Silica (HSS) T3 (1.8 μm, 2.1 × 100 mm) column with the mobile phase consisting of water containing 0.1% formic acid and acetonitrile with 0.1% formic acid via gradient elution. An extracted ion chromatogram strategy based on multiple prototype/metabolite intermediate templates and 71 typical metabolic reactions was proposed to comprehensively profile the metabolites of alpinetin. With the metabolite profiling strategy, altogether 15 compounds were recognized from urine, plasma, bile and feces of rats after intragastric administration of alpinetin for the first time. The prototype, glucuronide conjugates and phenolic acids metabolites were the probable predominant form of alpinetin in rats. This work showed a comprehensive study of the probable metabolic pathways of alpinetin in vivo, which could provide meaningful information for future pharmacological studies.

Therapeutic effects of resveratrol in Escherichia coli-induced rat endometritis model

Endometritis is an inflammatory disorder of the endometrial lining of the uterine tissue in postpartum stage. Endometritis mostly progresses subclinically and causes infertility through the disruption of the hormonal balance. It has been shown in many studies that resveratrol has anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. However, the possible beneficial effects of resveratrol in endometritis have not been determined yet. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the treatment potential of resveratrol in an experimentally induced endometritis model in rats. Endometritis was induced in 12-week-old female, nonpregnant, Sprague Dawley rats. The animals were divided into six groups: control (NaCl 0.9%) and endometritis (NaCl 0.9%), marbofloxacin + PGF_2α, marbofloxacin, marbofloxacin + resveratrol, and resveratrol groups. To induce endometritis, 5 mg/kg/s.c. progesterone was given for 5 days, and then Escherichia coli (50 μl, 1 × 10⁵ cfu/rat) was injected in the right cornu uteri following laparotomy. Sixteen hours after bacterial inoculation, the treatment protocol was applied for 14 days. At the end of the experiment, the total oxidant status (TOS) and total antioxidant status (TAS) were examined spectrophotometrically in uterus tissues. The severity of inflammation in uterus samples and follicular activity in ovarian tissues were histopathologically evaluated. In addition, serum cytokine levels were determined. While TAS in uterine tissue significantly increased in the resveratrol group when compared to that of the other groups (p < 0.05), there was no difference between the groups in TOS (p > 0.05). The inflammation of the endometrium and the numbers of corpus luteum in the endometritis group were highly significant when compared to those of the other groups (p < 0.05). The recovery of inflammation and follicular activity were similar to those of the other groups in resveratrol group. However, it was realized that resveratrol administration reduced serum cytokine levels. According to the results of the current study, resveratrol was found to be effective in the treatment of endometritis with its antioxidant and anti-inflammatory functions.