Mycophenolate mofetil in dermatology

The effects of food on the pharmacokinetics of mycophenolate mofetil in healthy horses

Additional immunomodulatory treatment is needed for the management of immune-mediated disease in horses. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is an immunomodulatory agent used in human and veterinary medicine for the prevention of graft rejection and the management of autoimmune diseases. Few studies exist investigating the pharmacokinetics of MMF in horses. The aim of this study was to evaluate the pharmacokinetics of a single dose of MMF in healthy horses in the fed vs. fasted state. Six healthy Standardbred mares were administered MMF 10 mg/kg by a nasogastric (NG) tube in a fed and fasted state. A six-day washout period was performed between the two doses. No statistically significant differences in mycophenolic acid (MPA) concentrations were seen at any time point apart from 8 h, when plasma metabolite concentrations were significantly higher in the fasted state compared to the fed state (p = .038). Evidence of enterohepatic recirculation was seen only in the fasted state; this did not yield clinical differences in horses administered a single-dose administration but may be significant in horses receiving long-term MMF treatment.

Pharmacokinetics and tolerability of multiple-day oral dosing of mycophenolate mofetil in healthy horses

BACKGROUND

Additional efficacious immunomodulatory treatment is needed for the management of immune-mediated disease in horses. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is an immunosuppressive drug that warrants assessment as a viable therapeutic agent for horses.

HYPOTHESIS/OBJECTIVES

To evaluate the pharmacokinetics (PK) of multiple-day oral dosing of MMF in healthy horses and to determine the tolerability of this dosing regimen.

ANIMALS

Six healthy Standardbred mares.

METHODS

Horses received MMF 10 mg/kg PO q12h for 7 days in the fed state. Serial sampling was performed over 12 hours on Days 1 and 7 with trough samples collected every 24 hours, immediately before morning drug administration. Noncompartmental PK analyses were performed to determine primary PK parameters, followed by calculation of geometric means and coefficients of variation. A CBC, serum biochemical profile, physical examination, and fecal scoring were used to assess dose tolerability.

RESULTS

Seven days of treatment resulted in a mycophenolic acid (MPA) area under the curve (AUC0-12 ) of 12 594 h × ng/mL (8567-19 488 h × ng/mL) and terminal half-life (T1/2 ) of 11.3 hours (7.5-15.9 hours), yielding minor metabolite accumulation in all horses treated. Salmonellosis was detected in the feces of 2 horses by Day 7, and all horses developed myelosuppression, hyperbilirubinemia, hyporexia, decreased gastrointestinal motility, and decreased fecal output by the seventh day of treatment.

CONCLUSION AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE

Administration of MMF at 10 mg/kg PO q12h resulted in hematologic and clinical toxicity within 1 week of treatment. A decreased MMF dose, frequency, or both is needed to avoid colic. Drug monitoring should include frequent hemograms, serum biochemical profiles, and strict biosecurity protocols.

Nail lichen planus treatment safety

AREAS COVERED

Topical therapies for nail lichen planus (clobetasol propionate, topical tacrolimus, bath-PUVA), intralesional treatment (triamcinolone), and systemic treatment (corticosteroids, retinoids, small molecule inhibitors (jak/stat inhibitors)), TNF-alpha inhibitors (etanercept), systemic immunomodulators (oral calcineurin inhibitors, mycophenolate mophetil), and antimalarials (chloroquine), each with unique safety profiles and considerations. Herein, we discuss common and uncommon adverse events, as well as utilization for special populations, including pregnant and pediatric patients.

The Impact of Immune-Modulating Treatments for Dermatological Diseases on the Risk of Infection with SARS-CoV-2 and Outcomes Associated with COVID-19 Illness

Purpose of Review

Immune-modulating treatments are used in dermatology for a variety of conditions. The authors aim to review the data regarding the safety of these treatments during the COVID-19 pandemic, namely the risk of infection with SARS-CoV-2 and the outcomes associated with COVID-19-related illness.

Recent Findings

Several large-scale studies found no increased risk of COVID-19 infection for patients on TNF-α inhibitors, IL-17 inhibitors, IL-12/23 inhibitors, IL-23 inhibitors, dupilumab, and methotrexate. They also found that these patients did not have worse outcomes when infected with COVID-19. The data regarding JAK inhibitors, rituximab, prednisone, cyclosporine, mycophenolate mofetil, and azathioprine are more mixed.

Summary

Based on current research and guidelines from the American Academy of Dermatology and the National Psoriasis Foundation, dermatology patients on immune-modulating therapies can continue treatment during the COVID-19 pandemic when they are not infected with SARS-CoV-2. For patients who have COVID-19, guidelines encourage individualized assessment of the benefits and risks of continuing or temporarily withholding treatment.

Systemic therapies in vitiligo: a review

Vitiligo is characterized by the development of depigmented macules and patches. Autoimmunity has been established as a factor in disease pathogenesis, leading to utilization of immunosuppressive agents. Topical immunosuppressants are commonly used; however, this treatment modality is often cumbersome and inefficient, as many patients have active disease with extensive body surface area involvement. Prompt and aggressive treatment of vitiligo is important, as this may prevent progression and improve quality of life. To meet these challenges and improve patient outcomes, interest in systemic therapies has grown. Currently, oral therapies are rarely prescribed, likely due to concerns with systemic side effects and unclear efficacy. This article provides a brief overview on the use of systemic agents in treating vitiligo in order to provide additional therapeutic options to clinicians.

Existing and Investigational Medications for Refractory Chronic Spontaneous Urticaria: Safety, Adverse Effects, and Monitoring

Treatment of chronic spontaneous urticaria (CSU) is responsive to H1 antihistamines administered up to four times the recommended US Food and Drug Administration dose in approximately 50% of patients. However, when patients do not respond to these first-line agents, evidence-based guidelines using Grading of Recommendations, Assessment, Development, and Evaluations methodology have provided direction for second- and third-line treatments that can effectively treat patients with CSU. Some patients remain refractory to these advanced treatments; therefore, alternative treatments with a lower certainty of evidence may be necessary. Regardless of the therapies used to treat CSU patients, it is essential for clinicians to be knowledgeable about the mechanism of action, efficacy, and safety and monitoring recommendations of the treatments prescribed. This review provides a comprehensive review of the adverse effects and monitoring recommendations for agents in use for CSU treatment as well as those currently undergoing investigation for CSU treatment.

Noncompartmental pharmacokinetics of three intravenous mycophenolate mofetil concentrations in healthy Standardbred mares

BACKGROUND

Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is the prodrug of mycophenolic acid (MPA) which acts as an immunosuppressive agent. During the biotransformation of MMF to MPA, additional metabolites including MPA phenol glucuronide (MPAG), MPA acyl glucuronide (AcMPAG) and MPA phenol glucoside (MPG) are formed.

OBJECTIVE

To define the noncompartmental pharmacokinetic (PK) parameters of three single doses of intravenous (i.v.) MMF and its downstream metabolites in healthy horses.

ANIMALS

Six healthy Standardbred mares.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Generic MMF (Par Pharmaceuticals; Chestnut Ridge, NY, USA) was reconstituted and administered as a single i.v. bolus at 1.0 mg/kg, 5.0 mg/kg and 10.0 mg/kg with an eight day washout between treatments. Blood samples were collected immediately before MMF administration and over 24 h. A liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry assay was developed following FDA guidance to determine plasma MMF, MPA, MPAG, AcMPAG and MPG concentrations. Plasma concentrations were analysed independently, followed by calculation of geometric mean and coefficient of variation.

RESULTS

Noncompartmental PK parameters were determined for MMF and all metabolites at all doses. MMF was rapidly converted to MPA in all horses. Each incremental dose of MMF resulted in increases in C_max and AUC_inf _obs for MPA and the three additional metabolites. Within the 10-fold dose range, the increase in C_max and AUC_inf _obs for MMF and its metabolites was nonlinear.

CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE

Horses biotransform MMF into MPA, MPAG, AcMPAG and MPG via the glucuronidation and glucosidation clearance pathways. Equine reference PK profiles for MPA and the metabolites, MPAG, AcMPAG and MPG were established.

Incidence and pattern of mycophenolate discontinuation associated with abnormal monitoring blood-test results: cohort study using data from the Clinical Practice Research Datalink Aurum

Objective

To examine the incidence and pattern of mycophenolate discontinuation associated with abnormal monitoring blood-tests.

Methods

Data from people prescribed mycophenolate for common inflammatory conditions in the Clinical Practice Research Datalink was used. Participants were followed from first mycophenolate prescription. Primary outcome was drug discontinuation with an associated abnormal blood-test result within 60 days. Secondary outcomes were drug discontinuation for any reason, and discontinuations associated with severely abnormal blood-test results within 60 days. Multivariable cox-regression was used to examine factors associated with primary outcome.

Results

The cohort included 992 participants (68.9% female, mean age 51.95 years, 47.1% with SLE) contributing 1,885 person-years of follow-up. The incidence of mycophenolate discontinuation associated with any (severely) abnormal blood-test results was 153.46 (21.07) per 1000 person-years in the first, and 32.39 (7.91) per 1000 person-years in later years of prescription, respectively. 11.5% (1.7%) patients prescribed mycophenolate discontinued treatment with any (severely) abnormal blood-test results in the first year of prescription. After this period mean 2.6% (0.7%) patients discontinued treatment with any (severely) abnormal blood-test results per year. Increased serum creatinine and cytopenia were more commonly associated with mycophenolate discontinuation than elevated liver enzymes. CKD-stage ≥3 was significantly associated with mycophenolate discontinuation with any blood-test abnormalities (aHR (95%CI) 2.22 (1.47–3.37)).

Conclusion

Mycophenolate is uncommonly discontinued for blood-test abnormalities, and, even less often discontinued for severe blood-test abnormalities after the first year of prescription. Consideration may be given for less frequent monitoring after one-year of treatment, especially in those without CKD-stage ≥3.

Recalcitrant lymphocytoma cutis successfully treated with mycophenolate mofetil

Lymphocytoma cutis reflects an exaggerated local immunologic reaction to a stimulus presenting on the head, neck, or upper extremities as a firm 1–3 cm erythematous and/or violaceous plaque or nodule. However, lymphocytoma cutis may be difficult to treat due to the variety of causative agents and the lack of reported successful treatments and outcomes. Here, we present a case of 68-year-old female with recalcitrant lymphocytoma cutis resistant to other first-line therapies including tacrolimus ointment and steroids. The red plaque on the patient’s left cheek was eventually treated with mycophenolate mofetil. Mycophenolate mofetil was an accessible and effective therapeutic option to treat lymphocytoma cutis with minimal side effects.

Mycophenolate suppresses inflammation by inhibiting prostaglandin synthases: a study of molecular and experimental drug repurposing

Mycophenolate mofetil is an established anti-proliferative and immune-suppressive agent that minimizes the proliferation of inflammatory cells by interfering with nucleic acid synthesis. Herein, we report our discovery of the prostaglandin inhibiting properties of MMF, which offers new applications for the drug in the treatment of inflammatory diseases. The estimated values of IC₅₀MMF_COX-1, IC₅₀MMF_COX-2, and IC₅₀MMF_5-LOX were 5.53, 0.19, and 4.47 µM, respectively. In contrast, mycophenolic acid (MPA) showed slightly stronger inhibition: IC₅₀MPA_COX-1, IC₅₀MPA_COX-2, and IC₅₀MPA_5-LOX were 4.62, 0.14, and 4.49 µM, respectively. These results indicate that MMF and MPA are, respectively, 28.6 and 33 times more selective for cyclooxygenase-2 than for cyclooxygenase-1, which implies that MMF would have less impact on the gastric mucosa than most nonselective, nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs. Furthermore, MMF provided dose-dependent relief of acute inflammation in the carrageenan-induced rat paw edema test, with results comparable to those of celecoxib and indomethacin. Molecular dynamics simulations indicated that the MMF bond with COX-2 was stable, as evidenced by a low root-mean-square deviation of atomic positions, complementary per-residue root-mean-square fluctuation, and 0–4 hydrogen bonds during the 50-ns simulation time. Therefore, MMF provides immune-suppressing, cyclooxygenase-inhibiting, and inflammation-relieving properties. Our results indicate that MMF can be 1) repositioned for inflammation treatment without the need for further expensive clinical trials, 2) used for local acute inflammations, and 3) used as a sparing agent for other steroid and non-steroid anti-inflammatory medications, especially in topical applications.

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Immediate- and Modified-Release Mycophenolic Acid Preparations in Healthy Beagle Dogs

Background: Mycophenolic acid (MPA) is a broad-acting immunomodulating agent that may be therapeutically beneficial for the treatment of immune-mediated diseases in canine patients.

Objectives: To determine the suppressive effects of MPA on T-cell proliferation, and to assess the feasibility of a canine-specific q24 h modified-release MPA formulation (OKV-1001b).

Animals: Fifteen healthy purpose-bred male beagle dogs.

Methods: Two nearly identical open-label fifteen-day studies were conducted in which dogs were randomized to receive mycophenolate mofetil (MMF; 10 mg/kg q12h), or two doses of OKV-1001b (270 mg and 180 mg; q24h). Serial pharmacokinetic (PK) and pharmacodynamic (PD) samples were collected on Days 1, 8, and 15. MPA plasma concentrations were measured by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), while an ex vivo T-cell proliferation assay assessed PD effects. Dogs were continuously monitored for evidence of side effects and gastrointestinal tolerability.

Results: MPA induced inhibition of T-cell proliferation was observed following administration of all MPA preparations in a clear concentration-dependent manner. The PK/PD relationship was maintained across all days and time-points. Data generated herein suggest that MPA plasma concentrations above 600 ng/mL achieve at least 50% inhibition of T-cell proliferation.

Conclusions and Clinical Importance: MPA holds therapeutic potential for treating dogs with immune-mediated disease, but clinical trials will be necessary to determine its safety and efficacy in naturally occurring disease. Likewise, q24h oral modified release MPA preparations that maintain MPA plasma concentrations between 600 and 1,000 ng/mL are warranted for further studies in client-owned dogs.

Reuse of Molecules for Glioblastoma Therapy

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is a highly malignant primary brain tumor. The current standard of care for GBM is the Stupp protocol which includes surgical resection, followed by radiotherapy concomitant with the DNA alkylator temozolomide; however, survival under this treatment regimen is an abysmal 12-18 months. New and emerging treatments include the application of a physical device, non-invasive 'tumor treating fields' (TTFs), including its concomitant use with standard of care; and varied vaccines and immunotherapeutics being trialed. Some of these approaches have extended life by a few months over standard of care, but in some cases are only available for a minority of GBM patients. Extensive activity is also underway to repurpose and reposition therapeutics for GBM, either alone or in combination with the standard of care. In this review, we present select molecules that target different pathways and are at various stages of clinical translation as case studies to illustrate the rationale for their repurposing-repositioning and potential clinical use.

Polysaccharide mycophenolate-based nanoparticles for enhanced immunosuppression and treatment of immune-mediated inflammatory diseases

Immune-mediated inflammatory diseases (IMIDs) are characterized by immune dysregulation and severe inflammation caused by the aberrant and overactive host immunological response. Mycophenolic acid (MPA)-based immunosuppressive drugs are potential treatments for IMIDs because of their mild side-effect profile; however, their therapeutic effects are limited by the high albumin binding rate, unsatisfactory pharmacokinetics, and undefined cellular uptake selectivity.

Methods: Polysaccharide mycophenolate was synthesized by conjugating MPA molecules to dextran (a typical polysaccharide widely used in drug delivery) and encapsulated extra free MPA molecules to fabricate MPA@Dex-MPA nanoparticles (NPs). The efficacy of these NPs for mediating immunosuppression and treatment of IMIDs was evaluated in imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation in Balb/c mice, a representative IMID model.

Results: The MPA@Dex-MPA NPs exhibited high MPA loading efficiency, low albumin binding rates, and sustained MPA release, resulting in improved pharmacokinetics in vivo. Compared to free MPA, MPA@Dex-MPA NPs induced more robust therapeutic effects on IMIDs. Mechanistic studies indicated that MPA@Dex-MPA NPs were primarily distributed in dendritic cells (DCs) and significantly suppressed the overactivated DCs in vivo and in vitro. Furthermore, the recovered DCs rehabilitated the IL-23/Th17 axis function and significantly ameliorated imiquimod-induced psoriasis-like skin inflammation. Importantly, MPA@Dex-MPA NPs showed favorable safety and biocompatibility in vivo.

Conclusion: Our results indicated the polysaccharide mycophenolate-based NPs to be highly promising for IMID treatment.

Refractory palmo-plantar discoid lupus erythematosus successfully treated with mycophenolate mofetil: Unusual localization and literature review

Palmo-plantar lesions in discoid lupus erythematosus (DLE) can be considered a very distinct rarity, generally refractory to conventional treatments. We present a 47-year-old African female patient with a 6-month clinical history of palm and soles erosions. Clinical examination revealed painful multiple, well defined, erosions with an erythematous and scaly central area and peripherical post-inflammatory hyperchromic border bilaterally distributed on the palmo-plantar surfaces. Pterygium inversum unguis involved all nails of both hands. Histological analysis and direct immunofluorescence study confirmed palmo-plantar DLE. Therapy with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) was initiated with a progressive clearing of palmo-plantar lesions and a drastic reduction of pain. Therapy was well tolerated, neither side effects nor altered laboratory investigations were observed. Our case and literature review confirm that MMF may be an effective approach for the management of refractory palmo-plantar DLE with a safer profile than Azathioprine regarding adverse effects and cutaneous malignancies risk.

Treatment of oral lichen planus with mucoadhesive mycophenolate mofetil patch: A randomized clinical trial

Objectives

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory disease of unknown etiology which is known as a premalignant disease. A complete cure has not been found for this condition. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) is a new drug that seems to be effective in improving OLP lesions. But there are no studies on the efficacy of mucoadhesive form of MMF in ulcerative OLP. Therefore, this study was performed to determine the therapeutic effect of MMF mucoadhesive on OLP lesions.

Material and methods

Twenty‐seven patients with OLP, were enrolled in two groups. All the patients were instructed to place the MMF 2% mucoadhesive on the lesion twice daily for 4 weeks. Lesion size was measured by a sterile digital caulis (mm) and the severity of burning sensation and pain by visual analogue scale (VAS; cm) at baseline and weekly follow‐ups.

Results

There was no significant difference in burning sensation and lesion size at Weeks 1, 2, and 3 in both groups. In Group A, at Week 4, there was significant reduction in pain and burning sensation and lesion size on both sides (p = .048, .012). The difference in lesion size on control sides was not significant. In Group B, at Week 4, there was significant reduction in pain and burning sensation and lesion size (p = .004). No side effects were reported by the patients.

Conclusions

Based on the results, 2% MMF mucoadhesive was effective in decreasing burning sensation and pain severity and ulcer size of ulcerative OLP and the effect was time‐dependent.

Dermatomyositis: An Update on Diagnosis and Treatment

Dermatomyositis is a rare inflammatory disease with characteristic cutaneous findings and varying amounts of systemic involvement. Patients may present with skin disease alone, have concomitant muscle disease, or have extracutaneous manifestations such as pulmonary disease or an associated malignancy. Given such diverse presentations, dermatomyositis is both a diagnostic and therapeutic challenge. However, a prompt diagnosis is of utmost importance to institute adequate therapy and screen patients for an associated malignancy. Dermatologists should play a crucial role in the diagnosis and management of patients with dermatomyositis as cutaneous disease tends to be chronic, negatively impact quality of life, and be more recalcitrant to therapy. In this review, we discuss diagnosis, with a focus on myositis-specific antibodies and their associated phenotypes. We also review therapies available for this often refractory skin disease.

Update on treatments for erosive vulvovaginal lichen planus

Vulvovaginal lichen planus (VVLP) is a debilitating disease that causes significant pain and psychological distress. Management is made difficult by the chronic course of the disease and its resistance to treatment. While topical steroids have been accepted as the first-line treatment, they fail to achieve symptomatic control in approximately 40% of patients. Second-line therapies include other topical treatments such as calcineurin inhibitors, systemic therapies including oral steroids, methotrexate, mycophenolate mofetil, biologics, and tacrolimus, and procedural options including surgery and dilation, photodynamic therapy, and ultrasound. This review provides an overview of the current treatments and explores the level of evidence supporting each of them.

A Comparison of Azathioprine and Mycophenolate Mofetil as Adjuvant Drugs in Patients with Pemphigus: A Retrospective Cohort Study

INTRODUCTION

Azathioprine (AZA) and mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) are both first-line steroid-sparing agents used for the treatment of pemphigus in combination with a corticosteroid, but few studies to date have directly compared these two combination treatment modalities. The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy and safety of each of these agents as adjuvant therapy with the corticosteroid prednisolone for the treatment of pemphigus, using standardized outcome parameters.

METHODS

This was a retrospective study of patients with pemphigus who received corticosteroid therapy in combination with either AZA or MMF at the Autoimmune Blistering Skin Diseases Clinic of Ramathibodi Hospital (Bangkok) between January 2007 and July 2017. The treatment response was evaluated using early [end of the consolidation phase (ECP)] and late endpoints [complete remission (CR) on therapy, CR off therapy and immunological remission]. Cumulative steroid use, relapse rate and adverse events in each treatment group were also compared.

RESULTS

Of the 62 patients with pemphigus included in the study, 37 were treated with prednisolone plus AZA as adjuvant (AZA group) and 25 patients were treated with prednisolone plus MMF as adjuvant (MMF group). The majority of patients in both treatment groups reached the ECP (AZA group 88.2%; MMF group 71.4%; between-group difference not statistically significant at p = 0.156); the median time required to achieve this early endpoint was also comparable (p = 0.362). A high percentage of patients in both the AZA and MMF groups attained CR on therapy (AZA 73%; MMF 72%). The total number of patients who achieved CR on and off therapy were comparable in the two groups (p = 0.933 and p = 0.690, respectively). However, the median time for patients to achieve CR on therapy was significantly shorter for those on MMF than for those on AZA (7.3 vs. 12.5 months; p = 0.019), and the cumulative steroid dose required for patients to achieve CR both on and off therapy was significantly lower in the MMF group than in the AZA group (p = 0.007 and p = 0.043, respectively).

CONCLUSION

While corticosteroid in combination with either AZA or MMF is an effective therapeutic regimen for the treatment of pemphigus, MMF demonstrates a shorter time to achieve CR on therapy and has a significantly higher steroid-sparing effect.

Pemphigus: Current and Future Therapeutic Strategies

Pemphigus encompasses a heterogeneous group of autoimmune blistering diseases, which affect both mucous membranes and the skin. The disease usually runs a chronic-relapsing course, with a potentially devastating impact on the patients' quality of life. Pemphigus pathogenesis is related to IgG autoantibodies targeting various adhesion molecules in the epidermis, including desmoglein (Dsg) 1 and 3, major components of desmosomes. The pathogenic relevance of such autoantibodies has been largely demonstrated experimentally. IgG autoantibody binding to Dsg results in loss of epidermal keratinocyte adhesion, a phenomenon referred to as acantholysis. This in turn causes intra-epidermal blistering and the clinical appearance of flaccid blisters and erosions at involved sites. Since the advent of glucocorticoids, the overall prognosis of pemphigus has largely improved. However, mortality persists elevated, since long-term use of high dose corticosteroids and adjuvant steroid-sparing immunosuppressants portend a high risk of serious adverse events, especially infections. Recently, rituximab, a chimeric anti CD20 monoclonal antibody which induces B-cell depletion, has been shown to improve patients' survival, as early rituximab use results in higher disease remission rates, long term clinical response and faster prednisone tapering compared to conventional immunosuppressive therapies, leading to its approval as a first line therapy in pemphigus. Other anti B-cell therapies targeting B-cell receptor or downstream molecules are currently tried in clinical studies. More intriguingly, a preliminary study in a preclinical mouse model of pemphigus has shown promise regarding future therapeutic application of Chimeric Autoantibody Receptor T-cells engineered using Dsg domains to selectively target autoreactive B-cells. Conversely, previous studies from our group have demonstrated that B-cell depletion in pemphigus resulted in secondary impairment of T-cell function; this may account for the observed long-term remission following B-cell recovery in rituximab treated patients. Likewise, our data support the critical role of Dsg-specific T-cell clones in orchestrating the inflammatory response and B-cell activation in pemphigus. Monitoring autoreactive T-cells in patients may indeed provide further information on the role of these cells, and would be the starting point for designating therapies aimed at restoring the lost immune tolerance against Dsg. The present review focuses on current advances, unmet challenges and future perspectives of pemphigus management.

[Therapy of pemphigus]

BACKGROUND

Pemphigus diseases are a heterogeneous group of potentially life-threatening autoimmune bullous disorders. Therefore, rapidly acting and effective therapeutic approaches are essential.

OBJECTIVES

In this review, current therapeutic options in line with available guidelines are presented and new therapeutic approaches are discussed.

METHODS

A literature search was performed using PubMed.

RESULTS

Treatment of pemphigus is based on systemic glucocorticosteroids, frequently combined with potentially corticosteroid-sparing immunosuppressants such as azathioprine and mycophenolate mofetil/mycophenolic acid. Recently, the impressive efficacy of the anti-CD20 antibody rituximab has been shown in a prospective randomized trial. In severe or treatment-refractory cases, immunoadsorption or high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins (IVIG) are recommended. Adjuvant immunoadsorption also seems to be useful within the first 8-12 weeks of therapy in patients with very high autoantibody levels. A variety of new therapeutic approaches is currently evaluated in phase IIa studies.

CONCLUSION

Therapy of pemphigus has been greatly improved by the employment of rituximab. The use of glucocorticosteroids, associated with a high number of adverse events and elevated mortality, could be reduced by the additional use of rituximab. After approval of rituximab for the treatment of pemphigus by the US Food and Drug Administration in 2018, licensing in Europe is expected in 2019.

Mycophenolic acid in patients with immune-mediated inflammatory diseases: From humans to dogs

Mycophenolic acid (MPA), a noncompetitive, selective and reversible inhibitor of inosine 5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase (IMPDH), is an immunosuppressive agent that has a long history in medicine. Mechanistically, the inhibition of IMPDH leads to the selective and eventual arrest of T- and B-lymphocyte proliferation. Mycophenolate mofetil (MMF), the first MPA-based product to receive marketing approval over two decades ago, was originally indicated for the prophylaxis of organ rejection in human transplant patients. Given its broad immunosuppressive properties and ability to selectively inhibit lymphocyte division and effector functions, the clinical utility of MPA was subsequently explored in a host of autoimmune diseases. Human clinical studies have shown MPA to be safe and effective and support its off-label administration for immune-mediated diseases such as lupus, myasthenia gravis and atopic dermatitis. MMF became generically available in the United States in 2008, and its clinical utility is increasingly being explored as a treatment option for dogs with immune-mediated diseases. This review summarizes the available literature for MPA pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics, and the current status of MPA as a treatment for client-owned dogs diagnosed with immune-mediated diseases.

Autoimmune Ascites Responding to Mycophenolate Mofetil: A Case Report

Ascites is an abnormal accumulation of fluid within the peritoneal cavity. The most common cause of ascites in the United States population is portal hypertension secondary to cirrhosis, accounting for about 80% of the cases. Other etiologies include malignancy, heart failure, tuberculosis, and pancreatic disease. After an extensive literature review, it is to our best knowledge that there have been no cases reported on autoimmune ascites. We present an interesting case of ascites in a 67-year-old Caucasian male with symptoms of recurrent abdominal distention and significant weight gain, refractory to standard therapies. An extensive 3-year long workup was only significant for serum-ascites albumin gradient > 1.1 g/dL, ascitic fluid protein of 3.0 g/dL, and peritoneal biopsies showing minor inflammatory changes. Both common and rare causes of ascites were ruled out. Empiric treatment with mycophenolate mofetil (CellCept) resulted in resolution of symptoms with no need for a repeat paracentesis for > 2 years, suggesting the diagnosis of autoimmune ascites.

Emerging treatment options for the management of pemphigus vulgaris

Pemphigus vulgaris (PV) is a life-threatening disease belonging to the pemphigus group of autoimmune intra-epidermal bullous diseases of the skin and mucosae. The therapeutic management of PV remains challenging and, in some cases, conventional therapy is not adequate to induce clinical remission. The cornerstone of PV treatment remains systemic corticosteroids. Although very effective, long-term corticosteroid administration is characterized by substantial adverse effects. Corticosteroid-sparing adjuvant therapies have been employed in the treatment of PV, aiming to reduce the necessary cumulative dose of corticosteroids. Specifically, immunosuppressive agents such as azathioprine and mycophenolate mofetil are widely used in PV. More recently, high-dose intravenous immunoglobulins, immunoadsorption, and rituximab have been established as additional successful therapeutic options. This review covers both conventional and emerging therapies in PV. In addition, it sheds light on potential future treatment strategies for this disease.

Practical Management of Immunosuppressants in Dermatology

The treatment of inflammatory and autoimmune diseases is challenging because of their frequency and complexity. Treatment of these diseases is based on the suppression of the patient's immune system using corticosteroids, corticosteroid-sparing immunosuppressive agents, and biologic drugs, making an understanding of the management of immunosuppressive therapy essential. Before an immunosuppressive agent is prescribed, a study must be carried out to identify contraindications, detect latent infections, and determine the most appropriate dose. During treatment, regular monitoring is required to detect adverse effects. The clinician must be familiar with the time lag between start of treatment and onset of the immunosuppressive effect as well as the maximum recommended duration of treatment and cumulative dose for each drug. As dermatologists we are accustomed to using these immunosuppressive agents, but we should have a good knowledge of the guidelines for their use and the monitoring required in each case if we are to reduce variability and avoid potentially serious adverse effects.

Inexplicable Outcome of Early Appearance of Hepatocellular Carcinoma in the Allograft After Deceased Donor Liver Transplantation: A Case Report

BACKGROUND

This case represents the earliest appearance of de novo HCC after liver transplantation (OLT) compared with cases of previously reported literatures.

CASE REPORT

A 45-year-old man underwent deceased donor OLT owing to decompensated liver cirrhosis. He had YMDD viral mutation and hepatitis B (HBV) and C (HCV) coinfection but no tumor was found in the liver on MRI before OLT. The donor was a healthy young female donor who was HCV and HBV negative. There was no tumor in the explant liver. After OLT, HCV RNA and hepatitis B surface antigen became undetectable with DNA-positive HBV. Nine months after OLT, a computed tomography (CT) scan was performed owing to abdominal pain, detecting a mass occupying the right lobe that depicted enhanced characteristics typical of HCC. The chest CT demonstrated metastatic lung nodules in the right basal lower lobe. Fluorescence in situ hybridization showed tumor cells from the recipient.

CONCLUSIONS

To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report of de novo hepatocellular carcinoma that has emerged within a short period of undergoing OLT.

p38α Activates Purine Metabolism to Initiate Hematopoietic Stem/Progenitor Cell Cycling in Response to Stress

Hematopoietic stem cells (HSCs) maintain quiescence by activating specific metabolic pathways, including glycolysis. We do not yet have a clear understanding of how this metabolic activity changes during stress hematopoiesis, such as bone marrow transplantation. Here, we report a critical role for the p38MAPK family isoform p38α in initiating hematopoietic stem and progenitor cell (HSPC) proliferation during stress hematopoiesis in mice. We found that p38MAPK is immediately phosphorylated in HSPCs after a hematological stress, preceding increased HSPC cycling. Conditional deletion of p38α led to defective recovery from hematological stress and a delay in initiation of HSPC proliferation. Mechanistically, p38α signaling increases expression of inosine-5'-monophosphate dehydrogenase 2 in HSPCs, leading to altered levels of amino acids and purine-related metabolites and changes in cell-cycle progression in vitro and in vivo. Our studies have therefore uncovered a p38α-mediated pathway that alters HSPC metabolism to respond to stress and promote recovery.

Possible alternative therapies for oral lichen planus cases refractory to steroid therapies

Oral lichen planus (OLP) is a chronic inflammatory disorder with a multifactorial etiopathogenesis. Immune dysregulation plays a critical role in the development and progression of this disease. Patients' lives may be affected by pain caused by atrophic-erosive lesions. Given the obscure etiology, treatment is usually symptomatic. Topical steroids remain the mainstay of management. However, their therapeutic benefits are not always evident. There are substantial data on the possible therapeutic strategies that are effective in OLP cases refractory to steroids. This review provides an overview of the current approaches for the management of steroid-refractory OLP. The miscellaneous treatment regimens include tacrolimus, pimecrolimus, thalidomide, low-level laser therapy, photodynamic therapy, and surgical excision. Some results obtained from these studies were promising. However, further studies, especially randomized controlled trials with strict inclusion and exclusion criteria and larger sample sizes, are required for the evaluation of the long-term safety and efficacy of these therapies.

Comparison of systemic mycophenolate mofetil with topical clobetasol in lichen planopilaris: a parallel-group, assessor- and analyst-blinded, randomized controlled trial

INTRODUCTION

Lichen planopilaris (LPP) is the most common cause of inflammatory immune-mediated cicatricial alopecia. If not diagnosed and treated properly, it may lead to irreversible hair loss with a devastating impact on quality of life. However, treatment can be a challenge. In an area lacking these sorts of studies, we conducted a randomized controlled trial (RCT) to study the tolerability and therapeutic effects of topical clobetasol versus systemic mycophenolate mofetil (MMF).

METHODS

A randomized, assessor- and analyst-blinded controlled trial was conducted in 60 patients with LPP in Razi Dermatology Hospital, Tehran, Iran, between February and December 2013. Patients were treated with clobetasol lotion 0.05 % applied at night or oral MMF 2 g/day and were followed for 6 months. The Lichen Planopilaris Activity Index (LPPAI) was the primary measure of response to treatment.

RESULTS

Systemic MMF and topical clobetasol were equally effective in reducing the LPPAI over 6 months of treatment. Treatment tolerability was excellent in both groups and no serious irreversible adverse effects were detected. Satisfaction with treatment rose in the MMF group over time; however, it declined in the clobetasol group.

CONCLUSION

Given the similar efficacy profiles, topical clobetasol seems to be a more suitable and reasonable choice for treatment of LPP than MMF.

Refractory pemphigus vulgaris treated with rituximab and mycophenolate mofetil

The main treatment for pemphigus vulgaris are systemic corticosteroids and immunosuppressive agents, but due to adverse reactions and therapeutic failure, new drugs such as rituximab and mycophenolate mofetil have been used. In this case report are described two cases of severe pemphigus vulgaris refractory to various treatments, with resolution after use of rituximab and mycophenolate mofetil, associated with corticosteroids. A higher-than-usual dose of rituximab was employed, without the occurrence of serious adverse reactions. Mycophenolate mofetil was added as adjunctive therapy due to lack of response to azathioprine.

Mycophenolate mofetil as a treatment for urticarial dermatitis

We report two cases of adults with urticarial dermatitis who could not be managed by a variety of treatments but who obtained good control with mycophenolate mofetil (MMF). A clinical response was seen 6-8 weeks from treatment onset and they were maintained on MMF 1 g twice daily (case 1), and MMF 1 g omni mane and 500 mg omni nocte (case 2), with no major exacerbations for many years. MMF is an immunosuppressive agent, which is currently used off-label for many dermatological conditions. To date, there have been no studies investigating the use of MMF as a treatment for urticarial dermatitis. The cases we present suggest that MMF is an effective treatment for this condition, and we recommend that MMF be considered as a treatment option.

Cytomegalovirus retinitis: a rare but preventable cause of blindness in dermatology patients

IMPORTANCE

Dermatologists are using an increasing range of immunomodulatory therapies to treat an expanding number of skin diseases. Complications of therapy are broad and include infection. Cytomegalovirus (CMV) retinitis has not been reported in association with dermatologic disease.

OBSERVATIONS

We report two cases of CMV retinitis associated with immunosuppression for eczema and pemphigus vulgaris. In both cases, patients were receiving corticosteroid and a second-line immunosuppressive agent (cyclosporine or mycophenolate mofetil). Disease presented in both patients with painless visual loss.

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

Patients receiving immunosuppressive therapy should be monitored for blurred vision, floaters, or visual loss and referred for urgent assessment to ensure accurate diagnosis and prompt treatment of possible CMV retinitis.

Mycophenolate mofetil and enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium in the treatment of pemphigus vulgaris and pemphigus foliaceus

What is known and objective: Pemphigus is a severe, potentially life-threatening autoimmune blistering disease. The use of corticosteroids has dramatically improved the prognosis and changed its course. However, current morbidity of pemphigus is largely iatrogenic, caused by side effects of the long-term, high-dose corticosteroid therapy that is necessary to sustain disease control. In order to minimize side effects, a range of corticosteroid-sparing immunosuppressive agents have been introduced, including mycophenolate mofetil (MMF) and enteric-coated mycophenolate sodium (EC-MPS). A systematic review was performed to evaluate the effectiveness of MMF and EC-MPS in the treatment of pemphigus vulgaris and pemphigus foliaceus.

METHODS

A retrospective literature search was conducted through multiple electronic databases (PubMed, Medline, The Cochrane database of systematic reviews) for reports on the use of mycophenolic acid (MPA) in the treatment of pemphigus vulgaris and pemphigus foliaceus.

RESULTS

Sixteen studies with a total of 239 patients have evaluated the treatment of pemphigus vulgaris and pemphigus foliac;eus with MPA. The majority of patients had refractory disease treated with corticosteroids as monotherapy or associated to adjuvant agents.

DISCUSSION

The results of this review suggest that MPA, as MMF or EC-MPS, may be a promising adjuvant or alternative therapy for the treatment of pemphigus vulgaris and pemphigus foliaceus. It appears safe, at least in the medium term and its adverse events seem to be dose dependent.

WHAT IS NEW AND CONCLUSION

The use of mycophenolate is first-line adjuvant therapy in the treatment of pemphigus vulgaris and pemphigus foliaceus.

Practical guidelines for the use of steroid-sparing agents in the treatment of chronic pruritus

Chronic pruritus in the adult patient is both an underappreciated and a difficult to treat condition. In the vast majority of cases, itch is the result of inflammatory skin disease and therefore may be responsive to systemic anti-inflammatory therapies. Urticarial dermatitis is an under-recognized cause of chronic itch in the adult population. Patients with this disorder are characterized by prolonged, prednisone-responsive pruritus, often in the absence of substantial cutaneous findings. Skin findings, when present, can range from subtle, persistent urticarial lesions to excoriated papules, often intermixed with urticaria, eczematous change, and lichenification secondary to chronic scratching. Hereby, we describe our algorithm for evaluation and management of adult patients with refractory pruritus (urticarial dermatitis in particular), including evaluation for other etiologies of pruritus, pre-immunosuppression workup, and the use of azathioprine and other steroid-sparing agents for treatment of recalcitrant itch.

Cutaneous dermatomyositis: an updated review of treatment options and internal associations

Dermatomyositis is a specific type of inflammatory myopathy with characteristic cutaneous findings. Patients may have skin disease without clinically apparent muscle disease, but this disorder is best thought of as a systemic process. Therefore, all patients with dermatomyositis skin lesions need appropriate evaluation for muscle disease, esophageal dysfunction, cardiopulmonary disease, and potential internal malignancy. There are many therapies that have been used for patients with dermatomyositis, but most are based upon case series or expert opinion rather than meta-analyses or randomized, placebo-controlled trials. Even those therapies that have been subjected to randomized, blinded, placebo-controlled trials include a mixture of patients with idiopathic inflammatory myopathy and do not utilize a validated assessment tool for measuring cutaneous disease responses. In this review, we discuss the therapies available as well as the internal associations with dermatomyositis.