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Xu C, Tong S, Sun L, Gu X. Cellulase immobilization to enhance enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass: An all-inclusive review. Carbohydr Polym 2023; 321:121319. [PMID: 37739542 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2023.121319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2023] [Revised: 08/15/2023] [Accepted: 08/20/2023] [Indexed: 09/24/2023]
Abstract
Cellulase-mediated lignocellulosic biorefinery plays a crucial role in the production of high-value biofuels and chemicals, with enzymatic hydrolysis being an essential component. The advent of cellulase immobilization has revolutionized this process, significantly enhancing the efficiency, stability, and reusability of cellulase enzymes. This review offers a thorough analysis of the fundamental principles underlying immobilization, encompassing various immobilization approaches such as physical adsorption, covalent binding, entrapment, and cross-linking. Furthermore, it explores a diverse range of carrier materials, including inorganic, organic, and hybrid/composite materials. The review also focuses on emerging approaches like multi-enzyme co-immobilization, oriented immobilization, immobilized enzyme microreactors, and enzyme engineering for immobilization. Additionally, it delves into novel carrier technologies like 3D printing carriers, stimuli-responsive carriers, artificial cellulosomes, and biomimetic carriers. Moreover, the review addresses recent obstacles in cellulase immobilization, including molecular-level immobilization mechanism, diffusion limitations, loss of cellulase activity, cellulase leaching, and considerations of cost-effectiveness and scalability. The knowledge derived from this review is anticipated to catalyze the evolution of more efficient and sustainable biocatalytic systems for lignocellulosic biomass conversion, representing the current state-of-the-art in cellulase immobilization techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chaozhong Xu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China.
| | - Shanshan Tong
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Liqun Sun
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China
| | - Xiaoli Gu
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing 210037, PR China.
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Costa IO, Morais JRF, de Medeiros Dantas JM, Gonçalves LRB, Dos Santos ES, Rios NS. Enzyme immobilization technology as a tool to innovate in the production of biofuels: A special review of the Cross-Linked Enzyme Aggregates (CLEAs) strategy. Enzyme Microb Technol 2023; 170:110300. [PMID: 37523882 DOI: 10.1016/j.enzmictec.2023.110300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2023] [Revised: 07/19/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
This review emphasizes the crucial role of enzyme immobilization technology in advancing the production of two main biofuels, ethanol and biodiesel, with a specific focus on the Cross-linked Enzyme Aggregates (CLEAs) strategy. This method of immobilization has gained attention due to its simplicity and affordability, as it does not initially require a solid support. CLEAs synthesis protocol includes two steps: enzyme precipitation and cross-linking of aggregates using bifunctional agents. We conducted a thorough search for papers detailing the synthesis of CLEAs utilizing amylases, cellulases, and hemicellulases. These key enzymes are involved in breaking down starch or lignocellulosic materials to produce ethanol, both in first and second-generation processes. CLEAs of lipases were included as these enzymes play a crucial role in the enzymatic process of biodiesel production. However, when dealing with large or diverse substrates such as lignocellulosic materials for ethanol production and oils/fats for biodiesel production, the use of individual enzymes may not be the most efficient method. Instead, a system that utilizes a blend of enzymes may prove to be more effective. To innovate in the production of biofuels (ethanol and biodiesel), enzyme co-immobilization using different enzyme species to produce Combi-CLEAs is a promising trend.
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Affiliation(s)
- Isabela Oliveira Costa
- Departamento de Engenharia Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Nathália Saraiva Rios
- Departamento de Engenharia Química, Universidade Federal do Rio Grande do Norte, Natal, RN, Brazil.
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Bhati N, Shreya, Sharma AK. Strain improvement of Aspergillus uvarum CBS 121591 for improved production of cellulase and its immobilization on calcium alginate beads. Biologia (Bratisl) 2023. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-023-01354-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
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Ifko D, Vasić K, Knez Ž, Leitgeb M. (Magnetic) Cross-Linked Enzyme Aggregates of Cellulase from T. reesei: A Stable and Efficient Biocatalyst. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28031305. [PMID: 36770972 PMCID: PMC9919482 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28031305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/28/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Cross-linked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs) represent an effective tool for carrier-free immobilization of enzymes. The present study promotes a successful application of functionalized magnetic nanoparticles (MNPs) for stabilization of cellulase CLEAs. Catalytically active CLEAs and magnetic cross-linked enzyme aggregates (mCLEAs) of cellulase from Trichoderma reesei were prepared using glutaraldehyde (GA) as a cross-linking agent and the catalytic activity and stability of the CLEAs/mCLEAs were investigated. The influence of precipitation agents, cross-linker concentration, concentration of enzyme, addition of bovine serum albumin (BSA), and addition of sodium cyanoborohydride (NaBH3CN) on expressed activity and immobilization yield of CLEAs/mCLEAs was studied. Particularly, reducing the unsaturated Schiff's base to form irreversible linkages is important and improved the activity of CLEAs (86%) and mCLEAs (91%). For increased applicability of CLEAs/mCLEAs, we enhanced the activity and stability at mild biochemical process conditions. The reusability after 10 cycles of both CLEAs and mCLEAs was investigated, which retained 72% and 65% of the initial activity, respectively. The thermal stability of CLEAs and mCLEAs in comparison with the non-immobilized enzyme was obtained at 30 °C (145.65% and 188.7%, respectively) and 50 °C (185.1% and 141.4%, respectively). Kinetic parameters were determined for CLEAs and mCLEAs, and the KM constant was found at 0.055 ± 0.0102 mM and 0.037 ± 0.0012 mM, respectively. The maximum velocity rate (Vmax) was calculated as 1.12 ± 0.0012 µmol/min for CLEA and 1.17 ± 0.0023 µmol/min for mCLEA. Structural characterization was studied using XRD, SEM, and FT-IR. Catalytical properties of immobilized enzyme were improved with the addition of reducent NaBH3CN by enhancing the activity of CLEAs and with addition of functionalized aminosilane MNPs by enhancing the activity of mCLEAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dušica Ifko
- Laboratory for Separation Processes and Product Design, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova Ulica 17, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Katja Vasić
- Laboratory for Separation Processes and Product Design, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova Ulica 17, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
- Laboratory for Applied Electromagnetics, Faculty of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Institute of Electrical Power Engineering, University of Maribor, Koroška Cesta 46, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Željko Knez
- Laboratory for Separation Processes and Product Design, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova Ulica 17, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Taborska Ulica 8, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Maja Leitgeb
- Laboratory for Separation Processes and Product Design, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Smetanova Ulica 17, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Taborska Ulica 8, SI-2000 Maribor, Slovenia
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +386-2-2294-462
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Khatik AG, Jain AK, Muley AB. Preparation, characterization and stability of cross linked nitrilase aggregates (nitrilase-CLEAs) for hydroxylation of 2-chloroisonicotinonitrile to 2-chloroisonicotinic acid. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2022; 45:1559-1579. [PMID: 35962826 DOI: 10.1007/s00449-022-02766-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Nitrilases capable of performing hydroxylation of 2-chloroisonicotinonitrile to 2-chloroisonicotinic acid were screened, and ES-NIT-102 was the best nitrilase for said biotransformation. Nitrilase was immobilized as cross linked enzyme aggregates (nitrilase-CLEAs) by fractional precipitation with iso-propanol, and cross linked with glutaraldehyde. The nitrilase-CLEAs prepared with optimized 35 mM glutaraldehyde for 120 min cross linking time had 82.36 ± 4.45% residual activity, and displayed type-II structural CLEAs formation as confirmed by particle size, SEM, FTIR, and SDS-PAGE analysis. Nitrilase-CLEAs had superior pH and temperature stability, showed a shift in optimal temperature by 5 °C, and retained nearly 1.5 to 1.7 folds activity over free nitrilase at 50 °C and 55 °C after more than 9 h incubation. Nitrilase-CLEAs showed reduced affinity and decreased conversion of substrate as indicated by slightly higher Km values by 5.19% and reduced Vmax by 17%. Furthermore, these nitrilase-CLEAs showed 98% conversion, 94.72 g/L product formation, and 83.30% recovery after 24 h when used for hydroxylation of 2-chloroisonicotinonitrile to 2-chloroisonicotinic acid. Nitrilase-CLEAs were catalytically active for 3 cycles showcasing 81% conversion, 75.53 g/L product formation and 66.42% yield. The recovered product was confirmed by HPLC, FTIR, LC-MS, and 1H NMR, and displayed > 99% purity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amol Gulab Khatik
- School of Basic & Applied Sciences, Galgotias University, Gautam Buddh Nagar, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, 201310, India.
| | - Arvind Kumar Jain
- School of Basic & Applied Sciences, Galgotias University, Gautam Buddh Nagar, Greater Noida, Uttar Pradesh, 201310, India
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Yan H, Shi B, Ding J, Zhu H, Li X, Qian J. Preparation and characterization of a nontoxic cross‐linked lipase aggregate by using sodium tripolyphosphate and chitosan. J Appl Polym Sci 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/app.51871] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hongde Yan
- College of Pharmaceutical Science Zhejiang University of Technology Hangzhou Zhejiang China
| | - Bobo Shi
- College of Pharmaceutical Science Zhejiang University of Technology Hangzhou Zhejiang China
| | - Jing Ding
- College of Pharmaceutical Science Zhejiang University of Technology Hangzhou Zhejiang China
| | - Hanxiao Zhu
- College of Pharmaceutical Science Zhejiang University of Technology Hangzhou Zhejiang China
| | - Xinchen Li
- College of Pharmaceutical Science Zhejiang University of Technology Hangzhou Zhejiang China
| | - Junqing Qian
- College of Pharmaceutical Science Zhejiang University of Technology Hangzhou Zhejiang China
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Hojnik Podrepšek G, Knez Ž, Leitgeb M. The Synthesis of (Magnetic) Crosslinked Enzyme Aggregates With Laccase, Cellulase, β-Galactosidase and Transglutaminase. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2022; 10:813919. [PMID: 35309987 PMCID: PMC8927696 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2022.813919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Immobilized enzymes have important aspects due to the fact that they possess higher stability, have the possibility to be easily removed from the reaction mixture, and are much easier to use when compared to free enzymes. In this research, the enzymes laccase, cellulase, β-galactosidase (β-gal), and transglutaminase (TGM) were immobilized by two different methods: crosslinked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs) and magnetic crosslinked enzyme aggregates (mCLEAs). The processes for CLEAs and mCLEAs preparation with different enzymes have been optimized, where the aim was to achieve the highest possible relative activity of the immobilized enzyme. The optimal conditions of the synthesis of CLEAs in mCLEAs are described, thus emphasizing the difference between the two types of immobilization based on different enzymes. This comparative study, which represents the synthesis of crosslinked enzyme aggregates using different enzymes, has not been performed so far. Moreover, the obtained activity of CLEAs and mCLEAs is presented, which is important for further use in different biocatalytic processes. Specifically, of a higher importance is the selection of enzymes involved in immobilization, as they belong to the three different most applicable enzymes (oxidoreductases, hydrolases, and transferases). The study confirmed that the resulting activity of the immobilized enzyme and the optimization of enzyme immobilization depended on the type of the enzyme. Moreover, the prepared CLEAs and mCLEAs were exposed to the supercritical carbon dioxide (scCO2) at different pressures to determine the effect of scCO2 on enzyme activity in immobilized form. Additionally, to demonstrate the reuse and stability of the immobilized enzyme, the stability and reusability tests of CLEAs and mCLEAs were performed. The catalytic performance of immobilized enzyme was tested, where the catalytic efficiency and long-term operational stability of mCLEAs were obviously superior to those of CLEAs. However, the higher activity observed for CLEAs compared to mCLEAs suggests a significant effect of magnetic nanoparticles in the stabilization of an enzyme crosslinked aggregate structure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gordana Hojnik Podrepšek
- Laboratory for Separation Processes and Product Design, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Željko Knez
- Laboratory for Separation Processes and Product Design, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
| | - Maja Leitgeb
- Laboratory for Separation Processes and Product Design, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
- Faculty of Medicine, University of Maribor, Maribor, Slovenia
- *Correspondence: Maja Leitgeb,
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Priya, Gogate PR. Ultrasound-Assisted Intensification of β-Glucosidase Enzyme Activity in Free and Immobilized Forms. Ind Eng Chem Res 2022. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.iecr.1c04360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Priya
- Chemical Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai 400019, India
| | - Parag R. Gogate
- Chemical Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai 400019, India
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Hozhabr Araghi S, John A, Sadeghi Googheri MS. How a crosslinker agent interacts with the β-glucosidase enzyme surface in an aqueous solution: Insight from quantum mechanics calculations and molecular dynamics simulations. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2021; 203:111761. [PMID: 33872829 DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2021.111761] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/09/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
In this study, surficial interactions of glutaraldehyde (GA) as an important crosslinker agent with the β-glucosidase (BGL) enzyme surface were investigated by theoretical methods. Since the inherent constraints of experimental methods limit their application to find the molecular perspective of these significant interactions in enzyme immobilization, theoretical methods were used as a complementary tool to understand this concept. The Minnesota density functional calculations showed that the chair conformations of the oxane-2,6-diol form of the GA were more stable than its free aldehyde form. MD simulations of propylamine-GA molecules, as a representative of attached-GA, in aqueous solutions of different concentrations were done to determine the molecular basis of surficial interactions with the BGL surface. The root mean square fluctuation (RMSF) demonstrated that the maximum flexibility of the BGL enzyme belonged to 460-480 residues in all solutions. Based on the spatial distribution function (SDF) analysis, the active site entrance was the most favored region to accumulate solute molecules. Radial distribution function (RDF) results showed that all forms of propylamine-GA molecules interacted from their head side with the lysine residues of BGL, which Lys247, Lys376, and Lys384 were found to be the most interactive lysine residues. Also, hydrogen bond (HB) analysis from two viewpoints confirmed HB formation possibility between propylamine-GA molecules and these lysine residues. These results explained which regions of the BGL have the maximum possibility to interact and link to GA and help us in understanding the process of enzyme immobilization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samira Hozhabr Araghi
- Laboratory of Materials Science, Instituto de Química de Recursos Naturales, Universidad de Talca, Casilla 747, Talca, Chile
| | - Amalraj John
- Laboratory of Materials Science, Instituto de Química de Recursos Naturales, Universidad de Talca, Casilla 747, Talca, Chile.
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Muley AB, Awasthi S, Bhalerao PP, Jadhav NL, Singhal RS. Preparation of cross-linked enzyme aggregates of lipase from Aspergillus niger: process optimization, characterization, stability, and application for epoxidation of lemongrass oil. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2021; 44:1383-1404. [PMID: 33660099 DOI: 10.1007/s00449-021-02509-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2020] [Accepted: 01/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Cross-linked enzyme aggregates (CLEAs) of lipase were prepared after fractional precipitation with 40-50% ammonium sulfate and then cross-linking with glutaraldehyde. The process variables for the preparation of lipase-CLEAs such as glutaraldehyde concentration, cross-linking period, and initial pH of medium were optimized. The optimized conditions for the preparation of lipase-CLEAs were 25 mM/80 min/pH 7.0, and 31.62 mM/90 min/pH 6.0 with one factor at a time approach and numerical optimization with central composite design, respectively. Lipase-CLEAs were characterized by particle size analysis, SEM, and FTIR. Cross-linking not only shifted the optimal pH and temperature from 7.0 to 7.5 and 40-45 to 45-50 °C, but also altered the secondary structure. Lipase-CLEAs showed an increase in Km by 7.70%, and a decrease in Vmax by 16.63%. Lipase-CLEAs presented better thermostability than free lipase as evident from thermal inactivation constants (t1/2, D and Ed value), and thermodynamic parameters (Ed, ΔH°, ΔG°, and ΔS°) in the range of 50-70 °C. Lipase-CLEAs retained more than 65% activity up to four cycles and showed good storage stability for 12 days when stored at 4 ± 2 °C. They were successfully utilized for the epoxidation of lemongrass oil which was confirmed by changes in iodine value, epoxide value, and FTIR spectra.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhijeet Bhimrao Muley
- Food Engineering and Technology Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, 400019, India.
| | - Sneha Awasthi
- Food Engineering and Technology Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, 400019, India
| | - Prasanna Prakash Bhalerao
- Food Engineering and Technology Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, 400019, India
| | - Nilesh Lakshaman Jadhav
- Chemical Engineering Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, 400019, India
| | - Rekha Satishchandra Singhal
- Food Engineering and Technology Department, Institute of Chemical Technology, Matunga, Mumbai, 400019, India
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12
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Deng X, He T, Li J, Duan HL, Zhang ZQ. Enhanced biochemical characteristics of β-glucosidase via adsorption and cross-linked enzyme aggregate for rapid cellobiose hydrolysis. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng 2020; 43:2209-2217. [DOI: 10.1007/s00449-020-02406-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2020] [Accepted: 07/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Gupta MN, Perwez M, Sardar M. Protein crosslinking: Uses in chemistry, biology and biotechnology. BIOCATAL BIOTRANSFOR 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/10242422.2020.1733990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohammad Perwez
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
| | - Meryam Sardar
- Department of Biosciences, Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India
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