Comparative haemato-immunotoxic impacts of long-term exposure to tartrazine and chlorophyll in rats

Absorption of Toxicants from the Ocular Surface: Potential Applications in Toxicology

In relation to the eye, the body can absorb substances from the ocular surface fluid (OSF) in a few ways: directly through the conjunctival sac, through the nasal mucosa as the fluid drains into the nose, or through ingestion. Regardless of the absorption method, fluid from the conjunctival sac should be used as a toxicological matrix, even though only small quantities are needed. Contemporary analytical techniques make it a suitable matrix for toxicological research. Analyzing small quantities of the matrix and nano-quantities of the analyte requires high-cost, sophisticated tools, which is particularly relevant in the high-throughput environment of new drug or cosmetics testing. Environmental toxicology also presents a challenge, as many pollutants can enter the system using the same ocular surface route. A review of the existing literature was conducted to assess potential applications in clinical and forensic toxicology related to the absorption of toxicants from the ocular surface. The selection of the studies used in this review aimed to identify new, more efficient, and cost-effective analytical technology and diagnostic methods.

Role of gallic acid against hepatic functional and histological deteriorations in tartrazine-intoxicated rats

Tartrazine (Tz) is one of the most commonly used artificial food colorants in the food industry, found in a wide array of products. This study investigates the protective role of gallic acid (GA), a powerful antioxidant, against the adverse effects of Tz on the liver. Over a 30-day period, 40 rats were divided into two groups: Group 1 (control group, 10 rats) received a daily administration of a vehicle, while Group 2 (30 rats) received Tz (30 mg/kg body weight). Group 2 was further subdivided into three subgroups of 10 rats each: Subgroup 1 served as a positive control for Tz; Subgroup 2 received GA (200 mg/kg body weight); and Subgroup 3 was left untreated for an additional 30 days as a recovery group (TR). Our study revealed that GA normalized liver functions markers (ALT, AST, and bilirubin), regulated lipids (cholesterol, HDL, LDL, and TG), and ameliorated the redox potentials activity of liver tissue (Catalase, GSH, SOD, LPO, Total peroxide, and Carbonyl protein), revealing its potential in mitigating the negative impact of Tz administration. Moreover, histopathological examinations, including the TUNEL assay, and histological and histochemical studies, demonstrated that GA effectively prevented the histological damage caused by Tz administration.

Exploring the CD3/CD56/TNF-α/Caspase3 pathway in pyrethroid-induced immune dysregulation: curcumin-loaded chitosan nanoparticle intervention

Introduction

Conflict reports exist on the impact of pyrethroid insecticides on immune function and the probable underlying mechanisms.

Methods

This study evaluated the effect of an extensively used pyrethroid insecticide, fenpropathrin (FTN) (15 mg/kg b.wt), on the innate and humoral immune components, blood cells, splenic oxidative status, and mRNA expression of CD3, CD20, CD56, CD8, CD4, IL-6, TNF-α, and Caspase3 in a 60-day trial in rats. Besides, the possible defensive effect of curcumin-loaded chitosan nanoparticle (CML-CNP) (50 mg/kg b.wt) was evaluated.

Results

FTN exposure resulted in hypochromic normocytic anemia, thrombocytosis, leukocytosis, and lymphopenia. Besides, a significant reduction in IgG, not IgM, but increased C3 serum levels was evident in the FTN-exposed rats. Moreover, their splenic tissues displayed a substantial increase in the ROS, MDA, IL-6, and IL-1β content, altered splenic histology, and reduced GPX, GSH, and GSH/GSSG. Furthermore, a substantial upregulation of mRNA expression of splenic CD20, CD56, CD8, CD4, CD3, IL-6, and TNF-α, but downregulation of CD8 was detected in FTN-exposed rats. FTN exposure significantly upregulated splenic Caspase-3 and increased its immunohistochemical expression, along with elevated TNF-α immunoexpression. However, the alterations in immune function, splenic antioxidant status, blood cell populations, and immune-related gene expression were notably restored in the FTN + CML-CNP-treated group.

Conclusion

The findings of this study highlighted the immunosuppressive effects of FTN and suggested the involvement of many CD cell markers as a potential underlying mechanism. Additionally, the results demonstrated the effectiveness of CML-CNP in mitigating pollutant-induced immune disorders.

Evaluation of bone development and organs in rat fetuses exposed to tartrazine

Tartrazine finds widespread application in the realms of alimentation, pharmaceuticals, cosmetic formulations, and textile manufacturing. Tartrazine has a negative effect on human health such as hyperactivity, allergies and asthma in children. Substances such as tartrazine might effect the embryo in a kind of aspects, containing physical or mental disorders, and a decrease in the child's intellectual memory. In this study, Sprague dawley female rats, 70-100 days old, weighing 250-300 g, with confirmed pregnancy, were divided into two groups of 5: control and tartrazine group. Rats were sacrificed on the 20th day and heart, lung, kidney and liver tissues were removed from the fetuses. The effect of tartrazine on fetal bone development was assessed by double skeletal staining, histological analysis on organs, and IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α, and TRPM2 gene levels. It has been observed that tartrazine, which is frequently used as a food dye, damages important fetal tissues such as liver, kidney, lung and heart. A statistically meaningful reduce was observed in the total length, total area, bone length and bone area values of the limb bones in the tartrazine group compared to the control group (p < 0.05). It was observed that the mRNA levels of IL-6, IL-1β, TNF-α and TRPM2 genes in the livers of the fetuses changed compared to the control group (p < 0.05). In this study on the use of tartrazine during pregnancy, it was observed that both organs and bone development were damaged. More studies are needed on the effects of tartrazine.

The food dye Tartrazine disrupts vascular formation both in zebrafish larvae and in human primary endothelial cells

Tartrazine (E102) is a controversial coloring agent whose potential impacts on human health are not fully understood. Our study reveals the vascular disrupting effects of tartrazine (TTZ) on developing zebrafish embryos in vivo and on human umbilical vein endothelial cells in vitro. The dye was shown to cause dose-dependent hemorrhages in zebrafish embryos. Analyzing transgenic zebrafish harboring fluorescent endothelial cells revealed that TTZ treatment disrupted cell organization into vessels in both the sub-intestinal vein and the brain area. Assays on human umbilical vein endothelial cells demonstrated that TTZ inhibited endothelial proliferation, tube formation, and migration in a dose-dependent manner. Taken together, our results indicate for the first time that TTZ can affect endothelial cell properties, possibly by disrupting Rho family GTPase pathways which control the cytoskeleton. Our finding provides a credible explanation for many reported human health impacts and offers prospective applications for biomedicine.

Safety of tartrazine in the food industry and potential protective factors

Tartrazine belongs to the colors raising significant concerns regarding consumer safety at low doses relevant for real-life human exposure. Scientific literature continues to grow after the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA) re-evaluation in 2009 and the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives (JECFA) in 2016. Therefore, this review aims to collect recent knowledge on the toxicity issues of tartrazine, namely its genotoxicity, cytotoxicity, carcinogenicity, reproductive, developmental, and neurotoxicity, alterations of blood biochemical parameters, and hematotoxicity. The second part of the review covers the potential protective factors against the toxic effects of tartrazine based on the hypothesis of mitigation of oxidative stress induced by the color. The reviewed protective factors are crocin, royal jelly, fish oil, honey, acetylsalicylic acid, black caraway, blackthorn, turmeric, vitamin E, and riboflavin. This review concludes that tartrazine seems safe under the current acceptable daily intake (ADI) and the evidence on the potential protective factors is insufficient to reach any conclusion regarding their use.

Ginkgo biloba extract protects against tartrazine-induced testicular toxicity in rats: involvement of antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms

The use of additives, especially colorants, in food and pharmaceutical industry is increasing dramatically. Currently, additives are classified as contaminants of emerging concern (CECs). Concerns have been raised about the potential hazards of food additives to reproductive organs and fertility. The present study investigates the reproductive toxicity of tartrazine (TRZ), a synthetic colorant, in male rats and aims to explore the curative effect of Ginkgo biloba extract (EGb) against TRZ-induced testicular toxicity. Twenty-four rats were divided into four groups: the control (0.5 ml distilled water), the EGb group (100 mg/kg EGb alone), the TRZ group (7.5 mg/kg TRZ alone), and the TRZ-EGb group (7.5 mg/kg TRZ plus 100 mg/kg EGb). The doses were administered orally in distilled water once daily for 28 days. Toxicity studies of TRZ investigated testicular redox state, serum gonadotropins, and testosterone levels, testicular 17 ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase activity, sperm count and quality, levels of inflammatory cytokines, and caspase-3 expression as an apoptotic marker. Also, histopathological alterations of the testes were examined. TRZ significantly affected the testicular redox status as indicated by the increase in malondialdehyde and the decrease in reduced glutathione, superoxide dismutase, and catalase. It also disrupted serum gonadotropins (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone) and testosterone levels and the activity of testicular 17ß-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase. Additionally, TRZ adversely affected sperm count, motility, viability, and abnormality. Levels of tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-1β, interleukin-6, and expression of caspase-3 were increased in the testes. Histopathological examination of the testes supported the alterations mentioned above. Administration of EGb significantly ameliorated TRZ-induced testicular toxicity in rats. In conclusion, EGb protected against TRZ-induced testicular toxicity through antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and anti-apoptotic mechanisms.

Preparation, analysis and toxicity characterisation of the redox metabolites of the azo food dye tartrazine

Tartrazine (E102, FD&C Yellow 5) is a vibrant yellow azo dye added to many processed foods. The safety of this ubiquitous chemical has not been fully elucidated, and it has been linked to allergic reactions and ADHD in some individuals. In our study, bacterial species isolated from human stool decolourised tartrazine and, upon exposure to air, a purple compound formed. Tartrazine is known to undergo reduction in the gut to sulfanilic acid and 4-amino-3-carboxy-5-hydroxy-1-(4-sulfophenyl)pyrazole (SCAP). These metabolites and their derivatives are relevant to the toxicology of tartrazine. The toxicity of sulfanilic acid has been studied before, but the oxidative instability of SCAP has previously prevented full characterisation. We have verified the chemical identity of SCAP and confirmed that the purple-coloured oxidation derivative is 4-(3-carboxy-5-hydroxy-1-(4-sulfophenyl)-1H-pyrazol-4-yl)imino-5-oxo-1-(4-sulfophenyl)-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxylic acid (purpurazoic acid, PPA), as proposed by Westöö in 1965. A yellow derivative of SCAP is proposed to be the hydrolysed oxidation product, 4,5-dioxo-1-(4-sulfophenyl)-4,5-dihydro-1H-pyrazole-3-carboxylic acid. SCAP and PPA are moderately toxic to human cells (IC50 89 and 78 μM against HEK-293, respectively), but had no apparent effect on Escherichia coli and Bacillus subtilis bacteria. These results prompt further analyses of the toxicology of tartrazine and its derivatives.

Analysis of Melatonin-Modulating Effects Against Tartrazine-Induced Neurotoxicity in Male Rats: Biochemical, Pathological and Immunohistochemical Markers

Tartrazine (E-102) is one of the most widely used artificial food azo-colors that can be metabolized to highly sensitizing aromatic amines such as sulphanilic acid. These metabolites are oxidized to N-hydroxy derivatives that cause neurotoxicity. Melatonin is a neurohormone. That possesses a free-radical scavenging effect. The present work was mainly designed to evaluate the possible ameliorative role of melatonin against tartrazine induced neurotoxicity in cerebral cortex and cerebellum of male rats. Adult male rats were administered orally with tartrazine (7.5 mg/kg) with or without melatonin (10 mg/kg) daily for four weeks. The data revealed that tartrazine induced redox disruptions as measured by significant (p < 0.05) increased malondialdehyde (MDA) level and inhibition of (GSH) concentration and catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) antioxidant enzyme activities. Besides, brain acetyl cholin (Ach) and gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) were elevated while, dopamine (DA) was depleted in trtrazine -treated rats. Moreover, tartrazine caused a significant (p < 0.05) increase in the brain interleukin-6 (IL-6), interleukin-1β (IL-1 β) and tumor necrosis factor-α (TNFα). At the tissue level, tartrazine caused severe histopathological changes in the cerebellum and cerebral cortex of rats. The immunohistochemical results elucidated strong positive expression for Caspase-3 and GFAP and weak immune reaction for BcL2 and synaptophysin in tatrazine- treated rats. The administration of melatonin to tartrazine -administered rats remarkably alleviated all the aforementioned tartrzine-induced effects. It could be concluded that, melatonin has a potent ameliorative effect against tartrazine induced neurotoxicity via the attenuation of oxidative/antioxidative responses.

Potential impacts of synthetic food dyes on activity and attention in children: a review of the human and animal evidence

Concern that synthetic food dyes may impact behavior in children prompted a review by the California Office of Environmental Health Hazard Assessment (OEHHA). OEHHA conducted a systematic review of the epidemiologic research on synthetic food dyes and neurobehavioral outcomes in children with or without identified behavioral disorders (particularly attention and activity). We also conducted a search of the animal toxicology literature to identify studies of neurobehavioral effects in laboratory animals exposed to synthetic food dyes. Finally, we conducted a hazard characterization of the potential neurobehavioral impacts of food dye consumption. We identified 27 clinical trials of children exposed to synthetic food dyes in this review, of which 25 were challenge studies. All studies used a cross-over design and most were double blinded and the cross-over design was randomized. Sixteen (64%) out of 25 challenge studies identified some evidence of a positive association, and in 13 (52%) the association was statistically significant. These studies support a relationship between food dye exposure and adverse behavioral outcomes in children. Animal toxicology literature provides additional support for effects on behavior. Together, the human clinical trials and animal toxicology literature support an association between synthetic food dyes and behavioral impacts in children. The current Food and Drug Administration (FDA) acceptable daily intakes are based on older studies that were not designed to assess the types of behavioral effects observed in children. For four dyes where adequate dose-response data from animal and human studies were available, comparisons of the effective doses in studies that measured behavioral or brain effects following exposure to synthetic food dyes indicate that the basis of the ADIs may not be adequate to protect neurobehavior in susceptible children. There is a need to re-evaluate exposure in children and for additional research to provide a more complete database for establishing ADIs protective of neurobehavioral effects.

Natural Food Colorants and Preservatives: A Review, a Demand, and a Challenge

The looming urgency of feeding the growing world population along with the increasing consumers' awareness and expectations have driven the evolution of food production systems and the processes and products applied in the food industry. Although substantial progress has been made on food additives, the controversy in which some of them are still shrouded has encouraged research on safer and healthier next generations. These additives can come from natural sources and confer numerous benefits for health, beyond serving the purpose of coloring or preserving, among others. As limiting factors, these additives are often related to stability, sustainability, and cost-effectiveness issues, which justify the need for innovative solutions. In this context, and with the advances witnessed in computers and computational methodologies for in silico experimental aid, the development of new safer and more efficient natural additives with dual functionality (colorant and preservative), for instance by the copigmentation phenomena, may be achieved more efficiently, circumventing the current difficulties.

Tartrazine exposure results in histological damage, oxidative stress, immune disorders and gut microbiota dysbiosis in juvenile crucian carp (Carassius carassius)

Tartrazine (TZ) is an azo dye widely used in foods, cosmetics, beverages, textile, and leather. In recent years, there are reports on detecting azo dyes in the aquatic environment, so the impact of these compounds on aquatic organisms could not be ignored. In this study, we aimed to evaluate the adverse effects of TZ exposure on teleosts' embryo development and juvenile's health by using crucian carp (Carassius carassius) as the experimental fish. The results showed that embryos exposed to TZ (0.19, 0.76 and 1.5 mM) exhibited a deformity, delayed egg resorption and decreased fertilization and hatching rate. When the juvenile fish were exposed to TZ at a level higher than those present in water for 30 days caused severe histopathological damages of the gill, intestine, kidney and liver. Antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD and GSH-Px) activities in the gill, intestine and liver, exhibited a decreasing trend after TZ exposure, while MDA contents elevated. TZ exposure also resulted in the upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokines (il1 and il6), lysozymes (lyz), complement component 3 (c3), and β-defensin 3 (defb3). In addition, TZ exposure also affected the intestinal microbiota structure. In summary, the data in the present study indicated that TZ exposure  reduce the embryo fertilization and hatching rate; cause histopathological damage of tissues, trigger oxidative stress, innate immune disorders and dysbiosis of gut microbiota in juvenile crucian carp. Therefore, it is necessary to be informed about the hazards of TZ exposure and the discharge of the dye into waters should be strictly administrated to prevent environmental pollution.

Impacts of an azo food dye tartrazine uptake on intestinal barrier, oxidative stress, inflammatory response and intestinal microbiome in crucian carp (Carassius auratus)

Food dyes, or color additives, are often added into foods, cosmetics and beverages during processing to improve the sensory attributes of the final products. However, the toxicity of tartrazine (TZ), one of the most common azo-dyes, is still unclear, and needs to be ascertained by further study. Hence, in the present study, we aimed to evaluate the effects of TZ consumption on health by using a teleost, crucian carp (Carassius auratus) as the experimental fish. TZ consumption (1.4, 5.5 and 10 mg/kg bwt/day) could cause severe histopathological and cellular alterations in intestine and liver. The height of intestinal villus, thickness of intestinal muscle, and microvilli density were also affected. With the increasing of TZ concentrations, the activities of antioxidant enzymes (CAT, SOD and GSH-Px), exhibited a decreasing trend, while the contents of MDA elevated. Upregulations of pro-inflammatory cytokines (il6 and tnfα), anti-inflammatory cytokines (il8, and il10) and other immune related genes (complement component 3 (c3), lysozymes (lyz), β-defensin 3 (defb3)), were observed after TZ uptake. In addition, TZ consumption also affected the community structure of the microbiota in the intestine of crucian carp. The amount of some probiotic bacteria (Roseomonas, Rhodococcus and Bacillus) and the bacteria (Bacteroides and Clostridium), producing short chain fatty acids, were significantly reduced, and some pathogenetic microorganisms (e.g. Bdellovibrio and Shewanella) were significantly increased after TZ uptake. In summary, the data in the present study indicate that TZ consumption, even at a low concentration, may lead to adverse effects on fish health. Therefore, in aquaculture, it is necessary to be informed about the hazardous effects of TZ, and more attentions should be focused on using natural substitutes.

A novel approach in revealing mechanisms and particular step predictors of pH dependent tartrazine catalytic degradation in presence of Oxone®

The degradation of tartrazine in the presence of cobalt activated Oxone® (potassium peroxymonosulfate) was investigated at different initial pH values. Aluminum pillared clay had the role of a support for catalytically active cobalt oxide species. The degradation of tartrazine and the formation of a mixture of degradation products were monitored using the Ultraviolet-Visible (UV-Vis) spectroscopy and gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The exact qualitative composition of this mixture and the determination of the most probable mechanism of degradation (the primary goal) were obtained using GC-MS. Besides, the main reaction pathway (reaction with SO₄˙- radical anion) and secondary pathways were proposed depending on the pH value. At pH = 6 the reaction with HO˙ radical was proposed. At pH = 11 decarboxilation was suggested as the first step of the secondary proposed reaction pathway. The combination of results acquired from the deconvolution of UV-Vis spectra and the theoretical UV-Vis spectra of degradation products, whose occurrence was predicted by quantum-chemical calculations, was proven to be beneficial for the identification of tartrazine degradation products and for defining UV-Vis predictors of particular degradation steps. An additional contribution of this paper, from the reactivity aspect, was the establishment of the critical structural demand for the radical degradation of any diazo compound. The existence of a hydrogen atom bound to a diazo group was found to be the essential prerequisite for the radical cleavage of diazo compounds.

Modulation of immune functions, inflammatory response, and cytokine production following long-term oral exposure to three food additives; thiabendazole, monosodium glutamate, and brilliant blue in rats

The food additives thiabendazole (TBZ), monosodium glutamate (MSG), and brilliant blue (BB) are commonly used in many daily-consumed food products worldwide. They are widely used in major agricultural and industrial applications. Yet, many of its toxicological aspects are still unclear, especially immune modulation. This research was therefore intended to investigate the effects of male Wistar rats' daily oral exposure for 90 days to TBZ (10 mg/kg b.wt), MSG (20 mg/kg b.wt), or BB (1.2 mg/kg b.wt) on the blood cells, immunity, and inflammatory indicators. The three tested food additives showed varying degrees of hematological alterations. Initially, megaloblastic anemia and thrombocytopenia were evident with the three tested food additives. At the same time, TBZ showed no significant changes in the leukogram element except eosinopenia. MSG induced leukopenia, lymphocytopenia, neutrophilia, and eosinophilia. BB evoked neutrophilia and lymphopenia. The immunoglobins M (IgM) and IgG were significantly reduced with the three tested food additives. In contrast, lysozyme and nitric oxide levels were elevated. A reduced considerably lymphocyte proliferation was detected with TBZ and MSG exposure without affecting the phagocytic activity. Various pathologic disturbances in splenic tissues have been detected. An obvious increase in CD4⁺ but a lessening in CD8⁺ immunolabeling was evident in TBZ and MSG groups. The cytokines, including interferon-gamma, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, and interleukin 1β, 6, 10, and 13, were significantly upregulated in the spleen of rats exposed to TBZ, MSG, and BB. These results concluded that TBZ, MSG, and BB negatively affect hematological parameters, innate and humoral immune functions together with inflammatory responses. TBZ achieved the maximal negative impacts followed by MSG and finally with BB. Given the prevalence of these food additives, TBZ and MSG should be limited to a minimal volume use, or natural food additives should be used instead.

Innovative methodological approach using CIELab and dye screening for chemometric classification and HPLC for the confirmation of dyes in cassava flour: A contribution to product quality control

A variety of methods for producing cassava flour exist, resulting in very heterogeneous products that exhibit various colours, textures, granulometries, and flavours. To improve its attractiveness to consumers, some producers dye cassava flour with turmeric or tartrazine; however, this practice is illegal in Brazil. In this study, cassava flour samples were collected and evaluated for possible adulteration by the addition of dyes. Flours were analysed by CIELab and dye screening (paper chromatography and the turmeric-identification method) and a classification tree was developed using these data. Positive results for curcuminoid pigments or tartrazine were confirmed by HPLC-DAD or HPLC-UV-Vis, respectively. The developed approach is an innovative alternative chemometric-analysis method that facilitates highly practical screening; adulterated cassava flour, a product of great human-food importance, can be identified using CIELab parameters.

Anxiogenic and memory impairment effect of food color exposure: upregulation of oxido-neuroinflammatory markers and acetyl-cholinestrase activity in the prefrontal cortex and hippocampus

Erythrosine and tartrazine are one of the synthetic azo dye mostly consumed in food, drugs and other industrial compounds. This study was designed to investigate the adverse effect of combine erythrosine and tartrazine on cognitive and neurobehavioral functions, pro-oxidants, endogenous antioxidants, cholinergic system and pro-inflammatory cytokines in rats. Erythrosine and tartrazine (2 mg/kg, 6 mg/kg, and 10 mg/kg, b.w., p.o, 50:50) was administered to rats (n = 6) for 6 weeks. Memory and neurobehavioral assessment using Novel object recognition test (NORT) and Elevated plus maze (EPM) and biochemical (pro-oxidants and anti-oxidant enzymes) and pro-inflammatory cytokine measurement from the brain sub regions namely, hippocampus and prefrontal cortex were done at the end of treatment. The results showed (p < 0.05) significant decreased memory and neurobehavioral function, increased acetyl-cholinesterase and pro-oxidants activity (Malonaldehyde level and Nitrite), decreased endogenous anti-oxidants (Glutathione and Catalase) and increased pro-inflammatory cytokines (Tumor necrosis factor-alpha, TNF-α). We suggested that the mechanism by which this oxidative and neuro-inflammatory damage and cholinergic system alteration occur might be related to the release of metabolite in fission of the azo dyes of the combined erythrosine and tartrazine administration in the animals. However, we concluded on these findings that erythrosine and tartrazine dyes significantly provoke the release of oxido-nitrergic and neuroinflammatory stress markers and also may incite acetyl-cholinesterase activities in different brain regions leading to memory and neurobehavioral impairment.

The long-term oral exposure to titanium dioxide impaired immune functions and triggered cytotoxic and genotoxic impacts in rats

BACKGROUND

Titanium dioxide "TiO₂, E171″ is a widely used food additive that exists in various everyday food products all over the world together with vast applications in cosmetics and industry. However, many toxicological aspects particularly following oral exposure still unclear.

METHODS

Hence, this study was planned to examine the effect of oral exposure of male Wistar rats to two doses of TiO₂ (20 or 40 mg/kg b.wt.) through oral gavage once daily for 90 consecutive days on the blood components, immunity, cytotoxic, and genotoxic indicators.

RESULTS

A dose-dependent leukopenia, eosinophilia, neutrophilia, and thrombocytopenia were noted. Also, the immunoglobins G (IgG) and IgM were significantly elevated in TiO₂ treated rats. The phagocytic activities, lysozyme, nitric oxide, and immunoglobulin levels were significantly depleted following TiO₂ exposure. A significantly reduced lymphocyte proliferation but elevated LDH activity was prominent in TiO₂ treated rats. Different pathological perturbations were observed in both splenic tissue and bone marrow. A marked increase in CD4⁺ and CD8⁺ immunolabeling was evident. A significant increase in the comet variables was recorded in response to the exposure of rats to the increasing level of TiO₂ at both levels.

CONCLUSION

Overall, these results indicated that TiO₂ could induce hematotoxicity, genotoxic, and immunotoxic alterations with exposure for long durations.

Could fruits be a reliable source of food colorants? Pros and cons of these natural additives

Color additives are important for the food industry to improve sensory quality lost during food process and to expand the variety of products. In general, artificial colorants have lower cost and better stability than the natural ones. Nevertheless, studies have reported their association with some health disorders. Furthermore, consumers have given greater attention to food products with health beneficial effects, which has provided a new perspective for the use of natural colorants. In this context, fruits are an excellent alternative source of natural compounds, that allow the obtainment of a wide range of colorant molecules, such as anthocyanins, betalains, carotenoids, and chlorophylls. Furthermore, in addition to their coloring ability, they comprise different bioactive properties. However, the extraction and application of natural colorants from fruits is still a challenge, since these compounds show some stability problems, in addition to issues related to the sustainability of raw-materials providing. To overcome these limitations, several studies have reported optimized extraction and stabilization procedures. In this review, the major pigments found in fruits and their extraction and stabilization techniques for uses as food additives will be looked over.

Involvement of tumor necrosis factor-α, interferon gamma-γ, and interleukins 1β, 6, and 10 in immunosuppression due to long-term exposure to five common food preservatives in rats

BACKGROUND/AIMS

Food preservatives are abundant in many products in the human environment. However, little is known about the impact of many food preservatives on the immune system and the immune related genes. Hence, this study aimed to evaluate the effects of five widespread food preservatives, including butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), potassium sorbate (PS), sodium benzoate (SB), boric acid (BA), and calcium propionate (CP), on haemato-immune functions.

METHOD

Sixty Sprague-Dawley rats were assigned to groups orally administered water (control), BHA (0.09 mg/kg), PS (4.5 mg/kg), SB (0.9 mg/kg), BA (0.16 mg/kg) or CP (0.18 mg/kg) for 90 consecutive days. Leukogram and erythrogram profiles were assessed. Nitric oxide and immunoglobulin levels together with phagocytic and lysozyme activities were estimated. Histologic examinations and histomorphometric analysis of splenic tissues were performed. Variations in the mRNA expression levels of tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), interferon gamma (IFNγ), interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 were assessed.

RESULTS

Anemic conditions, thrombocytopenia, leucocytopaenia simultaneous with lymphocytopaenia, monocytopenia, and esinopenia have been obvious following long term exposure to the tested food additives. Prominent exhaustion was noted in immunoglobulin and NO levels and in lysozyme and phagocytic activities. IFNγ, TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, and IL-10 were obviously upregulated in the groups exposed to food preservatives.

CONCLUSION

These results confirmed that continued exposure to high levels of BHA, PS, SB, BA, and CP has haematotoxic and immunotoxic effects. Furthermore, these adverse effects are mediated by cytokine production.

Bi2Fe4O9 in pellet form is an alternative in the wastewater treatment process

This study aimed to synthesize Bi₂Fe₄O₉ and apply it to the degradation of tartrazine yellow dye. Bi₂Fe₄O₉ was synthesized using the solid-state reaction and the Pechini method. The materials obtained were characterized using X-ray diffraction (XRD), visible ultraviolet spectroscopy (UV-Vis) and field emission scanning electron microscopy (FEG). The microscopic images revealed a morphological difference between the two materials in which the material obtained by the Pechini method is the most porous and have the largest surface area. The pellet obtained by the Pechini method was seen to have a lower bandgap value when compared with the sample solid state reaction. In the photocatalysis tests, the best performance was also that of the material obtained by the Pechini method, with 99.34% degradation, while the material obtained by solid state reaction showed 85.86% in 120 minutes. The solution degraded with the material obtained by the Pechini method presented 81.66% of mineralization while the solution with the material obtained by solid state reaction showed 60.97% of mineralization. The results confirmed that the material obtained by both syntheses is able to maintain its effectiveness after 10 repetitions of the photocatalytic process, proving to be promising for waste treatment in the industrial field.

Tartrazine Removal from Aqueous Solution by HDTMA-Br-Modified Colombian Bentonite

The effect of pH, ionic strength (NaCl added), agitation speed, adsorbent mass, and contact time on the removal of tartrazine from an aqueous solution, using an organobentonite, has been studied. A complete factorial design 3² with two replicates was used to evaluate the influence of the dye concentration (30, 40, and 50 mg/L) and amount of adsorbent (25, 35, and 45 mg) on decolorization of the solution. Experimental data were evaluated with Design Expert® software using a response surface methodology (RSM) in order to obtain the interaction between the processed variables and the response. pH values between 2 and 9, stirring speed above 200 rpm, and contact time of 60 min did not have a significant effect on decolorization. The optimum conditions for maximum removal of tartrazine from an aqueous solution of 30 mg/L were follows: pH = 6.0, NaCl concentration = 0.1 M, stirring speed = 230 rpm, temperature = 20°C, contact time = 60 min, and the organobentonite amount = 38.04 mg. The equilibrium isotherm at 20°C was analyzed by means of the Langmuir and Freundlich models, and the maximum adsorption capacity obtained was 40.79 ± 0.71 mg/g. This adsorption process was applied in a sample of industrial wastewater containing tartrazine and sunset yellow, having obtained a decolorization rate higher than 98% for both dyes. These results suggest that organobentonite is an effective adsorbent for the removal of anionic dyes from an aqueous solution.

Influence of the long-term exposure to tartrazine and chlorophyll on the fibrogenic signalling pathway in liver and kidney of rats: the expression patterns of collagen 1-α, TGFβ-1, fibronectin, and caspase-3 genes

Colouring agents are highly present in diverse products in the human environment. We aimed to elucidate the fibrogenic cascade triggered by the food dyes tartrazine and chlorophyll. Rats were orally given distilled water, tenfold of the acceptable daily intake of tartrazine, or chlorophyll for 90 consecutive days. Tartrazine-treated rats displayed a significant rise (p < 0.05) in the mRNA levels and immunohistochemical localization of the renal and hepatic fibrotic markers collagen 1-α, TGFβ-1, and fibronectin and the apoptotic marker caspase-3. Moreover, a significant increment (p < 0.05) in the levels of AST, ALP, creatinine, and urea was evident in both experimental groups but more significant differences were noticed in the tartrazine group. Furthermore, we found a marked increment in the MDA level and significant declines (p < 0.05) in the levels of the SOD, CAT, and GSH enzymes in the kidney and liver from tartrazine-treated rats. The histological investigation reinforced the aforementioned data, revealing hepatocytes with fibrous connective tissue proliferation, apoptotic hepatocytes and periportal fibrosis with tubular necrosis, and shrunken glomeruli and interstitial fibrous tissue proliferation. We concluded that, even at the exposure to high concentrations for long durations, chlorophyll exhibited a lower propensity to induce fibrosis, apoptosis, and histopathological perturbations than tartrazine.

Embryotoxic and Teratogenic Effects of Tartrazine in Rats

Tartrazine (TAZ) is one of the most commonly used artificial dyes for foods and drugs. We determined the effect of TAZ on fetal development by examining morphological, visceral, and skeletal malformations in rat fetuses following daily oral administration of TAZ to pregnant Wistar rats at the 6th-15th day of gestation. TAZ at 0.45 and 4.5 mg/kg induced 6.0 and 7.1% fetal resorptions, as well as 10.0 and 10.5% fetal mortality, respectively. Fetal body weight and length were significantly lower in the groups treated with TAZ at 0.45 (3.97 ± 0.21 g and 27.3 ± 0.54 mm, respectively) and 4.5 mg/kg (3.48 ± 0.15 g and 23.22 ± 1.02 mm, respectively) than in the control group (4.0 ± 0.15 g and 30.01 ± 0.42 mm, respectively). TAZ at 0.45 and 4.5 mg/kg induced hepatic damage (20 and 33.3%, respectively), dark brown pigmentation due to hemosiderin in the splenic parenchyma (16.7 and 21.7%, respectively), as well as destructed and necrotic renal tubules (16.7 and 26.7%, respectively) in the fetuses. Moreover, TAZ at 0.45 and 4.5 mg/kg caused one or more missing coccygeal vertebrae (20 and 40%, respectively), missing sternebrae (6 and 10%, respectively), missing hind limbs (24 and 4%, respectively), and irregular ribs (16 and 20, respectively) in the fetuses. We concluded that TAZ has embryotoxic and teratogenic potentials in rats.