Fermentative production of lactic acid from renewable materials: recent achievements, prospects, and limits

An innovative approach to improving lactic acid production from food waste using iron tailings

In this study, the feasibility of promoting the lactic acid (LA) fermentation of food waste (FW) with iron tailings (ITs) addition was explored. The best LA yield was 0.91 g LA/g total sugar when 1 % ITs were added into the system. The mechanisms for promoting LA production were acidification alleviation effects and reduction equivalent supply of ITs. Furthermore, the addition of ITs promoted carbohydrate hydrolysis, and the carbohydrates digestibility reached 88.85 % in the 1 % ITs group. The ITs also affected the microbial communities, Lactococcus gradually replaced Streptococcus as the dominant genus, and results suggested that Lactococcus had a positive correlation with LA production and carbohydrate digestibility. Finally, the complex LAB in FW had significant effects on heavy metal removal from ITs, and the removal efficiency Cr, As, Pb, Cd, and Hg can reach 50.84 %, 26.72 %, 59.65 %, 49.75 % and 78.87 % in the 1 % ITs group, respectively.

Selective Conversion of Glycerol to Lactic Acid in Water via Acceptorless Dehydrogenation Catalyzed by a Water-Soluble Metal-Ligand Bifunctional Iridium Catalyst

An efficient method for the selective conversion of glycerol, the major byproduct of the biodiesel manufacturing process, to lactic acid in water via acceptorless dehydrogenation has been developed. In the presence of a water-soluble [Cp*Ir(6,6'-(OH)2-2,2'-bpy)(H2O)][OTf]2 (0.1 mol %) and KOH (1.1 equiv), the reaction proceeded at 120 °C for 24 h to afford the desired product in >99% yield with >99% selectivity. It was confirmed that OH functional groups in the ligand were crucial for the activity of the iridium complex. Furthermore, density functional theory calculations and mechanistic experiments were also undertaken.

Association between organic nitrogen substrates and the optical purity of D-lactic acid during the fermentation by Sporolactobacillus terrae SBT-1

The development of biotechnological lactic acid production has attracted attention to the potential production of an optically pure isomer of lactic acid, although the relationship between fermentation and the biosynthesis of highly optically pure D-lactic acid remains poorly understood. Sporolactobacillus terrae SBT-1 is an excellent D-lactic acid producer that depends on cultivation conditions. Herein, three enzymes responsible for synthesizing optically pure D-lactic acid, including D-lactate dehydrogenase (D-LDH; encoded by ldhDs), L-lactate dehydrogenase (L-LDH; encoded by ldhLs), and lactate racemase (Lar; encoded by larA), were quantified under different organic nitrogen sources and concentration to study the relationship between fermentation conditions and synthesis pathway of optically pure lactic acid. Different organic nitrogen sources and concentrations significantly affected the quantity and quality of D-lactic acid produced by strain SBT-1 as well as the synthetic optically pure lactic acid pathway. Yeast extract is a preferred organic nitrogen source for achieving high catalytic efficiency of D-lactate dehydrogenase and increasing the transcription level of ldhA2, indicating that this enzyme plays a major role in D-lactic acid formation in S. terrae SBT-1. Furthermore, lactate racemization activity could be regulated by the presence of D-lactic acid. The results of this study suggest that specific nutrient requirements are necessary to achieve a stable and highly productive fermentation process for the D-lactic acid of an individual strain.

Development of lactic acid production from coffee grounds hydrolysate by fermentation with Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus

Spent coffee grounds (SCG) are commercial waste that are still rich in numerous valuable ingredients and can be further processed into useful products such as coffee oil, antioxidant extract, lactic acid, and lignin. The challenge and innovation is to develop the SCG processing technology, maximizing the use of raw material and minimizing the use of other resources within the sequential process. The presented research is focused on the aspect of biotechnological production of lactic acid from SCG by using the Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus strain isolated from the environment. Thanks to the optimization of the processes of acid hydrolysis, neutralization, enzymatic hydrolysis of SCG, and fermentation, the obtained concentration of lactic acid was increased after 72 hr of culture from the initial 4.60 g/l to 48.6 g/l. In addition, the whole process has been improved, taking into account the dependence on other processes within the complete SCG biorefinery, economy, energy, and waste aspects. Costly enzymatic hydrolysis was completely eliminated, and it was proven that supplementation of SCG hydrolysate with expensive yeast extract can be replaced by cheap waste from the agri-food industry.

ONE-SENTENCE SUMMARY

A process for efficient lactic acid production from spent coffee grounds using the Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus strain was developed and optimized, including nutrient solution preparation, supplementation and fermentation.

Enzyme characterization of lactic acid bacteria isolated from duck excreta

Background and Aim

The production of lignocellulosic biomass waste in the agricultural sector of Indonesia is quite high annually. Utilization of lignocellulosic biomass waste through fermentation technology can be used as feed and biofuel. Fermentation technology requires the involvement of micro-organisms such as bacteria (lactic acid bacteria or LAB). LABs can be isolated from various sources, such as duck excreta. However, there have not been many reports of LAB from duck excreta. The present study aimed to characterize LAB enzymes isolated from duck excreta and obtain LAB enzymes with superior fermentation properties.

Materials and Methods

A total of 11 LAB cultures obtained from duck excreta in Yogyakarta, Indonesia, were tested. Enzyme characterization of each LAB was performed using the API ZYM kit (BioMérieux, Marcy-I'Etoile, France). The bacterial cell suspension was dropped onto the API ZYM™ cupule using a pipette and incubated for 4 h at 37°C. After incubation, ZYM A and ZYM B were dripped onto the API ZYM cupule, and color changes were observed for approximately 10 s under a strong light source.

Results

Esterase activity was moderate for all LABs. The activity of α-chymotrypsin, β-glucuronidase, α-fucosidase, and α-mannosidase was not observed in a total of 10 LAB. The phosphohydrolase and amino peptidase enzyme activity of seven LABs was strong. Only six LAB samples showed protease activity. The glycosyl hydrolase (GH) activity was observed in a total of 8 LAB, while the activity of 2 LAB was strong (Lactococcus lactis subsp. lactis K5 and Lactobacillus brevis M4A).

Conclusion

A total of 2 LABs have superior properties. L. lactis subsp. lactis K5 and L. brevis M4A have a high potential to be used in fermentation. They have the potential for further research, such as their effectiveness in fermentation, lignocellulose hydrolysis, feed additives, molecular characterization to detect specific enzymes, and their specific activities.

Anaerobic fermentation of organic solid waste: Recent updates in substrates, products, and the process with multiple products co-production

The effective conversion and recycling of organic solid waste contribute to the resolution of widespread issues such as global environmental pollution, energy scarcity and resource depletion. The anaerobic fermentation technology provides for the effective treatment of organic solid waste and the generation of various products. The analysis, which is based on bibliometrics, concentrates on the valorisation of affordable and easily accessible raw materials with high organic matter content as well as the production of clean energy substances and high value-added platform products. The processing and application status of fermentation raw materials such as waste activated sludge, food waste, microalgae and crude glycerol are investigated. To analyse the status of the preparation and engineering applications of the products, the fermentation products biohydrogen, VFAs, biogas, ethanol, succinic acid, lactic acid, and butanol are employed as representatives. Simultaneously, the anaerobic biorefinery process with multiple product co-production is sorted out. Product co-production can reduce waste discharge, enhance resource recovery efficiency, and serve as a model for improving anaerobic fermentation economics.

Efficient production of acetoin from lactate by engineered Escherichia coli whole-cell biocatalyst

Acetoin, an important and high-value added bio-based platform chemical, has been widely applied in fields of foods, cosmetics, chemical synthesis, and agriculture. Lactate is a significant intermediate short-chain carboxylate in the anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates that comprise ~ 18% and ~ 70% in municipal wastewaters and some food processing wastewaters, respectively. In this work, a series of engineered Escherichia coli strains were constructed for efficient production of acetoin from cheaper and abundant lactate through heterogenous co-expression of fusion protein (α-acetolactate synthetase and α-acetolactate decarboxylase), lactate dehydrogenase and NADH oxidase, and blocking acetate synthesis pathways. After optimization of whole-cell bioconversion conditions, the engineered strain BL-11 produced 251.97 mM (22.20 g/L) acetoin with a yield of 0.434 mol/mol in shake flasks. Moreover, a titer of 648.97mM (57.18 g/L) acetoin was obtained in 30 h with a yield of 0.484 mol/mol lactic acid in a 1-L bioreactor. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report on the production of acetoin from renewable lactate through whole-cell bioconversion with both high titer and yield, which demonstrates the economy and efficiency of acetoin production from lactate. Key Points • The lactate dehydrogenases from different organisms were expressed, purified, and assayed. • It is the first time that acetoin was produced from lactate by whole-cell biocatalysis. • The highest titer of 57.18 g/L acetoin was obtained with high theoretical yield in a 1-L bioreactor.

Critical Assessment of the Sustainability of Deep Eutectic Solvents: A Case Study on Six Choline Chloride-Based Mixtures

An outline of the advantages, in terms of sustainability, of Deep Eutectic Solvents (DESs) is provided, by analyzing some of the most popular DESs, obtained by the combination of choline chloride, as a hydrogen bond acceptor, and six hydrogen bond donors. The analysis is articulated into four main issues related to sustainability, which are recurrently mentioned in the literature, but are often taken for granted without any further critical elaboration, as the prominent green features of DESs: their low toxicity, good biodegradability, renewable sourcing, and low cost. This contribution is intended to provide a more tangible, evidence-based evaluation of the actual green credentials of the considered DESs, to reinforce or question their supposed sustainability, also in mutual comparison with one another.

New efficient meta-fermentation process for lactic acid production from municipal solid waste

BACKGROUND

The global market for lactic acid is witnessing growth on the back of increasing applications of lactic acid for manufacturing polylactic acid. Indeed, the lactic acid market is expected to reach 9.8 billion US dollars by 2025. The new concept of meta-fermentation has been proposed in recent years as an alternative to fermentation with pure cultures, due to multiple advantages such as lower susceptibility to contamination, no need for sterilization of culture media or lower raw material costs. However, there are still challenges to overcome to increase the conversion efficiency, decrease formation of by-products and facilitate fermentation control. In this context, the purpose of the study was to develop a robust meta-fermentation process to efficiently produce lactic acid from the OFMSW, stable at pre-industrial scale (1500 L). To maximize lactic acid production, operating conditions (pH, HRT) were modified, and a novel bioaugmentation strategy was tested.

RESULTS

A LAB-rich inoculum was generated with LAB isolated from the digestate and grown in the laboratory with MRS medium. After feeding this inoculum to the digester (bioaugmentation), lactic acid accumulation up to 41.5 gO2/L was achieved under optimal operating conditions. This corresponds to more than 70% of the filtered COD measured in the digestate. The amount of lactic acid produced was higher than the volatile fatty acids under all feeding strategies applied.

CONCLUSIONS

The operating conditions that enhanced the production of lactic acid from mixed cultures were 55ºC, 2 days HRT and pH 4.8-5.7, with pH-control once a day. The bioaugmentation strategy improved the results obtained in the prototype without applying reinoculation. Lactic acid was the main product along with other carboxylic acids. Further improvements are needed to increase purity as well as lactic acid concentration to reach economic feasibility of the whole process (digestion of OFMSW and downstream).

Combined dehydrogenation of glycerol with catalytic transfer hydrogenation of H2 acceptors to chemicals: Opportunities and challenges

Catalytic transformation of low-cost glycerol to value-added lactic acid (LA) is considered as one of the most promising technologies for the upgradation of glycerol into renewable products. Currently, research studies reveal that anaerobic transformation of glycerol to LA could also obtain green H₂ with the same yield of LA. However, the combined value-added utilization of released H₂ with high selectivity of LA during glycerol conversion under mild conditions still remains a grand challenge. In this perspective, for the first time, we conducted a comprehensive and critical discussion on current strategies for combined one-pot/tandem dehydrogenation of glycerol to LA with catalytic transfer hydrogenation of H₂ acceptors (such as CO₂) to other chemicals. The aim of this overview was to provide a general guidance on the atomic economic reaction pathway for upgrading low-cost glycerol and CO₂ to LA as well as other chemicals.

The possibility of a halal mix probiotic medium for the cultivation of Lactobacillus plantarum N16 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae

This study aimed to determine the effects of interaction between media type (halal mix preparation) and culture mixtures of Lactobacillus plantarum N16 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (probiotics). A completely randomised factorial design (CRFD) consisting of 2 factors and three replications was used, where factor A was a mixture of Lactobacillus plantarum N16 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae at a ratio of 1:1 (A1); 1:2 (A2) and 2:1 (A3) and factor B was the type of growth media, that is, control (B1), whey tofu, molasses, and fish waste flour (B2), and coconut water, onggok flour and shrimp waste flour (B3). The variables measured were viability, cell biomass, and pH. The results showed interactions between factors A and B, which were significantly different (p <0.05) in terms of viability, cell biomass, and pH. Based on the results of the study, it can be concluded that the mixture of Lactobacillus plantarum N16 and Saccharomyces cerevisiae at a ratio of 2:1 (A3), using coconut water, onggok flour, and shrimp waste flour (B3) as medium and incubated at 36 °C for 24 hours was the best medium. It had a 2.37 viability, 42.33 mg/ml biomass cell, and a pH of 2.37.

Cloning and screening of the putative hexokinase genes from Rhizopus oryzae and their heterologous expression in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

BACKGROUND

A filamentous fungus, Rhizopus oryzae (R. oryzae) is one of the ideal candidates for ethanol and lactic acid production due to its ability to grow on renewable carbon sources.

METHODS AND RESULTS

In this study, the nucleotide sequence of hexokinases and glucokinase from S. cerevisiae was found on the NCBI site ( http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/blast/Blast.cgi ) were used. With these nucleotide sequences, a blast search was done on the R. oryzae genome database ( http://www.broad.mit.edu/annotation/genome/rhizopus_oryzae/Home.html ) and ten probable genes were obtained. cDNA was synthesized from the total RNA and PCR products of the seven of these putative genes were determined using the primers designed for them.

CONCLUSION

The results of the sequences and the complementation studies revealed that three of these seven putative genes were expressed in R. oryzae and the growth was observed on selective media.

Cyclic L-lactide synthesis from lignocellulose biomass by biorefining with complete inhibitor removal and highly simultaneous sugars assimilation

Cyclic chiral lactide is the monomer chemical for polymerization of high molecular weight polylactic acid (PLA). The synthesis of cyclic L-lactide starts from poly-condensation of L-lactic acid to a low molecular weight pre-polymer and then depolymerized to cyclic L-lactide. Lignocellulose biomass is the most promising carbohydrate feedstock for lactic acid production, but the synthesis of cyclic L-lactide from L-lactic acid produced from lignocellulose has so far not been successful. The major barriers are the impurities of residual sugars and inhibitors in the crude cellulosic L-lactic acid product. Here we show a successful cyclic L-lactide synthesis from cellulosic L-lactic acid by lignocellulose biorefining with complete inhibitor removal and coordinated sugars assimilation. The removal of inhibitors from lignocellulose pretreatment was accomplished by biodetoxification using a unique fungus Amorphotheca resinae ZN1. The non-glucose sugars were completely and simultaneously assimilated at the same rate with glucose by the engineered L-lactic acid bacterium Pediococcus acidilactici. The L-lactic acid production from wheat straw was comparable to that from corn starch with high optical pure (99.6%), high L-lactic acid titer (129.4 g/L), minor residual total sugars (~2.2 g/L), and inhibitors free. The cyclic L-lactide was successfully synthesized from the regularly purified L-lactic acid and verified by detailed characterizations. This study paves the technical foundation of carbon neutral production of biodegradable PLA from lignocellulose biomass. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.

Microbial production of lactic acid from food waste: Latest advances, limits, and perspectives

A significant amount of food waste (FW) is produced every year. If it is not disposed of timeously, human health and the ecological environment can be negatively affected. Lactic acid (LA), a high value-added product, can be produced by fermentation from FW as a substrate, realizing the concurrent treatment and recycling of FW, which has attracted increasing research interest. In this paper, the latest advances and deficiencies were presented from the following aspects: microorganisms involved in LA fermentation and the metabolic pathways of Lactobacillus, fermentation conditions, and methods of enhanced biotransformation and LA separation. The limitations of the LA fermentation of FW are mainly associated with low LA concentration and yield, the low purity of L(+)-LA, and the high separation costs. The establishment of biorefineries of FW with lactic acid as the target product is the future development direction, but there are still many research studies to be done.

Influence of Culture Media Formulated with Agroindustrial Wastes on the Antimicrobial Activity of Lactic Acid Bacteria

The discarding of wastes into the environment is a significant problem for many communities. Still, food waste can be used for lactic acid bacteria (LAB) growth. Here, we evaluated three growth media equivalent to de Mann Rogosa Sharpe (MRS), using apple bagasse, yeast waste, fish flour, forage oats, and cheese whey. Cell-free supernatants of eight LAB strains were tested for antimicrobial activity against nine indicator microorganisms. The supernatants were also evaluated for protein content, reducing sugars, pH, and lactic acid concentration. Cell-free supernatants from fish flour broth (FFB) LAB growth were the most effective. The strain Leuconostoc mesenteroides PIM5 presented the best activity in all media. L. mesenteroides CAL14 completely inhibited L. monocytogenes and strongly inhibited Bacillus cereus (91.1%). The strain L. mesenteroides PIM5 consumed more proteins (77.42%) and reducing sugars (56.08%) in FFB than in MRS broth (51.78% and 30.58%, respectively). Culture media formulated with agroindustrial wastes positively improved the antimicrobial activity of selected LAB, probably due to the production of antimicrobial peptides or bacteriocins.

Resource recovery of lignocellulosic biomass waste into lactic acid - Trends to sustain cleaner production

Biomass waste generation concerns regulatory authorities to develop novel methods to sustain biotransformation processes. Particularly, lactic acid (LA) is a bulk commodity chemical used in diverse industries and holds a growing global market demand. Recently, lignocellulosic waste biomass is preferred for LA bio-production because of its non-edible and inexpensive nature. However, the information about new pretreatment methods for lignocellulosic feedstock, and novel strains capable to produce LA through fermentation is limited. Therefore, this review highlights the advancement of pretreatments methods of lignocellulosic biomass and biotransformation. Herein, we first briefly explored the main sources of lignocellulosic waste biomass, then we explored their latest advances in pretreatment processes particularly supercritical fluid extraction, and microwave-assisted extraction. Approaches for bioconversion were also analyzed, such as consolidated bioprocessing (CBP), simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF), separate hydrolysis fermentation (SHF), among other alternatives. Also, new trends and approaches were documented, such as metagenomics to find novel strains of microorganisms and the use of recombinant strategies for the creation of new strains. Finally, we developed a holistic and sustainable perspective based on novel microbial ecology tools such as next-gen sequencing, bioinformatics, and metagenomics. All these shed light on the needs to culture powerful microbial isolates, co-cultures, and mixed consortia to improve fermentation processes with the aim of optimizing cultures and feedstock pretreatments.

Advances in sustainable approaches utilizing orange peel waste to produce highly value-added bioproducts

Orange peel waste (OPW), a discarded part of orange fruit, is a rich source of essential constituents that can be transformed into highly value-added bioproducts. OPW is being generated in million tonnes globally and returns to the environment without complete benefit. Thus, a high volume of annually produced OPW in the industry requires effective valorization. In this regard, limited data is available that summarizes the broader spectrum for the sustainable fate of OPW to produce value-added bioproducts. The main objective of this treatise is to explore the sustainable production of bioproducts from OPW. Therefore, this review covers all the aspects of OPW, from its production to complete valorization. The review encompasses the extraction technologies employed for extracting different valuable bioactive compounds, such as: essential oil (EO), pectin, and carotenoids, from OPW. Furthermore, the suitability of bioconversion technologies (digestion/fermentation) in transforming OPW to other useful bioproducts, such as: biochemicals (lactic acid and succinic acid), biopolysaccharides (xanthan and curdlan gum), and bioenergy (biomethane and bioethanol) is discussed. Also, it includes the concept of OPW-based biorefineries and their development that shall play a definite role in future to cover demands for: food, chemicals, materials, fuels, power, and heat. Lastly, this review focuses on OPW-supplemented functional food products such as: beverages, yogurts, and extruded products. In conclusion, insights provided in this review maximize the potential of OPW for commercial purposes, leading to a safe, and waste-free environment.

Revisiting the production of L( +)-lactic acid from vine shoots: bioconversion improvements by employing thermotolerant bacteria

Vine shoots (Vitis vinifera L.) constitute an abundant lignocellulosic source which is frequently underutilised. Alkaline and acidic pretreatments (with and without washing steps) were compared and optimised to release fermentable sugars from vine shoots. An acidic pretreatment using 1.72% H₂SO₄ at 134 °C for 17 min (with 10% w/w solid biomass), followed by an enzymatic hydrolysis, offered the most cost-effective results, releasing 40.21 g/L sugars. Three thermotolerant strains, namely, Bacillus coagulans DSM 2314, Geobacillus stearothermophilus DSM 2313, and G. stearothermophilus DSM 494, were assessed to produce lactic acid from vine-shoot hydrolysates under aerobic and non-sterile conditions, without the need of detoxification steps. In addition, wine lees were satisfactorily employed as nitrogen sources for the fermentation, providing similar results to yeast extract and being the only nutrient added to vine-shoot hydrolysates. Under optimal conditions, B. coagulans DSM 2314 produced 29.21 ± 0.23 g/L lactic acid in 24 h, with a sugar consumption of 98.74 ± 0.07% and a yield of 96.38 ± 0.76%, when supplemented with red wine lees. The purity of the isomer L( +) reached 97.59 ± 1.35% of the total lactic acid produced. Although G. stearothermophilus was able to transform the hexoses from vine-shoot hydrolysates into lactic acid, it proved to be inefficient for metabolising pentoses, thus obtaining lower lactic acid values (16-18 g/L).

Challenges and opportunities for the production of lactic acid bacteria inoculants aimed for ensiling processes

The use of bacterial inoculants for ensiling based on lactic acid bacteria (LAB) to obtain conserved forages has become an alternative for the improvement of milk and meat productivity in cattle, specifically by optimizing the nutritional and microbial quality of animal feed. LAB inoculant production involves microbial and technological aspects such as biomass obtention, the use of cocultures, the inclusion of probiotics, the production of antimicrobial peptides, operational methods used in bioreactors, and the formulation of the end product to be commercialized to farmers. This review explores the technical aspects of the manufacture of bacterial inoculants, from the main features desired in LAB for ensiling purposes to the alternatives of the bioprocess involved.

Double Hydrogen Bonding Dimerization Propensity of Aqueous Hydroxy Acids Investigated Using Vibrational Optical Activity

Lactic and malic acids are key substances in a number of biochemical processes in living cells and are also utilized in industry. Vibrational spectroscopy represents an efficient and sensitive way to study their structure and interactions. Since water is the natural environment, proper understanding of their molecular dynamics in aqueous solutions is of critical importance. To this end, we employed Raman spectroscopy and Raman optical activity (ROA) to study the conformation of l-lactic and l-malic acids in water (while varying pH, temperature, and concentration), with special emphasis on their double hydrogen bonding dimerization propensity. Raman and ROA experimental data were supported by extensive theoretical calculations of the vibrational properties and by additional experiments (IR absorption, vibrational circular dichroism, and NMR). Conformational behavior of the acids in water was described by molecular dynamics simulations. Reliability of the results was verified by calculating the vibrational properties of populated conformers and by comparing thus obtained spectral features with the experimental data. Calculations estimated the incidence of H-bonded dimers in water to be low in lactic acid and comparable to monomers in malic acid. The "hybrid" approach presented here reveals limitations of relying on the experimental spectra alone to study dimer formation.

The Food-Materials Nexus: Next Generation Bioplastics and Advanced Materials from Agri-Food Residues

The most recent strategies available for upcycling agri-food losses and waste (FLW) into functional bioplastics and advanced materials are reviewed and the valorization of food residuals are put in perspective, adding to the water-food-energy nexus. Low value or underutilized biomass, biocolloids, water-soluble biopolymers, polymerizable monomers, and nutrients are introduced as feasible building blocks for biotechnological conversion into bioplastics. The latter are demonstrated for their incorporation in multifunctional packaging, biomedical devices, sensors, actuators, and energy conversion and storage devices, contributing to the valorization efforts within the future circular bioeconomy. Strategies are introduced to effectively synthesize, deconstruct and reassemble or engineer FLW-derived monomeric, polymeric, and colloidal building blocks. Multifunctional bioplastics are introduced considering the structural, chemical, physical as well as the accessibility of FLW precursors. Processing techniques are analyzed within the fields of polymer chemistry and physics. The prospects of FLW streams and biomass surplus, considering their availability, interactions with water and thermal stability, are critically discussed in a near-future scenario that is expected to lead to next-generation bioplastics and advanced materials.

Use of glycerol waste in lactic acid bacteria metabolism for the production of lactic acid: State of the art in Poland

Lactic acid is a naturally existing organic acid, which may be used in many different branches of industrial application. It can be made in the sugar fermentation process from renewable raw lactic acid, which is an indispensable raw material, including in the agricultural, food, and pharmaceutical industries. It is an ecological product that has enjoyed great popularity in recent years. In 2010, the US Department of Energy published a report about lactic acid to be a potential building element for future technology, whose demand grows year by year. The lactic acid molecule naturally exists in plants, microorganisms, and animals and can also be produced by carbohydrate fermentation or chemical synthesis from coal, petroleum products, and natural gas. In industry, lactic acid can be produced by chemical synthesis or fermentation. Although racemic lactic acid is always produced chemically from petrochemical sources, the optically pure L(+) – or D(−) – lactic acid forms can be obtained by microbial fermentation of renewable resources when an appropriate microorganism is selected. Depending on the application, one form of optically pure LA is preferred over the other. Additionally, microbial fermentation offers benefits including cheap renewable substrates, low production temperatures, and low energy consumption. Due to these advantages, the most commonly used biotechnological production process with the use of biocatalysts, i.e., lactic acid bacteria. The cost of raw materials is one of the major factors in the economic production of lactic acid. As substrate costs cannot be reduced by scaling up the process, extensive research is currently underway to find new substrates for the production of LA. These searches include starch raw materials, lignocellulosic biomass, as well as waste from the food and refining industries. Here, the greatest attention is still drawn to molasses and whey as the largest sources of lactose, vitamins, and carbohydrates, as well as glycerol – a by-product of the biodiesel component production process. Focusing on the importance of lactic acid and its subsequent use as a product, but also a valuable raw material for polymerization (exactly to PLA), this review summarizes information about the properties and applications of lactic acid, as well as about its production and purification processes. An industrial installation for the production of lactic acid is only planned to be launched in Poland. As of today, there is no commercial-scale production of this bio-raw material. Thus, there is great potential for the application of the lactic acid production technology and research should be carried out on its development.

Binary Green Blends of Poly(lactic acid) with Poly(butylene adipate-co-butylene terephthalate) and Poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene adipate) and Their Nanocomposites

Poly(lactic acid) (PLA) is the most widely produced biobased, biodegradable and biocompatible polyester. Despite many of its properties are similar to those of common petroleum-based polymers, some drawbacks limit its utilization, especially high brittleness and low toughness. To overcome these problems and improve the ductility and the impact resistance, PLA is often blended with other biobased and biodegradable polymers. For this purpose, poly(butylene adipate-co-butylene terephthalate) (PBAT) and poly(butylene succinate-co-butylene adipate) (PBSA) are very advantageous copolymers, because their toughness and elongation at break are complementary to those of PLA. Similar to PLA, both these copolymers are biodegradable and can be produced from annual renewable resources. This literature review aims to collect results on the mechanical, thermal and morphological properties of PLA/PBAT and PLA/PBSA blends, as binary blends with and without addition of coupling agents. The effect of different compatibilizers on the PLA/PBAT and PLA/PBSA blends properties is here elucidated, to highlight how the PLA toughness and ductility can be improved and tuned by using appropriate additives. In addition, the incorporation of solid nanoparticles to the PLA/PBAT and PLA/PBSA blends is discussed in detail, to demonstrate how the nanofillers can act as morphology stabilizers, and so improve the properties of these PLA-based formulations, especially mechanical performance, thermal stability and gas/vapor barrier properties. Key points about the biodegradation of the blends and the nanocomposites are presented, together with current applications of these novel green materials.

Use of Corn-Steep Water Effluent as a Promising Substrate for Lactic Acid Production by Enterococcus faecium Strain WH51-1

Various challenges facing the industrial production of bio-based lactic acid (LA) such as cost of raw materials and nitrogen sources, as well as contamination risk by mesophilic and neutrophilic producers, should be overcome for the commercial production. This study aimed to investigate the feasibility of corn steep water (CSW) as a raw material for LA production using a newly thermo-alkali-tolerant lactic acid bacterium. The physicochemical characteristics of CSW were investigated. The high carbohydrates, proteins, amino acids, vitamins, essential elements, minerals, and non-protein nitrogenous compounds content confirmed that the CSW is a promising substrate for LA production. Out of 67 bacterial isolates, Enterococcus faecium WH51-1 was selected based on its tolerance to high temperatures and inhibitory compounds (sodium metabisulfate, sodium chloride, sodium acetate, and formic acid). Fermentation factors including sugar concentration, temperature, inoculum size, and neutralizing agents were optimized for LA production. Lactic acid concentration of about 44.6 g/L with a high yield (0.89 ± 0.02 g/g) was obtained using 60 g/L of CSW sugar, inoculum size 10% (v/v), 45 °C, and sodium hydroxide or calcium carbonate as a neutralizing agent. These results demonstrated the potential of strain WH51-1 for LA production using CSW effluent as raw material.

Assessing the potential of waste activated sludge and food waste co-fermentation for carboxylic acids production

This study investigated waste activated sludge (WAS) and food waste (FW) co-fermentation in batch assays to produce carboxylic acids. Three mixtures (50%, 70% and 90% WAS in VS basis) were studied under different conditions: with and without extra alkalinity, and with and without WAS auto-hydrolysis pre-treatment. All tests were carried out at 35 °C, without pH adjustment and without external inoculum. Experimental results showed that co-fermentation yields, including volatile fatty acids and lactic acid, were always higher than WAS and FW mono-fermentation yields (ca. 100 and 80 mgCOD/gVS, respectively). Co-fermentation yields increased as the proportion of FW in the mixture increased, indicating that the improvement was primarily due to a higher FW degradation under co-fermentation conditions. The maximum co-fermentation yield was on average 480 mgCOD/gVS for the WAS/FW_50/50 mixture. The importance of pH on co-fermentation performance was evident in the experiments carried out with extra alkalinity, which showed that the proportion of WAS in the mixture should be high enough to keep the pH above 5.0. However, fermenters operational conditions should also prevent the enrichment of acetic acid consuming microorganisms. WAS auto-hydrolysis pre-treatment did not enhance co-fermentation yields but showed minor kinetic improvements. Regarding the product profile, butyric acid was enriched as the proportion of FW in the mixture increased and the concomitant pH decreased to the detriment of propionic acid. Propionic acid prevailed under neutral pH in the WAS mono-fermentation and the WAS/FW_90/10 mixture.

Potential of Waste Biomass from the Sugar Industry as a Source of Furfural and Its Derivatives for Use as Fuel Additives in Poland

Poland is one of the leading producers of sugar from sugar beet in Europe. However, the production of sugar generates large amounts of lignocellulosic waste, in the form of beet pulp and leaves. Currently, this waste is not reutilized in the chemical industry, but is only used as food for farm animals. This paper assesses the potential of using bio-waste from the sugar industry as a raw material for the production of furfurals via acid hydrolysis. Further processing of furfural into derivatives such as furfuryl alcohol (FA) or tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol (THFA) could increase the economic profitability of the initiative. Furfuryl alcohol can be used as a fuel additive in sugar factories. Tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol can be used as a component in agricultural fertilizers, increasing the yield of sugar beet. This approach reduces the amount of post-production waste and brings the sugar industry closer to the concept of a circular economy.

Transcriptome profile of carbon catabolite repression in an efficient l-(+)-lactic acid-producing bacterium Enterococcus mundtii QU25 grown in media with combinations of cellobiose, xylose, and glucose

Enterococcus mundtii QU25, a non-dairy lactic acid bacterium of the phylum Firmicutes, is capable of simultaneously fermenting cellobiose and xylose, and is described as a promising strain for the industrial production of optically pure l-lactic acid (≥ 99.9%) via homo-fermentation of lignocellulosic hydrolysates. Generally, Firmicutes bacteria show preferential consumption of sugar (usually glucose), termed carbon catabolite repression (CCR), while hampering the catabolism of other sugars. In our previous study, QU25 exhibited apparent CCR in a glucose-xylose mixture phenotypically, and transcriptional repression of the xylose operon encoding initial xylose metabolism genes, likely occurred in a CcpA-dependent manner. QU25 did not exhibit CCR phenotypically in a cellobiose-xylose mixture. The aim of the current study is to elucidate the transcriptional change associated with the simultaneous utilization of cellobiose and xylose. To this end, we performed RNA-seq analysis in the exponential growth phase of E. mundtii QU25 cells grown in glucose, cellobiose, and/or xylose as either sole or co-carbon sources. Our transcriptomic data showed that the xylose operon was weakly repressed in cells grown in a cellobiose-xylose mixture compared with that in cells grown in a glucose-xylose mixture. Furthermore, the gene expression of talC, the sole gene encoding transaldolase, is expected to be repressed by CcpA-mediated CCR. QU25 metabolized xylose without using transaldolase, which is necessary for homolactic fermentation from pentoses using the pentose-phosphate pathway. Hence, the metabolism of xylose in the presence of cellobiose by QU25 may have been due to 1) sufficient amounts of proteins encoded by the xylose operon genes for xylose metabolism despite of the slight repression of the operon, and 2) bypassing of the pentose-phosphate pathway without the TalC activity. Accordingly, we have determined the targets of genetic modification in QU25 to metabolize cellobiose, xylose and glucose simultaneously for application of the lactic fermentation from lignocellulosic hydrolysates.

Resource allocation explains lactic acid production in mixed-culture anaerobic fermentations

Lactate production in anaerobic carbohydrate fermentations with mixed cultures of microorganisms is generally observed only in very specific conditions: the reactor should be run discontinuously and peptides and B vitamins must be present in the culture medium as lactic acid bacteria (LAB) are typically auxotrophic for amino acids. State-of-the-art anaerobic fermentation models assume that microorganisms optimise the adenosine triphosphate (ATP) yield on substrate and therefore they do not predict the less ATP efficient lactate production, which limits their application for designing lactate production in mixed-culture fermentations. In this study, a metabolic model taking into account cellular resource allocation and limitation is proposed to predict and analyse under which conditions lactate production from glucose can be beneficial for microorganisms. The model uses a flux balances analysis approach incorporating additional constraints from the resource allocation theory and simulates glucose fermentation in a continuous reactor. This approach predicts lactate production is predicted at high dilution rates, provided that amino acids are in the culture medium. In minimal medium and lower dilution rates, mostly butyrate and no lactate is predicted. Auxotrophy for amino acids of LAB is identified to provide a competitive advantage in rich media because less resources need to be allocated for anabolic machinery and higher specific growth rates can be achieved. The Matlab™ codes required for performing the simulations presented in this study are available at https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.4031144.

Hydrolyzed Agricultural Residues—Low-Cost Nutrient Sources for l-Lactic Acid Production

Lactic acid is a building block for polylactic acid, which is one of the most promising polymers based on renewable resources and is used mainly in packaging industry. This bio-based polymer is biodegradable and provides an ecological and economical alternative to petrochemical plastics. The largest cost blocks of biotechnological lactic acid production, accounting for up to 38% of the total costs, are substrate and nutrient sources, such as peptone, meat, and yeast extract. Based on a systematic analysis of nutritional requirements, the substitution of yeast extract by low-cost protein-rich agricultural hydrolysates was estimated for the production of l-lactic acid with Lactobacillus casei. Cultivations in 24-well microtiter plates enabled analysis of nutrient requirements and the usage of various hydrolysates with a high parallel throughput and repeated sampling. Rapeseed meal (RM) and distillers’ dried grains with solubles (DDGS) were tested as low-cost protein-rich agricultural residues. By using chemically or enzymatically hydrolyzed rapeseed meal or DDGS, 70% of the nutrient sources was replaced in the fermentation process at identical productivity and product yields. All in all, the total costs of l-lactic acid production with Lactobacillus casei could potentially be reduced by up to 23%.

Kinetics and modeling of growth and lactic acid production in Gundruk, a Himalayan fermented vegetable dish

Gundruk is a fermented green leafy vegetable product prepared from fresh leaves of local vegetables called Rayo-sag (Brassica campestris), mustard (Brassica juncea), and cauliflower (Brassica oleracea) indigenous to the Nepali people. Fresh gundruk was prepared in a glass jar by fermenting the Brassica juncea leaves anaerobically for 16 days and the changes in biomass, lactic acid, and pH were evaluated after every 24 hr. The viable cell count increased from 6.03 × 104 cfu/g to 9.55 × 108 cfu/g after 3 days and then decreased gradually to remain constant after 8 days with 6.31 × 107 cfu/g until the end of fermentation. The lactic acid increased by about 12.58 times in 12 days and remained constant for the rest of the fermentation period. Unlike this, pH decreased from 6.59 to 3.71 on the 9th day of fermentation and then increased slightly till the last day of fermentation. The data obtained were fitted to two most widely accepted microbial growth models: Modified Gompertz, and Logistic model and three well-known lactic acid production models: Luedeking- Piret, Monteagudo et al., and Balannec et al. model for lactic acid fermentation. Based on nonlinear regression analysis, Modified Gompertz, and Monteagudo et al. model gave a better fit to describe microbial growth and lactic acid production, respectively. The growth-associated and non-growth-associated coefficients were determined to be 0.1104 and 0.0042, respectively, using Monteagudo et al. model. The findings revealed that lactic acid production in gundruk is a mixed type.

Improvement of Polymer Grade L-Lactic Acid Production Using Lactobacillus rhamnosus SCJ9 from Low-Grade Cassava Chips by Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation

The present study aims to examine the process for L-lactic acid production from low-grade cassava chips (LGC) using a two-step fermentation approach (TSF) and simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) by proficient, newly isolated Lactobacillus rhamnosus strain SCJ9. The optimized medium composition revealed by response surface methodology for TSF was 166 g/L LGC hydrolysate and 20 g/L yeast extract (YE), while other medium components were fixed (g/L) as follows: tween80 (2.0), (NH4)2HPO4 (2.0), CH3COONa∙3H2O (6.0), (NH4)2HC6H5O7 (2.0), MgSO4∙7H2O (0.5), and MnSO4∙H2O (0.3). Based on the optimization conditions, the maximum experimental L-lactic acid of 134.6 g/L was achieved at 60 h fermentation time with a production efficiency of 89.73%, 0.95 g/g yield and 2.24 g/L/h productivity. In contrast, L-lactic acid production by SSF under optimized concentrations of thermostable-α-amylase (AA) and glucoamylase (GA) gave maximum L-lactic acid of 125.79 g/L at only 36 h fermentation time which calculated to the production efficiency, yield and productivity of 83.86%, 0.93 g/g and 3.49 g/L/h, respectively. The L-lactic acid production obtained from SSF was significantly improved when compared to TSF based on lower enzyme loading usage, shorter hydrolysis time and increase in production efficiency and productivity. Furthermore, there were no significant differences in the production by SSF between experiments conducted in laboratory bottle and 10-L fermenter. The results indicated the success of up-scaling for L-lactic acid production by SSF which could be developed for a further pilot-scale production of L-lactic acid.

Design of Bio-Conjugated Hydrogels for Regenerative Medicine Applications: From Polymer Scaffold to Biomolecule Choice

Bio-conjugated hydrogels merge the functionality of a synthetic network with the activity of a biomolecule, becoming thus an interesting class of materials for a variety of biomedical applications. This combination allows the fine tuning of their functionality and activity, whilst retaining biocompatibility, responsivity and displaying tunable chemical and mechanical properties. A complex scenario of molecular factors and conditions have to be taken into account to ensure the correct functionality of the bio-hydrogel as a scaffold or a delivery system, including the polymer backbone and biomolecule choice, polymerization conditions, architecture and biocompatibility. In this review, we present these key factors and conditions that have to match together to ensure the correct functionality of the bio-conjugated hydrogel. We then present recent examples of bio-conjugated hydrogel systems paving the way for regenerative medicine applications.

Exploring the additive bio-agent impacts upon ectoine production by Halomonas salina DSM5928T using corn steep liquor and soybean hydrolysate as nutrient supplement

Ectoine production using inexpensive and renewable biomass resources has attracted great interest among the researchers due to the low yields of ectoine in current fermentation approaches that complicate the large-scale production of ectoine. In this study, ectoine was produced from corn steep liquor (CSL) and soybean hydrolysate (SH) in replacement to yeast extract as the nitrogen sources for the fermentation process. To enhance the bacterial growth and ectoine production, biotin was added to the Halomonas salina fermentation media. In addition, the effects addition of surfactants such as Tween 80 and saponin on the ectoine production were also investigated. Results showed that both the CSL and SH can be used as the nitrogen source substitutes in the fermentation media. Higher amount of ectoine (1781.9 mg L-1) was produced in shake flask culture with SH-containing media as compared to CSL-containing media. A total of 2537.0 mg L-1 of ectoine was produced at pH 7 when SH-containing media was applied in the 2 L batch fermentation. Moreover, highest amount of ectoine (1802.0 mg L-1) was recorded in the SH-containing shake flask culture with addition of 0.2 μm mL-1 biotin. This study demonstrated the efficacy of industrial waste as the nutrient supplement for the fermentation of ectoine production.

Dynamic simulation of continuous mixed sugar fermentation with increasing cell retention time for lactic acid production using Enterococcus mundtii QU 25

BACKGROUND

The simultaneous and effective conversion of both pentose and hexose in fermentation is a critical and challenging task toward the lignocellulosic economy. This study aims to investigate the feasibility of an innovative co-fermentation process featuring with a cell recycling unit (CF/CR) for mixed sugar utilization. A l-lactic acid-producing strain Enterococcus mundtii QU 25 was applied in the continuous fermentation process, and the mixed sugars were utilized at different productivities after the flowing conditions were changed. A mathematical model was constructed with the experiments to optimize the biological process and clarify the cell metabolism through kinetics analysis. The structured model, kinetic parameters, and achievement of the fermentation strategy shall provide new insights toward whole sugar fermentation via real-time monitoring for process control and optimization.

RESULTS

Significant carbon catabolite repression in co-fermentation using a glucose/xylose mixture was overcome by replacing glucose with cellobiose, and the ratio of consumed pentose to consumed hexose increased significantly from 0.096 to 0.461 by mass. An outstanding product concentration of 65.2 g L^-1 and productivity of 13.03 g L^-1 h^-1 were achieved with 50 g L^-1 cellobiose and 30 g L^-1 xylose at an optimized dilution rate of 0.2 h^-1, and the cell retention time gradually increased. Among the total lactic acid production, xylose contributed to more than 34% of the mixed sugars, which was close to the related contents in agricultural residuals. The model successfully simulated the transition of sugar consumption, cell growth, and lactic acid production among the batch, continuous process, and CF/CR systems.

CONCLUSION

Cell retention time played a critical role in balancing pentose and hexose consumption, cell decay, and lactic acid production in the CF/CR process. With increasing cell concentration, consumption of mixed sugars increased with the productivity of the final product; hence, the impact of substrate inhibition was reduced. With the validated parameters, the model showed the highest accuracy simulating the CF/CR process, and significantly longer cell retention times compared to hydraulic retention time were tested.

Feasibility of exhausted sugar beet pulp as raw material for lactic acid production

BACKGROUND

Exhausted sugar beet pulp pellets (ESBPP), a sugar industry by-product generated after sugar extraction in the sugar production process, have been used as a raw material for lactic acid (LA) production via hydrolysis and fermentation by Lactobacillus casei. To design a more cost-effective process, simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (SSF) of ESBPP is proposed in the present study. The effects of pH control, nutrient supplementation and solid addition in fed-batch SSF on lactic acid production were investigated.

RESULTS

The highest LA concentration (26.88 g L^-1 ) was reached in fed-batch SSF at a solid/liquid loading of 0.2 g mL^-1 , with pH control (by adding 30 g L^-1 CaCO₃ to the medium) and nutrient supplementation (by adding 20 mL of MRS medium per 100 mL of buffer). Under these conditions, a maximum productivity of 0.63 g L^-1 h^-1 was achieved, which is 2.7 times higher than that attained in the control experiment (SSF inoculated at time 0 h). However, a slightly lower LA yield was obtained, revealing the need of an increasing dose of enzymes at high solid loading SSF.

CONCLUSION

An efficient fed-batch SSF strategy with pH control and MRS supplementation is described in the present study, attaining higher LA productivity compared to separate hydrolysis and fermentation and SSF. © 2020 Society of Chemical Industry.

A Simple Biorefinery Concept to Produce 2G-Lactic Acid from Sugar Beet Pulp (SBP): A High-Value Target Approach to Valorize a Waste Stream

Lactic acid is a high-value molecule with a vast number of applications. Its production in the biorefineries model is a possibility for this sector to aggregate value to its production chain. Thus, this investigation presents a biorefinery model based on the traditional sugar beet industry proposing an approach to produce lactic acid from a waste stream. Sugar beet is used to produce sugar and ethanol, and the remaining pulp is sent to animal feed. Using Bacillus coagulans in a continuous fermentation, 2781.01 g of lactic acid was produced from 3916.91 g of sugars from hydrolyzed sugar beet pulp, with a maximum productivity of 18.06 g L-1h-1. Without interfering in the sugar production, ethanol, or lactic acid, it is also possible to produce pectin and phenolic compounds in the biorefinery. The lactic acid produced was purified by a bipolar membrane electrodialysis and the recovery reached 788.80 g/L with 98% w/w purity.

Lactobacillus brevis CD2: Fermentation Strategies and Extracellular Metabolites Characterization

Functional foods and nutraceuticals frequently contain viable probiotic strains that, at certain titers, are considered to be responsible of beneficial effects on health. Recently, it was observed that secreted metabolites might play a key role in this respect, especially in immunomodulation. Exopolysaccharides produced by probiotics, for example, are used in the food, pharmaceutical, and biomedical fields, due to their unique properties. Lactobacillus brevis CD2 demonstrated the ability to inhibit oral pathogens causing mucositis and periodontal inflammation and to reduce Helycobacter pylori infections. Due to the lack of literature, for this strain, on the development of fermentation processes that can increase the titer of viable cells and associated metabolites to industrially attractive levels, different batch and fed-batch strategies were investigated in the present study. In particular, aeration was shown to improve the growth rate and the yields of lactic acid and biomass in batch cultures. The use of an exponential feeding profile in fed-batch experiments allowed to produce 9.3 ± 0.45 × 10⁹ CFU/mL in 42 h of growth, corresponding to a 20-fold increase of viable cells compared with that obtained in aerated batch processes; moreover, also increased titers of exopolysaccharides and lactic acid (260 and 150%, respectively) were observed. A purification process based on ultrafiltration, charcoal treatment, and solvent precipitation was applied to partially purify secreted metabolites and separate them into two molecular weight fractions (above and below 10 kDa). Both fractions inhibited growth of the known gut pathogen, Salmonella typhimurium, demonstrating that lactic acid plays a major role in pathogen growth inhibition, which is however further enhanced by the presence of Lact. brevis CD2 exopolysaccharides. Finally, the EPS produced from Lact. brevis CD2 was characterized by NMR for the first time up to date.