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Liu M, Zhang X, Luan H, Zhang Y, Xu W, Feng W, Song P. Bioenzymatic detoxification of mycotoxins. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1434987. [PMID: 39091297 PMCID: PMC11291262 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1434987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2024] [Accepted: 07/08/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced during the growth, storage, and transportation of crops contaminated by fungi and are physiologically toxic to humans and animals. Aflatoxin, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, ochratoxin, patulin, and fumonisin are the most common mycotoxins and can cause liver and nervous system damage, immune system suppression, and produce carcinogenic effects in humans and animals that have consumed contaminated food. Physical, chemical, and biological methods are generally used to detoxify mycotoxins. Although physical methods, such as heat treatment, irradiation, and adsorption, are fast and simple, they have associated problems including incomplete detoxification, limited applicability, and cause changes in food characteristics (e.g., nutritive value, organoleptic properties, and palatability). Chemical detoxification methods, such as ammonification, ozonation, and peroxidation, pollute the environment and produce food safety risks. In contrast, bioenzymatic methods are advantageous as they achieve selective detoxification and are environmentally friendly and reusable; thus, these methods are the most promising options for the detoxification of mycotoxins. This paper reviews recent research progress on common mycotoxins and the enzymatic principles and mechanisms for their detoxification, analyzes the toxicity of the degradation products and describes the challenges faced by researchers in carrying out enzymatic detoxification. In addition, the application of enzymatic detoxification in food and feed is discussed and future directions for the development of enzymatic detoxification methods are proposed for future in-depth study of enzymatic detoxification methods.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Peng Song
- College of Life Sciences, Liaocheng University, Liaocheng, China
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2
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Li T, Li J, Wang J, Xue KS, Su X, Qu H, Duan X, Jiang Y. The occurrence and management of fumonisin contamination across the food production and supply chains. J Adv Res 2024; 60:13-26. [PMID: 37544477 PMCID: PMC11156612 DOI: 10.1016/j.jare.2023.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 08/02/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fumonisins (FUMs) are among the most common mycotoxins in plant-derived food products. FUMs contamination has considerably impacted human and animal health, while causing significant economic losses. Hence, management of FUMs contamination in food production and supply chains is needed. The toxicities of FUMs have been widely investigated. FUMs management has been reported and several available strategies have been developed successfully to mitigate FUMs contamination present in foods. However, currently available management of FUMs contamination from different phases of food chains and the mechanisms of some major strategies are not comprehensively summarized. AIM OF REVIEW This review comprehensively characterize the occurrence, impacts, and management of FUMs contamination across food production and supply chains. Pre- and post-harvest strategies to prevent FUMs contamination also are reviewed, with an emphasis on the potential applications and the mechanisms of major mitigation strategies. The presence of modified FUMs products and their potential toxic effects are also considered. Importantly, the potential application of biotechnological approaches and emerging technologies are enunciated. KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW Currently available pre- and post-harvest management of FUMs contamination primarily involves prevention and decontamination. Prevention strategies are mainly based on limiting fungal growth and FUMs biosynthesis. Decontamination strategies are implemented through alkalization, hydrolysis, thermal or chemical transformation, and enzymatic or chemical degradation of FUMs. Concerns have been raised about toxicities of modified FUMs derivatives, which presents challenges for reducing FUMs contamination in foods with conventional methodologies. Integrated prevention and decontamination protocols are recommended to control FUMs contamination across entire value chains in developed countries. In developing countries, several other approaches, including cultivating, introducing Bt maize, simple sorting/cleaning, and dehulling, are suggested. Future studies should focus on biotechnological approaches, emerging technologies, and metagenomic/genomic identification of new degradation enzymes that could allow better opportunities to manage FUMs contamination in the entire food system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Taotao Li
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Jiajia Li
- College of Tourism and Planning, Pingdingshan University, Pingdingshan 467000, China
| | - Jiasheng Wang
- Department of Environmental Health Science, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Kathy S Xue
- Department of Environmental Health Science, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA
| | - Xinguo Su
- Tropical Agriculture and Forestry College, Guangdong AIB Polytechnic, No. 198, Yueken Road, Tianhe District, Guangzhou 510507, China
| | - Hongxia Qu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Xuewu Duan
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China
| | - Yueming Jiang
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Applied Botany, South China Botanical Garden, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510650, China; College of Advanced Agricultural Sciences, University of the Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100039, China.
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3
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Fruhauf S, Pühringer D, Thamhesl M, Fajtl P, Kunz-Vekiru E, Höbartner-Gussl A, Schatzmayr G, Adam G, Damborsky J, Djinovic-Carugo K, Prokop Z, Moll WD. Bacterial Lactonases ZenA with Noncanonical Structural Features Hydrolyze the Mycotoxin Zearalenone. ACS Catal 2024; 14:3392-3410. [PMID: 38449531 PMCID: PMC10913051 DOI: 10.1021/acscatal.4c00271] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2024] [Accepted: 01/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/08/2024]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a mycoestrogenic polyketide produced by Fusarium graminearum and other phytopathogenic members of the genus Fusarium. Contamination of cereals with ZEN is frequent, and hydrolytic detoxification with fungal lactonases has been explored. Here, we report the isolation of a bacterial strain, Rhodococcus erythropolis PFA D8-1, with ZEN hydrolyzing activity, cloning of the gene encoding α/β hydrolase ZenA encoded on the linear megaplasmid pSFRL1, and biochemical characterization of nine homologues. Furthermore, we report site-directed mutagenesis as well as structural analysis of the dimeric ZenARe of R. erythropolis and the more thermostable, tetrameric ZenAScfl of Streptomyces coelicoflavus with and without bound ligands. The X-ray crystal structures not only revealed canonical features of α/β hydrolases with a cap domain including a Ser-His-Asp catalytic triad but also unusual features including an uncommon oxyanion hole motif and a peripheral, short antiparallel β-sheet involved in tetramer interactions. Presteady-state kinetic analyses for ZenARe and ZenAScfl identified balanced rate-limiting steps of the reaction cycle, which can change depending on temperature. Some new bacterial ZEN lactonases have lower KM and higher kcat than the known fungal ZEN lactonases and may lend themselves to enzyme technology development for the degradation of ZEN in feed or food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Fruhauf
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Dominic Pühringer
- Department
for Structural and Computational Biology, Max Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Campus Vienna Biocenter 5, Vienna 1030, Austria
| | - Michaela Thamhesl
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Patricia Fajtl
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Elisavet Kunz-Vekiru
- Institute
of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, Department of Agrobiotechnology
IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources
and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Straße 20, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Andreas Höbartner-Gussl
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Gerd Schatzmayr
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Institute
of Microbial Genetics, Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences
Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Straße
24, Tulln 3430, Austria
| | - Jiri Damborsky
- Loschmidt
Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty
of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Bld. A13, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
- International
Clinical Research Center, St. Anne’s
University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, Brno 656
91, Czech Republic
| | - Kristina Djinovic-Carugo
- Department
for Structural and Computational Biology, Max Perutz Laboratories, University of Vienna, Campus Vienna Biocenter 5, Vienna 1030, Austria
- Department
of Biochemistry, Faculty of Chemistry and Chemical Technology, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana 1000, Slovenia
- European
Molecular Biology Laboratory (EMBL) Grenoble, Grenoble 38000, France
| | - Zbynek Prokop
- Loschmidt
Laboratories, Department of Experimental Biology and RECETOX, Faculty
of Science, Masaryk University, Kamenice 5, Bld. A13, Brno 625 00, Czech Republic
- International
Clinical Research Center, St. Anne’s
University Hospital Brno, Pekarska 53, Brno 656
91, Czech Republic
| | - Wulf-Dieter Moll
- dsm-firmenich
Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center Tulln, Technopark 1, Tulln 3430, Austria
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4
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Yu S, Zou L, Zhao J, Zhu Y. Resveratrol alleviates fumonisin-induced intestinal cytotoxicity by modulating apoptosis, tight junction, and inflammation in IPEC-J2 porcine intestinal epithelial cells. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2024; 39:905-914. [PMID: 37955343 DOI: 10.1002/tox.24033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 09/11/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/14/2023]
Abstract
Fumonisins are common contaminants in the global food and environment, pose a variety of health risks to humans and animals. However, the method of mitigating fumonisin toxicity is still unclear. Resveratrol is a natural compound with antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. In this study, the protective effect of resveratrol against fumonisin-induced intestinal toxicity was investigated by the porcine intestinal epithelial cell line (IPEC-J2). The cells were treated with 0-40 μM fumonisin for 24 or 48 h with or without the 24 h resveratrol (15 μM) pretreatment. The data showed that resveratrol could alleviate the fumonisin B1 (FB1)-induced decrease in cell viability and amplify in membrane permeability. At the same time, it could reduce the accumulation of intracellular reactive oxygen species and increase the expression ranges of Nrf2 and downstream genes (SOD1 and NQO-1), thereby counteracting FB1-induced apoptosis. Furthermore, resveratrol was able to reduce the expression levels of inflammatory factors (TNF-α, IL-1β, and IL-6), increase the expression levels of tight junction proteins (Claudin-1, Occludin, and ZO-1), and the integrity of the IPEC-J2 monolayer. Our data also showed that resveratrol could attenuate the toxicity of the co-occurrence of three fumonisins. It is implied that resveratrol represents a promising protective approach for fumonisin, even other mycotoxins in the future. This provided a new strategy for further blocking and controlling the toxicity of fumonisin, subsequently avoiding adverse effects on the human and animal health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Yu
- Division of Chemical Toxicity and Safety Assessment, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, China
| | - Lianpeng Zou
- Division of Chemical Toxicity and Safety Assessment, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, China
| | - Jiawei Zhao
- Division of Chemical Toxicity and Safety Assessment, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, China
| | - Yiping Zhu
- Division of Chemical Toxicity and Safety Assessment, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai, China
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5
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Krska T, Twaruschek K, Valente N, Mitterbauer R, Moll D, Wiesenberger G, Berthiller F, Adam G. Development of a fumonisin-sensitive Saccharomyces cerevisiae indicator strain and utilization for activity testing of candidate detoxification genes. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0121123. [PMID: 38054733 PMCID: PMC10746191 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01211-23] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/20/2023] [Indexed: 12/07/2023] Open
Abstract
IMPORTANCE Fumonisins can cause diseases in animals and humans consuming Fusarium-contaminated food or feed. The search for microbes capable of fumonisin degradation, or for enzymes that can detoxify fumonisins, currently relies primarily on chemical detection methods. Our constructed fumonisin B1-sensitive yeast strain can be used to phenotypically detect detoxification activity and should be useful in screening for novel fumonisin resistance genes and to elucidate fumonisin metabolism and resistance mechanisms in fungi and plants, and thereby, in the long term, help to mitigate the threat of fumonisins in feed and food.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tamara Krska
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Institute of Microbial Genetics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
- Austrian Competence Centre for Feed and Food Quality, Safety & Innovation, FFoQSI GmbH, Tulln, Austria
| | - Krisztian Twaruschek
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Institute of Microbial Genetics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
- Austrian Competence Centre for Feed and Food Quality, Safety & Innovation, FFoQSI GmbH, Tulln, Austria
| | - Nina Valente
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Institute of Microbial Genetics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
| | - Rudolf Mitterbauer
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Institute of Microbial Genetics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
| | - Dieter Moll
- dsm-firmenich ANH Research Center Tulln, Tulln, Austria
| | - Gerlinde Wiesenberger
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Institute of Microbial Genetics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
- Department of Agrobiotechnology, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
| | - Franz Berthiller
- Department of Agrobiotechnology, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, IFA-Tulln, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
| | - Gerhard Adam
- Department of Applied Genetics and Cell Biology, Institute of Microbial Genetics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria
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6
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Wang Z, Lv Z, Czabany T, Nagl V, Krska R, Wang X, Han B, Tao H, Liu J, Wang J. Comparison Study of Two Fumonisin-Degrading Enzymes for Detoxification in Piglets. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 16:3. [PMID: 38276527 PMCID: PMC10819594 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 12/11/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 01/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Fumonisins (FBs), particularly fumonisin B1 (FB1) and fumonisin B2 (FB2) produced mainly by Fusarium verticillioide and Fusarium proliferatum, are common contaminants in animal feed and pose a serious threat to both animal and human health. The use of microbial enzymes to efficiently and specifically convert fumonisins into non-toxic or low-toxic metabolites has emerged as the most promising approach. However, most of the available enzymes have only been evaluated in vitro and lack systematic evaluation in vivo. In this study, the detoxification efficacy of two carboxylesterases, FumD (FUMzyme®) and FumDSB, was evaluated comparatively in piglets. The results show that feeding piglets 4.4 mg/kg FBs-contaminated diets for 32 days did not significantly affect the average daily gain, organ indices, and immunoglobulins of the piglets. However, a significant reduction (21.2%) in anti-inflammatory cytokine interleukin-4 was observed in the FBs group, and supplementation with FUMzyme® and FumDSB significantly increased interleukin-4 by 62.1% and 28.0%, respectively. In addition, FBs-contaminated diets resulted in a 3-fold increase in the serum sphinganine/sphingosine (Sa/So) ratio, which is a specific biomarker that has been used to accurately reflect fumonisin levels. The serum Sa/So ratio was significantly reduced by 48.8% after the addition of FUMzyme®, and was insignificantly reduced by 8.2% in the FumDSB group. These results suggested that FUMzyme was more effective than FumDSB in mitigating FBs toxicity in piglets by down-regulating the Sa/So ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhenlong Wang
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China; (Z.W.)
- Laboratory of Pet Nutrition and Food, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Zonghao Lv
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China; (Z.W.)
- Laboratory of Pet Nutrition and Food, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Hunan Agricultural University, No. 1 Furong District, Changsha 410128, China
| | - Tibor Czabany
- dsm-firmenich, Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria (V.N.)
| | - Veronika Nagl
- dsm-firmenich, Animal Nutrition and Health R&D Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria (V.N.)
| | - Rudolf Krska
- Department of Agrobiotechnology IFA-Tulln, Institute of Bioanalytics and Agro-Metabolomics, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna (BOKU), Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
- Institute for Global Food Security, School of Biological Sciences, Queens University Belfast, University Road, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK
- Austrian Competence Centre for Feed and Food Quality, Safety & InnovationFFoQSI GmbH, Konrad-Lorenz-Str. 20, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - Xiumin Wang
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China; (Z.W.)
- Laboratory of Pet Nutrition and Food, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Bing Han
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China; (Z.W.)
- Laboratory of Pet Nutrition and Food, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Hui Tao
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China; (Z.W.)
- Laboratory of Pet Nutrition and Food, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jie Liu
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China; (Z.W.)
- Laboratory of Pet Nutrition and Food, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China
| | - Jinquan Wang
- Key Laboratory of Feed Biotechnology, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China; (Z.W.)
- Laboratory of Pet Nutrition and Food, Institute of Feed Research, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, No. 12 Zhongguancun South Street, Beijing 100081, China
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7
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Fang J, Sheng L, Ye Y, Ji J, Sun J, Zhang Y, Sun X. Recent advances in biosynthesis of mycotoxin-degrading enzymes and their applications in food and feed. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2023:1-17. [PMID: 38108665 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2294166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced by fungi in food and feed, which can cause serious health problems. Bioenzymatic degradation is gaining increasing popularity due to its high specificity, gentle degradation conditions, and environmental friendliness. We reviewed recently reported biosynthetic mycotoxin-degrading enzymes, traditional and novel expression systems, enzyme optimization strategies, food and feed applications, safety evaluation of both degrading enzymes and degradation products, and commercialization potentials. Special emphasis is given to the novel expression systems, advanced optimization strategies, and safety considerations for industrial use. Over ten types of recombinases such as oxidoreductase and hydrolase have been studied in the enzymatic hydrolysis of mycotoxins. Besides traditional expression system of Escherichia coli and yeasts, these enzymes can also be expressed in novel systems such as Bacillus subtilis and lactic acid bacteria. To meet the requirements of industrial applications in terms of degradation efficacy and stability, genetic engineering and computational tools are used to optimize enzymatic expression. Currently, registration and technical difficulties have restricted commercial application of mycotoxin-degrading enzymes. To overcome these obstacles, systematic safety evaluation of both biosynthetic enzymes and their degradation products, in-depth understanding of degradation mechanisms and a comprehensive evaluation of their impact on food and feed quality are urgently needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinpei Fang
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co, Ltd, Yixing, Jiangsu, P.R China
| | - Lina Sheng
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co, Ltd, Yixing, Jiangsu, P.R China
| | - Yongli Ye
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co, Ltd, Yixing, Jiangsu, P.R China
| | - Jian Ji
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co, Ltd, Yixing, Jiangsu, P.R China
| | - Jiadi Sun
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co, Ltd, Yixing, Jiangsu, P.R China
| | - Yinzhi Zhang
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co, Ltd, Yixing, Jiangsu, P.R China
| | - Xiulan Sun
- School of Food Science and Technology, International Joint Laboratory on Food Safety, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
- Yixing Institute of Food and Biotechnology Co, Ltd, Yixing, Jiangsu, P.R China
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8
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Rußmayer H, Buchetics M, Mattanovich M, Neubauer S, Steiger M, Graf AB, Koellensperger G, Hann S, Sauer M, Gasser B, Mattanovich D. Customizing amino acid metabolism of Pichia pastoris for recombinant protein production. Biotechnol J 2023; 18:e2300033. [PMID: 37668396 DOI: 10.1002/biot.202300033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Revised: 07/31/2023] [Accepted: 08/31/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. In this respect, a reciprocal effect of recombinant protein production on amino acid biosynthesis as well as the impact of the availability of free amino acids on protein production can be anticipated. In this study, the impact of engineering the amino acid metabolism on the production of recombinant proteins was investigated in the yeast Pichia pastoris (syn Komagataella phaffii). Based on comprehensive systems-level analyses of the metabolomes and transcriptomes of different P. pastoris strains secreting antibody fragments, cell engineering targets were selected. Our working hypothesis that increasing intracellular amino acid levels could help unburden cellular metabolism and improve recombinant protein production was examined by constitutive overexpression of genes related to amino acid metabolism. In addition to 12 genes involved in specific amino acid biosynthetic pathways, the transcription factor GCN4 responsible for regulation of amino acid biosynthetic genes was overexpressed. The production of the used model protein, a secreted carboxylesterase (CES) from Sphingopyxis macrogoltabida, was increased by overexpression of pathway genes for alanine and for aromatic amino acids, and most pronounced, when overexpressing the regulator GCN4. The analysis of intracellular amino acid levels of selected clones indicated a direct linkage of improved recombinant protein production to the increased availability of intracellular amino acids. Finally, fed batch cultures showed that overexpression of GCN4 increased CES titers 2.6-fold, while the positive effect of other amino acid synthesis genes could not be transferred from screening to bioreactor cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannes Rußmayer
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Markus Buchetics
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias Mattanovich
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Centre for Biosustainability, Technical University of Denmark, Lyngby, Denmark
- Novo Nordisk Foundation Centre for Basic Metabolic Research, Copenhagen University, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Stefan Neubauer
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias Steiger
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Alexandra B Graf
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
- School of Bioengineering, University of Applied Sciences FH Campus Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gunda Koellensperger
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Stephan Hann
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
- Department of Chemistry, Institute of Analytical Chemistry, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael Sauer
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Brigitte Gasser
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
| | - Diethard Mattanovich
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Microbiology and Microbial Biotechnology, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology, Vienna, Austria
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9
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Ochieng PE, Croubels S, Kemboi D, Okoth S, De Baere S, Cavalier E, Kang'ethe E, Faas J, Doupovec B, Gathumbi J, Douny C, Scippo ML, Lindahl JF, Antonissen G. Effects of Aflatoxins and Fumonisins, Alone or in Combination, on Performance, Health, and Safety of Food Products of Broiler Chickens, and Mitigation Efficacy of Bentonite and Fumonisin Esterase. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:13462-13473. [PMID: 37655855 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.3c01733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/02/2023]
Abstract
The current study evaluated the effects of feeding diets contaminated with aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), fumonisins (FBs), or both on the performance and health of broiler chickens and the safety of their food products as well as the efficacy of bentonite and fumonisin esterase to mitigate the effects of these mycotoxins under conditions representative for sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). Four hundred one-day-old Cobb 500 broiler chickens were randomly assigned to 20 treatments with either a control diet, a diet with moderate AFB1 (60 μg/kg feed) or high AFB1 (220 μg/kg feed), or FBs (17,430 μg FB1+FB2/kg feed), alone or in combination, a diet containing AFB1 (either 60 or 220 μg/kg) and/or FBs (17,430 μg FB1+FB2/kg) and bentonite or fumonisin esterase or both, or a diet with bentonite or fumonisin esterase only. The experimental diets were given to the birds from day 1 to day 35 of age, and the effects of the different treatments on production performance were assessed by feed intake (FI), body weight gain (BWG), and feed conversion ratio (FCR). Possible health effects were evaluated through blood biochemistry, organ weights, mortality, liver gross pathological changes, and vaccine response. Residues of aflatoxins (AFB1, B2, G1, G2, M1 and M2) were determined in plasma, muscle, and liver tissues using validated UHPLC-MS/MS methods. The results obtained indicated that broiler chickens fed high AFB1 alone had poor FCR when compared to a diet with both high AFB1 and FBs (p = 0.0063). Serum total protein and albumin from birds fed FBs only or in combination with moderate or high AFB1 or detoxifiers increased when compared to the control (p < 0.05). Liver gross pathological changes were more pronounced in birds fed contaminated diets when compared to birds fed the control or diets supplemented with mycotoxin detoxifiers. The relative weight of the heart was significantly higher in birds fed high AFB1 and FBs when compared to the control or high AFB1 only diets (p < 0.05), indicating interactions between the mycotoxins. Inclusion of bentonite in AFB1-contaminated diets offered a protective effect on the change in weights of the liver, heart and spleen (p < 0.05). Residues of AFB1 were detected above the limit of quantification (max: 0.12 ± 0.03 μg/kg) in liver samples only, from birds fed a diet with high AFB1 only or with FBs or the detoxifiers. Supplementing bentonite into these AFB1-contaminated diets reduced the levels of the liver AFB1 residues by up to 50%. Bentonite or fumonisin esterase, alone, did not affect the performance and health of broiler chickens. Thus, at the doses tested, both detoxifiers were safe and efficient for use as valid means of counteracting the negative effects of AFB1 and FBs as well as transfer of AFB1 to food products (liver) of broiler chickens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillis Emelda Ochieng
- Department of Food Sciences, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
| | - David Kemboi
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
- Department of Animal Science, Chuka University, P.O. Box 109, 00625 Chuka, Kenya
| | - Sheila Okoth
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 30197, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Siegrid De Baere
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
| | - Etienne Cavalier
- Department of Clinical Chemistry, Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Medicines (CIRM), University of Liège, University Hospital of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | | | | | | | - James Gathumbi
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Microbiology, and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Caroline Douny
- Department of Food Sciences, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Marie-Louise Scippo
- Department of Food Sciences, Laboratory of Food Analysis, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Liège 4000, Belgium
| | - Johanna F Lindahl
- International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O. Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala SE-751 05, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Uppsala SE-750 07, Sweden
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
- Chair Poultry Health Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Merelbeke 9820, Belgium
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10
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Yu S, Zou L, Zhao J, Zhu Y. Individual and Combined Cytotoxic Effects of Co-Occurring Fumonisin Family Mycotoxins on Porcine Intestinal Epithelial Cell. Foods 2023; 12:2555. [PMID: 37444293 PMCID: PMC10340252 DOI: 10.3390/foods12132555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/24/2023] [Revised: 06/24/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 07/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Human health is seriously threatened by mycotoxin contamination, yet health risk assessments are typically based on just one mycotoxin, potentially excluding the additive or competitive interactions between co-occurring mycotoxins. In this investigation, we evaluated the individual or combined toxicological effects of three fumonisin-family B mycotoxins: fumonisin B1 (FB1), fumonisin B2 (FB2), and fumonisin B3 (FB3), by using porcine intestinal epithelial cells (IPEC). IPEC cells were exposed to various concentrations (2.5-40 μM) for 48 h, and a cell counting kit (CCK8) was used to determine cell vitality. Firstly, we discovered that they might inhibit cell viability. Additionally, the cytotoxicity of FB1 was significantly greater than that of FB2 and FB3. The results also indicated that the combinations of FB1-FB2, FB2-FB3, and FB1-FB2-FB3 showed synergistically toxicological effects at the ID10-ID50 levels and antagonistic effects at the ID75-ID90 levels. In addition, the FB1-FB3 exposure was also synergistic at the ID10-ID25 level. We also found that myriocin and resveratrol alleviated the cytotoxicity induced by fumonisin in IPEC cells. In all, this study may contribute to the determination of legal limits, the optimization of risk assessment for fumonisins in food and feed, and the development of new methods to alleviate fumonisin toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Song Yu
- Division of Chemical Toxicity and Safety Assessment, Shanghai Municipal Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Shanghai 200336, China; (L.Z.); (J.Z.); (Y.Z.)
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11
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Yang L, Yang L, Cai Y, Luo Y, Wang H, Wang L, Chen J, Liu X, Wu Y, Qin Y, Wu Z, Liu N. Natural mycotoxin contamination in dog food: A review on toxicity and detoxification methods. ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2023; 257:114948. [PMID: 37105098 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2023.114948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/21/2023] [Indexed: 05/08/2023]
Abstract
Nowadays, the companion animals (dogs or other pets) are considered as members of the family and have established strong emotional relationships with their owners. Dogs are long lived compared to food animals, so safety, adequacy, and efficacy of dog food is of great importance for their health. Cereals, cereal by-products as well as feedstuffs of plant origin are commonly employed food resources in dry food, yet are potential ingredients for mycotoxins contamination, so dogs are theoretically more vulnerable to exposure when consumed daily. Aflatoxins (AF), deoxynivalenol (DON), fumonisins (FUM), ochratoxin A (OTA), and zearalenone (ZEA) are the most frequent mycotoxins that might present in dog food and cause toxicity on the growth and metabolism of dogs. An understanding of toxicological effects and detoxification methods (physical, chemical, or biological approaches) of mycotoxins will help to improve commercial ped food quality, reduce harm and minimize exposure to dogs. Herein, we outline a description of mycotoxins detected in dog food, toxicity and clinical findings in dogs, as well as methods applied in mycotoxins detoxification. This review aims to provide a reference for future studies involved in the evaluation of the risk, preventative strategies, and clear criteria of mycotoxins for minimizing exposure, reducing harm, and preventing mycotoxicosis in dog.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Yang
- Department of Food and Bioengineering, Beijing Vocational College of Agriculture, Beijing 102442, China
| | - Lihan Yang
- College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yuqing Cai
- College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yifei Luo
- College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Hui Wang
- Department of Food and Bioengineering, Beijing Vocational College of Agriculture, Beijing 102442, China
| | - Li Wang
- Department of Food and Bioengineering, Beijing Vocational College of Agriculture, Beijing 102442, China
| | - Jingqing Chen
- Laboratory Animal Center of the Academy of Military Medical Sciences, Beijing 100071, China
| | - Xiaoming Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, Shandong Agricultural University, China
| | - Yingjie Wu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Yinghe Qin
- College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Zhenlong Wu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
| | - Ning Liu
- College of Animal Science and Technology, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, China.
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12
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Statsyuk NV, Popletaeva SB, Shcherbakova LA. Post-Harvest Prevention of Fusariotoxin Contamination of Agricultural Products by Irreversible Microbial Biotransformation: Current Status and Prospects. BIOTECH 2023; 12:biotech12020032. [PMID: 37218749 DOI: 10.3390/biotech12020032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2023] [Revised: 04/28/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Biological degradation of mycotoxins is a promising environmentally-friendly alternative to chemical and physical detoxification methods. To date, a lot of microorganisms able to degrade them have been described; however, the number of studies determining degradation mechanisms and irreversibility of transformation, identifying resulting metabolites, and evaluating in vivo efficiency and safety of such biodegradation is significantly lower. At the same time, these data are crucial for the evaluation of the potential of the practical application of such microorganisms as mycotoxin-decontaminating agents or sources of mycotoxin-degrading enzymes. To date, there are no published reviews, which would be focused only on mycotoxin-degrading microorganisms with the proved irreversible transformation of these compounds into less toxic compounds. In this review, the existing information about microorganisms able to efficiently transform the three most common fusariotoxins (zearalenone, deoxinyvalenol, and fumonisin B1) is presented with allowance for the data on the corresponding irreversible transformation pathways, produced metabolites, and/or toxicity reduction. The recent data on the enzymes responsible for the irreversible transformation of these fusariotoxins are also presented, and the promising future trends in the studies in this area are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia V Statsyuk
- All-Russian Research Institute of Phytopathology, 143050 Bolshie Vyazemy, Russia
| | - Sophya B Popletaeva
- All-Russian Research Institute of Phytopathology, 143050 Bolshie Vyazemy, Russia
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13
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Zhang J, Tang X, Cai Y, Zhou WW. Mycotoxin Contamination Status of Cereals in China and Potential Microbial Decontamination Methods. Metabolites 2023; 13:metabo13040551. [PMID: 37110209 PMCID: PMC10143121 DOI: 10.3390/metabo13040551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2023] [Revised: 04/05/2023] [Accepted: 04/10/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
The presence of mycotoxins in cereals can pose a significant health risk to animals and humans. China is one of the countries that is facing cereal contamination by mycotoxins. Treating mycotoxin-contaminated cereals with established physical and chemical methods can lead to negative effects, such as the loss of nutrients, chemical residues, and high energy consumption. Therefore, microbial detoxification techniques are being considered for reducing and treating mycotoxins in cereals. This paper reviews the contamination of aflatoxins, zearalenone, deoxynivalenol, fumonisins, and ochratoxin A in major cereals (rice, wheat, and maize). Our discussion is based on 8700 samples from 30 provincial areas in China between 2005 and 2021. Previous research suggests that the temperature and humidity in the highly contaminated Chinese cereal-growing regions match the growth conditions of potential antagonists. Therefore, this review takes biological detoxification as the starting point and summarizes the methods of microbial detoxification, microbial active substance detoxification, and other microbial inhibition methods for treating contaminated cereals. Furthermore, their respective mechanisms are systematically analyzed, and a series of strategies for combining the above methods with the treatment of contaminated cereals in China are proposed. It is hoped that this review will provide a reference for subsequent solutions to cereal contamination problems and for the development of safer and more efficient methods of biological detoxification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jing Zhang
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
- School of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Sydney, Sydney, NSW 2006, Australia
| | - Xi Tang
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Yifan Cai
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
| | - Wen-Wen Zhou
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou 310058, China
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14
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Yadavalli R, Valluru P, Raj R, Reddy CN, Mishra B. Biological detoxification of mycotoxins: Emphasizing the role of algae. ALGAL RES 2023. [DOI: 10.1016/j.algal.2023.103039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
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15
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Thermophilic Carboxylesterases from Hydrothermal Vents of the Volcanic Island of Ischia Active on Synthetic and Biobased Polymers and Mycotoxins. Appl Environ Microbiol 2023; 89:e0170422. [PMID: 36719236 PMCID: PMC9972953 DOI: 10.1128/aem.01704-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Hydrothermal vents are geographically widespread and host microorganisms with robust enzymes useful in various industrial applications. We examined microbial communities and carboxylesterases of two terrestrial hydrothermal vents of the volcanic island of Ischia (Italy) predominantly composed of Firmicutes, Proteobacteria, and Bacteroidota. High-temperature enrichment cultures with the polyester plastics polyhydroxybutyrate and polylactic acid (PLA) resulted in an increase of Thermus and Geobacillus species and to some extent Fontimonas and Schleiferia species. The screening at 37 to 70°C of metagenomic fosmid libraries from above enrichment cultures identified three hydrolases (IS10, IS11, and IS12), all derived from yet-uncultured Chloroflexota and showing low sequence identity (33 to 56%) to characterized enzymes. Enzymes expressed in Escherichia coli exhibited maximal esterase activity at 70 to 90°C, with IS11 showing the highest thermostability (90% activity after 20-min incubation at 80°C). IS10 and IS12 were highly substrate promiscuous and hydrolyzed all 51 monoester substrates tested. Enzymes were active with PLA, polyethylene terephthalate model substrate, and mycotoxin T-2 (IS12). IS10 and IS12 had a classical α/β-hydrolase core domain with a serine hydrolase catalytic triad (Ser155, His280, and Asp250) in their hydrophobic active sites. The crystal structure of IS11 resolved at 2.92 Å revealed the presence of a N-terminal β-lactamase-like domain and C-terminal lipocalin domain. The catalytic cleft of IS11 included catalytic Ser68, Lys71, Tyr160, and Asn162, whereas the lipocalin domain enclosed the catalytic cleft like a lid and contributed to substrate binding. Our study identified novel thermotolerant carboxylesterases with a broad substrate range, including polyesters and mycotoxins, for potential applications in biotechnology. IMPORTANCE High-temperature-active microbial enzymes are important biocatalysts for many industrial applications, including recycling of synthetic and biobased polyesters increasingly used in textiles, fibers, coatings and adhesives. Here, we identified three novel thermotolerant carboxylesterases (IS10, IS11, and IS12) from high-temperature enrichment cultures from Ischia hydrothermal vents and incubated with biobased polymers. The identified metagenomic enzymes originated from uncultured Chloroflexota and showed low sequence similarity to known carboxylesterases. Active sites of IS10 and IS12 had the largest effective volumes among the characterized prokaryotic carboxylesterases and exhibited high substrate promiscuity, including hydrolysis of polyesters and mycotoxin T-2 (IS12). Though less promiscuous than IS10 and IS12, IS11 had a higher thermostability with a high temperature optimum (80 to 90°C) for activity and hydrolyzed polyesters, and its crystal structure revealed an unusual lipocalin domain likely involved in substrate binding. The polyesterase activity of these enzymes makes them attractive candidates for further optimization and potential application in plastics recycling.
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16
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Jiang L, Guan X, Liu H, Chang X, Sun J, Sun C, Zhao C. Improved Production of Recombinant Carboxylesterase FumDM by Co-Expressing Molecular Chaperones in Pichia pastoris. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:156. [PMID: 36828470 PMCID: PMC9960120 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15020156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2023] [Revised: 02/11/2023] [Accepted: 02/11/2023] [Indexed: 02/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Fumonisins (FBs) are mycotoxins that threaten public health and food safety worldwide. Enzymatic degradation of Fumonisin B1 (FB1) through decarboxylation has attracted much attention, whereas application of FB1 carboxylesterase in detoxification requires more effective expression of the recombinant carboxylesterase. In this study, the carboxylesterase FumDM from Sphingopyxis sp. ASAG22 was codon-optimized and co-expressed with five different molecular chaperones (PDI, CPR5, ERO1, HAC1, and Bip) in order to improve the expression level of FumDM in Pichia pastoris (also known as Komagataella phaffii) GS115. The co-expression of different chaperones caused varying degrees of improvement in FumDM activity for FB1. The enzyme activities of recombinant strains over-expressing PDI and CPR5 reached the highest levels of 259.47 U/mL and 161.34 U/mL, 635% and 357% higher than the original enzyme activity, respectively. Transcriptomic analysis of the two recombinant strains in comparison with the control strain showed that the correct folding of proteins assisted by molecular chaperones played a key role in the improvement of FumDM expression and its enzyme activity. This study demonstrated that co-expression of carboxylesterase FumDM and folding chaperones was an efficient strategy and therefore might inspire new perspectives on the improvement of carboxylesterase for detoxification of FB1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lixiang Jiang
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Xiao Guan
- School of Health Science and Engineering, University of Shanghai for Science and Technology, Shanghai 200093, China
| | - Hujun Liu
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Xiaojiao Chang
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Jing Sun
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Changpo Sun
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China
| | - Chengcheng Zhao
- Academy of National Food and Strategic Reserves Administration, Beijing 100037, China
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17
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Wang Y, Sun J, Zhang M, Pan K, Liu T, Zhang T, Luo X, Zhao J, Li Z. Detoxification of Fumonisins by Three Novel Transaminases with Diverse Enzymatic Characteristics Coupled with Carboxylesterase. Foods 2023; 12:foods12020416. [PMID: 36673508 PMCID: PMC9858248 DOI: 10.3390/foods12020416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/23/2022] [Revised: 01/04/2023] [Accepted: 01/11/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Fumonisin (FB) is one of the most common mycotoxins contaminating feed and food, causing severe public health threat to human and animals worldwide. Until now, only several transaminases were found to reduce FB toxicity, thus, more fumonisin detoxification transaminases with excellent catalytic properties required urgent exploration for complex application conditions. Herein, through gene mining and enzymatic characterization, three novel fumonisin detoxification transaminases-FumTSTA, FumUPTA, FumPHTA-were identified, sharing only 61-74% sequence identity with reported fumonisin detoxification transaminases. Moreover, the recombinant proteins shared diverse pH reaction ranges, good pH stability and thermostability, and the recombinant protein yields were also improved by condition optimum. Furthermore, the final products were analyzed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry. This study provides ideal candidates for fumonisin detoxification and meets diverse required demands in food and feed industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Junhao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Mengwei Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Kungang Pan
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Tianhui Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Tongcun Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Xuegang Luo
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
| | - Junqi Zhao
- School of Chemical and Biological Engineering, Qilu Institute of Technology, Jinan 250200, China
- Correspondence: (J.Z.); (Z.L.)
| | - Zhongyuan Li
- State Key Laboratory of Food Nutrition and Safety, College of Biotechnology, Tianjin University of Science and Technology, Tianjin 300457, China
- Correspondence: (J.Z.); (Z.L.)
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18
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Adegoke TV, Yang B, Xing F, Tian X, Wang G, Tai B, Si P, Hussain S, Jahan I. Microbial Enzymes Involved in the Biotransformation of Major Mycotoxins. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2023; 71:35-51. [PMID: 36573671 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.2c06195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/17/2023]
Abstract
Mycotoxins, the most researched biological toxins, can contaminate food and feed, resulting in severe health implications for humans and animals. Physical, chemical, and biological techniques are used to mitigate mycotoxin contamination. The biotransformation method using whole microbial cells or isolated enzymes is the best choice to mitigate mycotoxins. Using specific enzymes may avoid the disadvantages of utilizing a full microbe, such as accidental harm to the product's organoleptic characteristics and hazardous safety features. Moreover, the degradation rates of the isolated enzymes are higher than those of the whole-cell reactions, and they are substrate-specific. Their specificity is comprehensive and is shown at the positional and/or chiral center in many circumstances. Currently, only a few enzymes of microbial origin are commercially available. Therefore, there is a need to identify more novel enzymes of microbial origin that can mitigate mycotoxins. In this review, we conducted an in-depth summary of the microbial enzymes involved in the biotransformation of mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tosin Victor Adegoke
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Bolei Yang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Fuguo Xing
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Xiaoyu Tian
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Gang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Bowen Tai
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Peidong Si
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Sarfaraz Hussain
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
| | - Israt Jahan
- Key Laboratory of Agro-products Quality and Safety Control in Storage and Transport Process, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Institute of Food Science and Technology, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Beijing 100193, China
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19
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Loi M, Logrieco AF, Pusztahelyi T, Leiter É, Hornok L, Pócsi I. Advanced mycotoxin control and decontamination techniques in view of an increased aflatoxin risk in Europe due to climate change. Front Microbiol 2023; 13:1085891. [PMID: 36762096 PMCID: PMC9907446 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.1085891] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 12/15/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Aflatoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by Aspergillus spp. found in staple food and feed commodities worldwide. Aflatoxins are carcinogenic, teratogenic, and mutagenic, and pose a serious threat to the health of both humans and animals. The global economy and trade are significantly affected as well. Various models and datasets related to aflatoxins in maize have been developed and used but have not yet been linked. The prevention of crop loss due to aflatoxin contamination is complex and challenging. Hence, the set-up of advanced decontamination is crucial to cope with the challenge of climate change, growing population, unstable political scenarios, and food security problems also in European countries. After harvest, decontamination methods can be applied during transport, storage, or processing, but their application for aflatoxin reduction is still limited. Therefore, this review aims to investigate the effects of environmental factors on aflatoxin production because of climate change and to critically discuss the present-day and novel decontamination techniques to unravel gaps and limitations to propose them as a tool to tackle an increased aflatoxin risk in Europe.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Loi
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy,*Correspondence: Martina Loi, ✉
| | - Antonio F. Logrieco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | - Tünde Pusztahelyi
- Central Laboratory of Agricultural and Food Products, Faculty of Agricultural and Food Sciences and Environmental Management, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - Éva Leiter
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary,ELRN-UD Fungal Stress Biology Research Group, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
| | - László Hornok
- Hungarian University of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Gödöllő, Hungary
| | - István Pócsi
- Department of Molecular Biotechnology and Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Technology, Institute of Biotechnology, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary,ELRN-UD Fungal Stress Biology Research Group, University of Debrecen, Debrecen, Hungary
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20
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Yang D, Ye Y, Sun J, Wang JS, Huang C, Sun X. Occurrence, transformation, and toxicity of fumonisins and their covert products during food processing. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 64:3660-3673. [PMID: 36239314 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2134290] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisins comprise structurally related metabolites mainly produced by Fusarium verticillioides and Fusarium proliferatum. Contamination with fumonisins causes incalculable damage to the economy and poses a great risk to animal and human health. Fumonisins and their covert products are found in cereals and cereal products. Food processing significantly affects the degradation of toxins and the formation of covert toxins. However, studies on fumonisins and their covert mycotoxins remain inadequate. This review aims to summarize changes in fumonisins and the generation of covert fumonisins during processing. It also investigates the toxicity and determination methods of fumonisins and covert fumonisins, and elucidates the factors affecting fumonisins and their covert forms during processing. In addition to the metabolic production by plants and fungi, covert fumonisins are mainly produced by covalent or noncovalent binding, complexation, or physical entrapment of fumonisins with other substances. The toxicity of covert fumonisins is similar to that of free fumonisins and is a non-negligible hazard. Covert fumonisins are commonly found in food matrices, and methods to analyze them have yet to be improved. Food processing significantly affects the conversion of fumonisins to their covert toxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diaodiao Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yongli Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jiadi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Jia-Sheng Wang
- Department of Environmental Health Science, College of Public Health, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Caihong Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiulan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, Collaborative Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
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21
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Navale VD, Vamkudoth K. Toxicity and preventive approaches of Fusarium derived mycotoxins using lactic acid bacteria: state of the art. Biotechnol Lett 2022; 44:1111-1126. [PMID: 36006577 DOI: 10.1007/s10529-022-03293-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Accepted: 08/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed is a serious food safety issue and causes acute and chronic diseases in humans and livestock. Climatic and agronomic changes helps in the proliferation of fungal growth and mycotoxin production in food commodities. Mycotoxin contamination has attracted global attention due to its wide range of toxicity to humans and animals. However, physical and chemical management approaches in practice are unsafe for well-being due to their health-hazardous nature. Various antibiotics and preservatives are in use to reduce the microbial load and improve the shelf life of food products. In addition, the use of antibiotic growth promotors in livestock production may increase the risk of antimicrobial resistance, which is a global health concern. Due to their many uses, probiotics are helpful microbes that have a significant impact on food and nutrition. Furthermore, the probiotic potential of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is employed in various food and feed preparations to neutralize mycotoxins, antimicrobial activities, balance the gut microbiome, and various immunomodulatory activities in both humans and livestock. In addition, LAB produces various antimicrobials, flavouring agents, peptides, and proteins linked to various food and health care applications. The LAB-based processes for mycotoxin management are more effective, eco-friendly, and low-cost than physical and chemical approaches. The toxicity, novel preventive measures, binding nature, and molecular mechanisms of mycotoxins' detoxification using LAB have been highlighted in this review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vishwambar D Navale
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, 411008, India.,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, New Delhi, India
| | - KoteswaraRao Vamkudoth
- Biochemical Sciences Division, CSIR-National Chemical Laboratory, Pune, 411008, India. .,Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR), Ghaziabad, New Delhi, India.
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22
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Application of Aspergillus niger Fumonisin Amine Oxidase (AnFAO) to Detoxify Fumonisin-Contaminated Maize. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14080544. [PMID: 36006206 PMCID: PMC9415688 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14080544] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2022] [Revised: 07/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/02/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Fumonisin mycotoxins are a family of secondary metabolites produced by Fusarium verticillioides and related species, as well as some strains of Aspergillus niger. Fumonisin contamination of maize is a concern when grown under hot, dry conditions. When present above regulatory levels, there can be effects on animal health. New tools to reduce the toxicity of maize and maize products with high concentrations of fumonisin are needed. Recently, we reported an amine oxidase (AnFAO) from a fumonisin-producing Aspergillus niger strain capable of oxidatively deaminating intact fumonisins. In this study, AnFAO was used to reduce intact fumonisin concentrations in milled maize flour, whole kernel maize inoculated with fumonisin-producing Fusarium verticillioides, and dried distillers’ grains with solubles (DDGS). The data showed that milled maize flour incubated with 1 µM AnFAO for 1 h resulted in complete deamination of FB1 and FB2. A greater than 90% reduction in FB1–3 concentrations was observed following a simple washing procedure of whole kernel maize in the presence of 1 µM AnFAO for 1 h. Similarly, a ≥86% reduction in FB1–3 concentrations was observed in DDGS after 4 h incubation with 1 µM AnFAO. Finally, we engineered the methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris to produce functional AnFAO in both a secreted and intracellular form. These results support the further development and application of AnFAO as a promising tool to remediate fumonisin-contaminated maize and maize products.
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23
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Liu Q, Huang L, Cui Z, Qiao B, Li F, Wang C. FumDSB can alleviate the inflammatory response induced by fumonisin B 1 in growing pigs. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2022; 39:1619-1633. [PMID: 35858108 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2022.2100490] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisin B1 (FB1) has the highest natural contamination rate among all fumonisin analogs and can inhibit food intake and weight gain of pigs. Under laboratory conditions, carboxylesterase FumDSB has a high FB1 degradation rate and excellent pH and thermal stability. The present study sought to estimate the effects of FumDSB on growing pigs from the perspective of a brain-intestinal axis. Twenty-four growing pigs of similar weight were divided into Control, FB1 (5 mg FB1/kg feed), and FumDSB (5 mg FB1/kg and 0.1% FumDSB in the feed) groups. After 42 days of feeding, hypothalamus and jejunum samples were collected for quantitative real-time fluorescence, western blotting, and immunohistochemistry. The results showed that FB1 consumption can destruct the tissue structure of hypothalamus and jejunum, affect the expression and distribution of several appetite-related neuropeptides and inflammatory cytokines, thereby inducing neuroinflammatory responses and affecting food intake and weight gain. However, these anorexia effects and inflammatory responses are alleviated when FumDSB is added to the feed. In short, FumDSB can alleviate the inflammatory response induced by FB1 in growing pigs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Quancheng Liu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Libo Huang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Zhiwei Cui
- Animal Husbandry Development Centre of Zhucheng, Zhucheng, China
| | - Bin Qiao
- Comprehensive Administrative Law Enforcement Brigade in Zhucheng, Zhucheng, China
| | - Fuchang Li
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Chunyang Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Animal Biotechnology and Disease Control and Prevention, College of Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
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24
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Smaoui S, Agriopoulou S, D'Amore T, Tavares L, Mousavi Khaneghah A. The control of Fusarium growth and decontamination of produced mycotoxins by lactic acid bacteria. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 63:11125-11152. [PMID: 35708071 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2087594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
Global crop and food contamination with mycotoxins are one of the primary worldwide concerns, while there are several restrictions regarding approaching conventional physical and chemical mycotoxins decontamination methods due to nutrition loss, sensory attribute reduction in foods, chemical residual, inconvenient operation, high cost of equipment, and high energy consumption of some methods. In this regard, the overarching challenges of mycotoxin contamination in food and food crops require the development of biological decontamination strategies. Using certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) as generally recognized safe (GRAS) compounds is one of the most effective alternatives due to their potential to release antifungal metabolites against various fungal factors species. This review highlights the potential applications of LAB as biodetoxificant agents and summarizes their decontamination activities against Fusarium growth and Fusarium mycotoxins released into food/feed. Firstly, the occurrence of Fusarium and the instrumental and bioanalytical methods for the analysis of mycotoxins were in-depth discussed. Upgraded knowledge on the biosynthesis pathway of mycotoxins produced by Fusarium offers new insightful ideas clarifying the function of these secondary metabolites. Moreover, the characterization of LAB metabolites and their impact on the decontamination of the mycotoxin from Fusarium, besides the main mechanisms of mycotoxin decontamination, are covered. While the thematic growth inhibition of Fusarium and decontamination of their mycotoxin by LAB is very complex, approaching certain lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is worth deeper investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Slim Smaoui
- Laboratory of Microbial, Enzymatic Biotechnology and Biomolecules (LBMEB), Center of Biotechnology of Sfax, University of Sfax-Tunisia, Sfax, Tunisia
| | - Sofia Agriopoulou
- Department of Food Science and Technology, University of the Peloponnese, Antikalamos, Kalamata, Greece
| | - Teresa D'Amore
- Chemistry Department, Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Puglia e della Basilicata (IZSPB), Foggia, Italy
| | - Loleny Tavares
- Institute of Food Science and Technology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Sul, Porto Alegre, Rio Grande do Sul, CEP, Brazil
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Fruit and Vegetable Product Technology, Prof. Wacław Dąbrowski Institute of Agricultural and Food Biotechnology - State Research Institute, Warsaw, Poland
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25
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The Novel Amidase PcnH Initiates the Degradation of Phenazine-1-Carboxamide in Sphingomonas histidinilytica DS-9. Appl Environ Microbiol 2022; 88:e0054322. [PMID: 35579476 PMCID: PMC9195955 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00543-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Phenazines are an important class of secondary metabolites and are primarily named for their heterocyclic phenazine cores, including phenazine-1-carboxylic acid (PCA) and its derivatives, such as phenazine-1-carboxamide (PCN) and pyocyanin (PYO). Although several genes involved in the degradation of PCA and PYO have been reported so far, the genetic foundations of PCN degradation remain unknown. In this study, a PCN-degrading bacterial strain, Sphingomonas histidinilytica DS-9, was isolated. The gene pcnH, encoding a novel amidase responsible for the initial step of PCN degradation, was cloned by genome comparison and subsequent experimental validation. PcnH catalyzed the hydrolysis of the amide bond of PCN to produce PCA, which shared low identity (only 26 to 33%) with reported amidases. The Km and kcat values of PcnH for PCN were 33.22 ± 5.70 μM and 18.71 ± 0.52 s-1, respectively. PcnH has an Asp-Lys-Cys motif, which is conserved among amidases of the isochorismate hydrolase-like (IHL) superfamily. The replacement of Asp37, Lys128, and Cys163 with alanine in PcnH led to the complete loss of enzymatic activity. Furthermore, the genes pcaA1A2A3A4 and pcnD were found to encode PCA 1,2-dioxygenase and 1,2-dihydroxyphenazine (2OHPC) dioxygenase, which were responsible for the subsequent degradation steps of PCN. The PCN-degradative genes were highly conserved in some bacteria of the genus Sphingomonas, with slight variations in the sequence identities. IMPORTANCE Phenazines have been widely acknowledged as a natural antibiotic for more than 150 years, but their degradation mechanisms are still not completely elucidated. Compared with the studies on the degradation mechanism of PCA and PYO, little is known regarding PCN degradation by far. Previous studies have speculated that its initial degradation step may be catalyzed by an amidase, but no further studies have been conducted. This study identified a novel amidase, PcnH, that catalyzed the hydrolysis of PCN to PCA. In addition, the PCA 1,2-dioxygenase PcaA1A2A3A4 and 2OHPC dioxygenase PcnD were also found to be involved in the subsequent degradation steps of PCN in S. histidinilytica DS-9. And the genes responsible for PCN catabolism are highly conserved in some strains of Sphingomonas. These results deepen our understanding of the PCN degradation mechanism.
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26
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Qu L, Wang L, Ji H, Fang Y, Lei P, Zhang X, Jin L, Sun D, Dong H. Toxic Mechanism and Biological Detoxification of Fumonisins. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:182. [PMID: 35324679 PMCID: PMC8954241 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14030182] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2022] [Accepted: 02/26/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Food safety is related to the national economy and people's livelihood. Fumonisins are widely found in animal feed, feed raw materials, and human food. This can not only cause economic losses in animal husbandry but can also have carcinogenicity or teratogenicity and can be left in animal meat, eggs, and milk which may enter the human body and pose a serious threat to human health. Although there are many strategies to prevent fumonisins from entering the food chain, the traditional physical and chemical methods of mycotoxin removal have some disadvantages, such as an unstable effect, large nutrient loss, impact on the palatability of feed, and difficulty in mass production. As a safe, efficient, and environmentally friendly detoxification technology, biological detoxification attracts more and more attention from researchers and is gradually becoming an accepted technique. This work summarizes the toxic mechanism of fumonisins and highlights the advances of fumonisins in the detoxification of biological antioxidants, antagonistic microorganisms, and degradation mechanisms. Finally, the future challenges and focus of the biological control and degradation of fumonisins are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linkai Qu
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China;
- Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Life Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (L.W.); (H.J.); (Y.F.); (P.L.); (L.J.)
| | - Lei Wang
- Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Life Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (L.W.); (H.J.); (Y.F.); (P.L.); (L.J.)
| | - Hao Ji
- Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Life Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (L.W.); (H.J.); (Y.F.); (P.L.); (L.J.)
| | - Yimeng Fang
- Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Life Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (L.W.); (H.J.); (Y.F.); (P.L.); (L.J.)
| | - Pengyu Lei
- Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Life Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (L.W.); (H.J.); (Y.F.); (P.L.); (L.J.)
| | - Xingxing Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolism, The First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou 325000, China;
| | - Libo Jin
- Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Life Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (L.W.); (H.J.); (Y.F.); (P.L.); (L.J.)
| | - Da Sun
- Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Life Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (L.W.); (H.J.); (Y.F.); (P.L.); (L.J.)
| | - Hao Dong
- College of Life Sciences, Jilin Agricultural University, Changchun 130118, China;
- Biomedical Collaborative Innovation Center of Zhejiang Province, Institute of Life Sciences, Wenzhou University, Wenzhou 325035, China; (L.W.); (H.J.); (Y.F.); (P.L.); (L.J.)
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27
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Wang Y, Chen Y, Jiang L, Huang H. Improvement of the enzymatic detoxification activity towards mycotoxins through structure-based engineering. Biotechnol Adv 2022; 56:107927. [PMID: 35182727 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2022.107927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2021] [Revised: 02/09/2022] [Accepted: 02/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxin contamination of food and feed is posing a serious threat to the global food safety and public health. Biological detoxification mediated by enzymes has emerged as a promising approach, as they can specifically degrade mycotoxins into non-toxic ones. However, the low degradation efficiency and stability limit their further application. To optimize the enzymes for mycotoxin removal, modification strategies that combine computational design with their structural data have been developed. Accordingly, this review will comprehensively summarize the recent trends in structure-based engineering to improve the enzyme catalytic efficiency, selectivity and stability in mycotoxins detoxification, which also provides perspectives in obtaining innovative and effective biocatalysts for mycotoxins degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanxia Wang
- College of Food Science and Light Industry, State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Yao Chen
- College of Food Science and Light Industry, State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China
| | - Ling Jiang
- College of Food Science and Light Industry, State Key Laboratory of Materials-Oriented Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China.
| | - He Huang
- School of Food Science and Pharmaceutical Engineering, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing 210046, China; College of Pharmaceutical Science, Nanjing Tech University, Nanjing 211816, China.
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28
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Neckermann K, Antonissen G, Doupovec B, Schatzmayr D, Gathumbi J, Delcenserie V, Uhlig S, Croubels S. Efficacy of Fumonisin Esterase in Piglets as Animal Model for Fumonisin Detoxification in Humans: Pilot Study Comparing Intraoral to Intragastric Administration. Toxins (Basel) 2022; 14:toxins14020136. [PMID: 35202163 PMCID: PMC8874667 DOI: 10.3390/toxins14020136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2022] [Revised: 02/03/2022] [Accepted: 02/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Fumonisins, a group of highly prevalent and toxic mycotoxins, are suspected to be causal agents of several diseases in animals and humans. In the animal feed industry, fumonisin esterase is used as feed additive to prevent mycotoxicosis caused by fumonisins. In humans, a popular dosage form for dietary supplements, with high patient acceptance for oral intake, is capsule ingestion. Thus, fumonisin esterase provided in a capsule could be an effective strategy against fumonisin intoxication in humans. To determine the efficacy of fumonisin esterase through capsule ingestion, two modes of application were compared using piglets in a small-scale preliminary study. The enzyme was administered intraorally (in-feed analogue) or intragastrically (capsule analogue), in combination with fumonisin B1 (FB1). Biomarkers for FB1 exposure; namely FB1, hydrolysed FB1 (HFB1) and partially hydrolysed forms (pHFB1a and pHFB1b), were measured both in serum and faeces using a validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method, and toxicokinetic parameters were calculated. Additionally, the serum sphinganine/sphingosine (Sa/So) ratio, a biomarker of effect, was determined using LC-MS/MS. A significantly higher Sa/So ratio was shown in the placebo group compared to both esterase treatments, demonstrating the efficacy of the esterase. Moreover, a significant decrease in serum FB1 area under the concentration-time curve (AUC) and an increase of faecal HFB1 AUC were observed after intraoral esterase administration. However, these effects were not observed with statistical significance after intragastric esterase administration with the current sample size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaat Neckermann
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (K.N.); (G.A.)
- Department of Food Sciences and Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (K.N.); (G.A.)
| | - Barbara Doupovec
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.D.); (D.S.)
| | - Dian Schatzmayr
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria; (B.D.); (D.S.)
| | - James Gathumbi
- Department of Pathology, Parasitology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P.O. Box 29053, Nairobi 00625, Kenya;
| | - Véronique Delcenserie
- Department of Food Sciences and Fundamental and Applied Research for Animal Health (FARAH), Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Liège, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium;
| | - Silvio Uhlig
- Toxinology Research Group, Norwegian Veterinary Institute, P.O. Box 64, 1431 Ås, Norway;
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pathobiology, Pharmacology and Zoological Medicine, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (K.N.); (G.A.)
- Correspondence:
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29
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Liu L, Xie M, Wei D. Biological Detoxification of Mycotoxins: Current Status and Future Advances. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23031064. [PMID: 35162993 PMCID: PMC8835436 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23031064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2021] [Revised: 01/14/2022] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are highly toxic metabolites produced by fungi that pose a huge threat to human and animal health. Contamination of food and feed with mycotoxins is a worldwide issue, which leads to huge financial losses, annually. Decades of research have developed various approaches to degrade mycotoxins, among which the biological methods have been proved to have great potential and advantages. This review provides an overview on the important advances in the biological removal of mycotoxins over the last decade. Here, we provided further insight into the chemical structures and the toxicity of the main mycotoxins. The innovative strategies including mycotoxin degradation by novel probiotics are summarized in an in-depth discussion on potentialities and limitations. We prospected the promising future for the development of multifunctional approaches using recombinant enzymes and microbial consortia for the simultaneous removal of multiple mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Liu
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Microbial Culture Collection and Application, State Key Laboratory of Applied Microbiology Southern China, Guangdong Institute of Microbiology, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou 510070, China;
- Engineering Research Center of Starch and Vegetable Protein Processing Ministry of Education, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Wushan Road 381, Guangzhou 510641, China
| | - Mei Xie
- Food Science and Technology Program, Beijing Normal University-Hong Kong Baptist University United International College, Zhuhai 519087, China;
| | - Dong Wei
- Engineering Research Center of Starch and Vegetable Protein Processing Ministry of Education, Guangdong Province Key Laboratory for Green Processing of Natural Products and Product Safety, School of Food Science and Engineering, South China University of Technology, Wushan Road 381, Guangzhou 510641, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-20-8711-3849
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30
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Current and emerging tools of computational biology to improve the detoxification of mycotoxins. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 88:e0210221. [PMID: 34878810 DOI: 10.1128/aem.02102-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Biological organisms carry a rich potential for removing toxins from our environment, but identifying suitable candidates and improving them remain challenging. We explore the use of computational tools to discover strains and enzymes that detoxify harmful compounds. In particular, we will focus on mycotoxins-fungi-produced toxins that contaminate food and feed-and biological enzymes that are capable of rendering them less harmful. We discuss the use of established and novel computational tools to complement existing empirical data in three directions: discovering the prospect of detoxification among underexplored organisms, finding important cellular processes that contribute to detoxification, and improving the performance of detoxifying enzymes. We hope to create a synergistic conversation between researchers in computational biology and those in the bioremediation field. We showcase open bioremediation questions where computational researchers can contribute and highlight relevant existing and emerging computational tools that could benefit bioremediation researchers.
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N D, Achar PN, Sreenivasa MY. Current Perspectives of Biocontrol Agents for Management of Fusarium verticillioides and Its Fumonisin in Cereals-A Review. J Fungi (Basel) 2021; 7:776. [PMID: 34575814 PMCID: PMC8465378 DOI: 10.3390/jof7090776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2021] [Revised: 09/15/2021] [Accepted: 09/17/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Fusarium verticillioides is the most predominant fungal phytopathogen of cereals and it is posing great concern from a global perspective. The fungus is mainly associated with maize, rice, sorghum, wheat, sugarcane, banana, and asparagus and causes cob, stalk, ear, root, crown, top, and foot rot. F. verticillioides produces fumonisins as the major secondary metabolite along with trace levels of beauvericin, fusaric acid, fusarin C, gibberiliformin, and moniliformin. Being a potential carcinogen, fumonisins continue to receive major attention as they are common contaminants in cereals and its processed food products. The importance of elimination of F. verticillioides growth and its associated fumonisin from cereals cannot be overemphasized considering the significant health hazards associated with its consumption. Physical and chemical approaches have been shown to reduce fumonisin B1 concentrations among feeds and food products but have proved to be ineffective during the production process. Hence, biological control methods using microorganisms, plant extracts, antioxidants, essential oils, phenolic compounds, and other advanced technologies such as growing disease-resistant crops by applying genetic engineering, have become an effective alternative for managing F. verticillioides and its toxin. The different methods, challenges, and concerns regarding the biocontrol of F. verticillioides and production of fumonisin B1 have been addressed in the present review.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepa N
- Department of Studies in Microbiology, University of Mysore, Mysuru 570 006, Karnataka, India;
| | - Premila N. Achar
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Kennesaw State University, Kennesaw, GA 30144, USA
| | - Marikunte Y. Sreenivasa
- Department of Studies in Microbiology, University of Mysore, Mysuru 570 006, Karnataka, India;
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Microbial Reduction of Fumonisin B1 by the New Isolate Serratia marcescens 329-2. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13090638. [PMID: 34564642 PMCID: PMC8473028 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13090638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2021] [Revised: 09/07/2021] [Accepted: 09/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The mycotoxin fumonisin (FB) has become a major problem in maize products in southeastern Asia. Fumonisin can affect the health of humans and many animals. Fumonisin contamination can be reduced by detoxifying microbial enzyme. Screening of 95 potent natural sources resulted in 5.3% of samples yielding a total of five bacterial isolates that were a promising solution, reducing approximately 10.0-30.0% of fumonisin B1 (FB1). Serratia marcescens, one of the dominant degrading bacteria, was identified with Gram staining, 16S rRNA gene, and MALDI-TOF/TOF MS. Cell-free extract showed the highest fumonisin reduction rates, 30.3% in solution and 37.0% in maize. Crude proteins from bacterial cells were analyzed with a label-free quantification technique. The results showed that hydrolase enzymes and transferase enzymes that can cooperate in the fumonisin degradation process were highly expressed in comparison to their levels in a control. These studies have shown that S. marcescens 329-2 is a new potential bacterium for FB1 reduction, and the production of FB1-reducing enzymes should be further explored.
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Detoxification Esterase StrH Initiates Strobilurin Fungicide Degradation in Hyphomicrobium sp. Strain DY-1. Appl Environ Microbiol 2021; 87:AEM.00103-21. [PMID: 33741617 DOI: 10.1128/aem.00103-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/09/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Strobilurin fungicides are widely used in agricultural production due to their broad-spectrum and fungal mitochondrial inhibitory activities. However, their massive application has restrained the growth of eukaryotic algae and increased collateral damage in freshwater systems, notably harmful cyanobacterial blooms (HCBs). In this study, a strobilurin fungicide-degrading strain, Hyphomicrobium sp. strain DY-1, was isolated and characterized successfully. Moreover, a novel esterase gene, strH, responsible for the de-esterification of strobilurin fungicides, was cloned, and the enzymatic properties of StrH were studied. For trifloxystrobin, StrH displayed maximum activity at 50°C and pH 7.0. The catalytic efficiencies (k cat/Km ) of StrH for different strobilurin fungicides were 196.32 ± 2.30 μM-1 · s-1 (trifloxystrobin), 4.64 ± 0.05 μM-1 · s-1 (picoxystrobin), 2.94 ± 0.02 μM-1 · s-1 (pyraclostrobin), and (2.41 ± 0.19)×10-2 μM-1 · s-1 (azoxystrobin). StrH catalyzed the de-esterification of a variety of strobilurin fungicides, generating the corresponding parent acid to achieve the detoxification of strobilurin fungicides and relieve strobilurin fungicide growth inhibition of Chlorella This research will provide insight into the microbial remediation of strobilurin fungicide-contaminated environments.IMPORTANCE Strobilurin fungicides have been widely acknowledged as an essential group of pesticides worldwide. So far, their residues and toxic effects on aquatic organisms have been reported in different parts of the world. Microbial degradation can eliminate xenobiotics from the environment. Therefore, the degradation of strobilurin fungicides by microorganisms has also been reported. However, little is known about the involvement of enzymes or genes in strobilurin fungicide degradation. In this study, a novel esterase gene responsible for the detoxification of strobilurin fungicides, strH, was cloned in the newly isolated strain Hyphomicrobium sp. DY-1. This degradation process detoxifies the strobilurin fungicides and relieves their growth inhibition of Chlorella.
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Alberts JF, Davids I, Moll WD, Schatzmayr G, Burger HM, Shephard GS, Gelderblom WC. Enzymatic detoxification of the fumonisin mycotoxins during dry milling of maize. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2020.107726] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Nešić K, Habschied K, Mastanjević K. Possibilities for the Biological Control of Mycotoxins in Food and Feed. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:198. [PMID: 33801997 PMCID: PMC8001018 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13030198] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 03/04/2021] [Accepted: 03/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Seeking useful biological agents for mycotoxin detoxification has achieved success in the last twenty years thanks to the participation of many multidisciplinary teams. We have recently witnessed discoveries in the fields of bacterial genetics (inclusive of next-generation sequencing), protein encoding, and bioinformatics that have helped to shape the latest perception of how microorganisms/mycotoxins/environmental factors intertwine and interact, so the road is opened for new breakthroughs. Analysis of literature data related to the biological control of mycotoxins indicates the ability of yeast, bacteria, fungi and enzymes to degrade or adsorb mycotoxins, which increases the safety and quality of susceptible crops, animal feed and, ultimately, food of animal origin (milk, meat and eggs) by preventing the presence of residues. Microbial detoxification (transformation and adsorption) is becoming a trustworthy strategy that leaves no or less toxic compounds and contributes to food security. This review summarizes the data and highlights the importance and prospects of these methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ksenija Nešić
- Institute of Veterinary Medicine of Serbia, Food and Feed Department, Autoput 3, 11070 Beograd, Serbia
| | - Kristina Habschied
- Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, F. Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
| | - Krešimir Mastanjević
- Faculty of Food Technology Osijek, Josip Juraj Strossmayer University of Osijek, F. Kuhača 20, 31000 Osijek, Croatia;
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36
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Xu H, Wang L, Sun J, Wang L, Guo H, Ye Y, Sun X. Microbial detoxification of mycotoxins in food and feed. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021; 62:4951-4969. [PMID: 33663294 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.1879730] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are metabolites produced by fungi growing in food or feed, which can produce toxic effects and seriously threaten the health of humans and animals. Mycotoxins are commonly found in food and feed, and are of significant concern due to their hepatotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, carcinogenicity, mutagenicity, and ability to damage the immune and reproductive systems. Traditional physical and chemical detoxification methods to treat mycotoxins in food and feed products have limitations, such as loss of nutrients, reagent residues, and secondary pollution to the environment. Thus, there is an urgent need for new detoxification methods to effectively control mycotoxins and treat mycotoxin pollution. In recent years, microbial detoxification technology has been widely used for the degradation of mycotoxins in food and feed because this approach offers the potential for treatment with high efficiency, low toxicity, and strong specificity, without damage to nutrients. This article reviews the application of microbial detoxification technology for removal of common mycotoxins such as Aflatoxin, Ochratoxin, Zearalenone, Deoxynivalenol, and Fumonisins, and discusses the development trend of this important technology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongwen Xu
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Liangzhe Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Jiadi Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Liping Wang
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Hongyan Guo
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Yongli Ye
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
| | - Xiulan Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Food Science and Technology, School of Food Science and Technology, National Engineering Research Center for Functional Food, Synergetic Innovation Center of Food Safety and Quality Control, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, P.R. China
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37
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Arumugam T, Ghazi T, Chuturgoon AA. Molecular and epigenetic modes of Fumonisin B 1 mediated toxicity and carcinogenesis and detoxification strategies. Crit Rev Toxicol 2021; 51:76-94. [PMID: 33605189 DOI: 10.1080/10408444.2021.1881040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Fumonisin B1 (FB1) is a natural contaminant of agricultural commodities that has displayed a myriad of toxicities in animals. Moreover, it is known to be a hepatorenal carcinogen in rodents and may be associated with oesophageal and hepatocellular carcinomas in humans. The most well elucidated mode of FB1-mediated toxicity is its disruption of sphingolipid metabolism; however, enhanced oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, autophagy, and alterations in immune response may also play a role in its toxicity and carcinogenicity. Alterations to the host epigenome may impact on the toxic and carcinogenic response to FB1. Seeing that the contamination of FB1 in food poses a considerable risk to human and animal health, a great deal of research has focused on new methods to prevent and attenuate FB1-induced toxic consequences. The focus of the present review is on the molecular and epigenetic interactions of FB1 as well as recent research involving FB1 detoxification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thilona Arumugam
- Discipline of Medical Biochemistry, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Terisha Ghazi
- Discipline of Medical Biochemistry, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
| | - Anil A Chuturgoon
- Discipline of Medical Biochemistry, School of Laboratory Medicine and Medical Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, South Africa
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38
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Sharma M, Khurana H, Singh DN, Negi RK. The genus Sphingopyxis: Systematics, ecology, and bioremediation potential - A review. JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT 2021; 280:111744. [PMID: 33280938 DOI: 10.1016/j.jenvman.2020.111744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Revised: 11/22/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
The genus Sphingopyxis was first reported in the year 2001. Phylogenetically, Sphingopyxis is well delineated from other genera Sphingobium, Sphingomonas and Novosphingobium of sphingomonads group, family Sphingomonadaceae of Proteobacteria. To date (at the time of writing), the genus Sphingopyxis comprises of twenty validly published species available in List of Prokaryotic Names with Standing in Nomenclature. Sphingopyxis spp. have been isolated from diverse niches including, agricultural soil, marine and fresh water, caves, activated sludge, thermal spring, oil and pesticide contaminated soil, and heavy metal contaminated sites. Sphingopyxis species have drawn considerable attention not only for their ability to survive under extreme environments, but also for their potential to degrade number of xenobiotics and other environmental contaminants that impose serious threat to human health. At present, genome sequence of both cultivable and non-cultivable strains (metagenome assembled genome) are available in the public databases (NCBI) and genome wide studies confirms the presence of mobile genetic elements and plethora of degradation genes and pathways making them a potential candidate for bioremediation. Beside genome wide predictions there are number of experimental evidences confirm the degradation potential of bacteria belonging to genus Sphingopyxis and also the production of different secondary metabolites that help them interact and survive in their ecological niches. This review provides detailed information on ecology, general characteristic and the significant implications of Sphingopyxis species in environmental management along with the bio-synthetic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Sharma
- Fish Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India
| | - Himani Khurana
- Fish Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India
| | - Durgesh Narain Singh
- Bacterial Pathogenesis Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India
| | - Ram Krishan Negi
- Fish Molecular Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Delhi, Delhi-110007, India.
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39
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Ferrara M, Haidukowski M, D'Imperio M, Parente A, De Angelis E, Monaci L, Logrieco AF, Mulè G. New insight into microbial degradation of mycotoxins during anaerobic digestion. WASTE MANAGEMENT (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2021; 119:215-225. [PMID: 33070091 DOI: 10.1016/j.wasman.2020.09.048] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 09/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Anaerobic digestion represents an interesting approach to produce biogas from organic waste materials contaminated by mycotoxins. In this study a shotgun metagenomic analysis of lab-scale bioreactors fed with mycotoxin-contaminated silage has been carried out to characterize the evolution of microbial community under the operating conditions and the key enzymatic activities responsible for mycotoxin degradation. The study was conducted at two different level of contamination for fumonisins and aflatoxin B1. After 15 days biogas production was not influenced by the presence of mycotoxins. Metagenomic analysis revealed that a high contamination rate of mycotoxins interfere with microbial diversity. Degradation of mycotoxins accounted in about 54% for aflatoxin B1 and 60% for fumonisins. The degradation activity of fumonisins resulted in the presence of partially hydrolyzed forms in both tested contamination levels. Accordingly, metagenomic functional analysis revealed the presence of two new carboxylesterase genes belonging to D. bacterium and P. bacterium putatively involved in fumonisin degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Massimo Ferrara
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy.
| | - Miriam Haidukowski
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Angelo Parente
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | | | - Linda Monaci
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | - Antonio F Logrieco
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Mulè
- Institute of Sciences of Food Production, National Research Council, Bari, Italy
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40
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Biological detoxification of fumonisin by a novel carboxylesterase from Sphingomonadales bacterium and its biochemical characterization. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 169:18-27. [PMID: 33309671 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.12.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2020] [Revised: 11/11/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Fumonisins have posed hazardous threat to human and animal health worldwide. Enzymatic degradation is a desirable detoxification approach but is severely hindered by serious shortage of detoxification enzymes. After mining enzymes by bioinformatics analysis, a novel carboxylesterase FumDSB from Sphingomonadales bacterium was expressed in Escherichia coli, and confirmed to catalyze fumonisin B1 to produce hydrolyzed fumonisin B1 by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry for the first time. FumDSB showed high sequence novelty, sharing only ~34% sequence identity with three reported fumonisin detoxification carboxylesterases. Besides, FumDSB displayed its high degrading activity at 30-40 °C within a broad pH range from 6.0 to 9.0, which is perfectly suitable to be used in animal physiological condition. It also exhibited excellent pH stability and moderate thermostability. This study provides a FB1 detoxification carboxylesterase which could be further used as a potential food and feed additive.
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41
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Guerre P. Mycotoxin and Gut Microbiota Interactions. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E769. [PMID: 33291716 PMCID: PMC7761905 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12120769] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2020] [Revised: 11/26/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The interactions between mycotoxins and gut microbiota were discovered early in animals and explained part of the differences in susceptibility to mycotoxins among species. Isolation of microbes present in the gut responsible for biotransformation of mycotoxins into less toxic metabolites and for binding mycotoxins led to the development of probiotics, enzymes, and cell extracts that are used to prevent mycotoxin toxicity in animals. More recently, bioactivation of mycotoxins into toxic compounds, notably through the hydrolysis of masked mycotoxins, revealed that the health benefits of the effect of the gut microbiota on mycotoxins can vary strongly depending on the mycotoxin and the microbe concerned. Interactions between mycotoxins and gut microbiota can also be observed through the effect of mycotoxins on the gut microbiota. Changes of gut microbiota secondary to mycotoxin exposure may be the consequence of the antimicrobial properties of mycotoxins or the toxic effect of mycotoxins on epithelial and immune cells in the gut, and liberation of antimicrobial peptides by these cells. Whatever the mechanism involved, exposure to mycotoxins leads to changes in the gut microbiota composition at the phylum, genus, and species level. These changes can lead to disruption of the gut barrier function and bacterial translocation. Changes in the gut microbiota composition can also modulate the toxicity of toxic compounds, such as bacterial toxins and of mycotoxins themselves. A last consequence for health of the change in the gut microbiota secondary to exposure to mycotoxins is suspected through variations observed in the amount and composition of the volatile fatty acids and sphingolipids that are normally present in the digesta, and that can contribute to the occurrence of chronic diseases in human. The purpose of this work is to review what is known about mycotoxin and gut microbiota interactions, the mechanisms involved in these interactions, and their practical application, and to identify knowledge gaps and future research needs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Guerre
- Ecole Nationale Vétérinaire de Toulouse, Université de Toulouse, ENVT, F-31076 Toulouse, France
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42
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Garnham CP, Butler SG, Telmer PG, Black FE, Renaud JB, Sumarah MW. Identification and Characterization of an Aspergillus niger Amine Oxidase that Detoxifies Intact Fumonisins. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2020; 68:13779-13790. [PMID: 33174732 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.0c04504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Fumonisin contamination of maize damaged by Fusarium verticillioides and related species is a major problem when it is grown under warm and dry conditions. Consumption of fumonisin contaminated food and feed is harmful to both humans and livestock. Novel tools for reducing or eliminating fumonisin toxicity may be useful to the agri-feed sector to deal with this worldwide problem. Enzymes capable of catabolizing fumonisins have been identified from microorganisms that utilize fumonisins as an energy source. However, fumonisin detoxifying enzymes produced by the very species that biosynthesize the toxin have yet to be reported. Here we describe the identification and characterization of a novel amine oxidase synthesized by the fumonisin-producing fungus Aspergillus niger. We have recombinantly expressed this A. niger enzyme in E. coli and demonstrated its ability to oxidatively deaminate intact fumonisins without requiring exogenous cofactors. This enzyme, termed AnFAO (A. niger fumonisin amine oxidase), displays robust fumonisin deamination activity across a broad range of conditions, has a high native melting temperature, and can be purified to >95% homogeneity at high yield in a one-step enrichment. AnFAO is a promising tool to remediate fumonisin-contaminated feed including maize destined for ethanol production.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher P Garnham
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford St, London, Ontario N5V 4T3, Canada
| | - Shane G Butler
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford St, London, Ontario N5V 4T3, Canada
| | - Patrick G Telmer
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford St, London, Ontario N5V 4T3, Canada
| | - Friday E Black
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford St, London, Ontario N5V 4T3, Canada
| | - Justin B Renaud
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford St, London, Ontario N5V 4T3, Canada
| | - Mark W Sumarah
- London Research and Development Centre, Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada, 1391 Sandford St, London, Ontario N5V 4T3, Canada
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Chen J, Li Z, Cheng Y, Gao C, Guo L, Wang T, Xu J. Sphinganine-Analog Mycotoxins (SAMs): Chemical Structures, Bioactivities, and Genetic Controls. J Fungi (Basel) 2020; 6:E312. [PMID: 33255427 PMCID: PMC7711896 DOI: 10.3390/jof6040312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2020] [Revised: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 11/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Sphinganine-analog mycotoxins (SAMs) including fumonisins and A. alternata f. sp. Lycopersici (AAL) toxins are a group of related mycotoxins produced by plant pathogenic fungi in the Fusarium genus and in Alternaria alternata f. sp. Lycopersici, respectively. SAMs have shown diverse cytotoxicity and phytotoxicity, causing adverse impacts on plants, animals, and humans, and are a destructive force to crop production worldwide. This review summarizes the structural diversity of SAMs and encapsulates the relationships between their structures and biological activities. The toxicity of SAMs on plants and animals is mainly attributed to their inhibitory activity against the ceramide biosynthesis enzyme, influencing the sphingolipid metabolism and causing programmed cell death. We also reviewed the detoxification methods against SAMs and how plants develop resistance to SAMs. Genetic and evolutionary analyses revealed that the FUM (fumonisins biosynthetic) gene cluster was responsible for fumonisin biosynthesis in Fusarium spp. Sequence comparisons among species within the genus Fusarium suggested that mutations and multiple horizontal gene transfers involving the FUM gene cluster were responsible for the interspecific difference in fumonisin synthesis. We finish by describing methods for monitoring and quantifying SAMs in food and agricultural products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jia Chen
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Zhimin Li
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Yi Cheng
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Chunsheng Gao
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Litao Guo
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Tuhong Wang
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
| | - Jianping Xu
- Institute of Bast Fiber Crops and Center of Southern Economic Crops, Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Changsha 410205, China; (J.C.); (Z.L.); (Y.C.); (C.G.); (L.G.); (T.W.)
- Department of Biology, McMaster University, Hamilton, ON L8S 4K1, Canada
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44
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Gallo A, Minuti A, Bani P, Bertuzzi T, Cappelli FP, Doupovec B, Faas J, Schatzmayr D, Trevisi E. A mycotoxin-deactivating feed additive counteracts the adverse effects of regular levels of Fusarium mycotoxins in dairy cows. J Dairy Sci 2020; 103:11314-11331. [PMID: 33222853 DOI: 10.3168/jds.2020-18197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Accepted: 08/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Little is known about the effects of commonly found levels of Fusarium mycotoxins on the performance, metabolism, and immunity of dairy cattle. We investigated the effects of regular contamination levels, meaning contamination levels that can be commonly detected in dairy feeds, of deoxynivalenol (DON) and fumonisins (FB) in total mixed ration (TMR) on the performance, diet digestibility, milk quality, and plasma liver enzymes in dairy cows. This trial examined 12 lactating Holstein dairy cows using a 3-period × 3-treatment Latin square design. The experimental period was 21 d of mycotoxin exposure followed by 14 d of washout. During treatment periods, cows received one of 3 diets: (1) CTR (control) diet of TMR contaminated with 340.5 µg of DON/kg of dry matter (DM) and 127.9 µg FB/kg of DM; (2) MTX diet of TMR contaminated with Fusarium mycotoxins at levels higher than CTR but below US and European Union guidelines (i.e., 733.0 µg of DON/kg of DM and 994.4 µg of FB/kg of DM); or (3) MDP diet, which was MTX diet supplemented with a mycotoxin deactivator product (i.e., 897.3 µg of DON/kg of DM and 1,247.1 µg of FB/kg of DM; Mycofix, 35 g/animal per day). During washout, all animals were fed the same CTR diet. Body weight, body condition score, DM intake, dietary nutrient digestibility, milk production, milk composition and rennet coagulation properties, somatic cell count, blood serum chemistry, hematology, serum immunoglobulin concentrations, and expression of multiple genes in circulating leucocytes were measured. Milk production was significantly greater in the CTR group (37.73 kg/d) than in the MTX (36.39 kg/d) and the MDP (36.55 kg/d) groups. Curd firmness and curd firming time were negatively affected by the MTX diet compared with the other 2 diets. Furthermore, DM and neutral detergent fiber digestibility were lower after the MTX diet than after the CTR diet (67.3 vs. 71.0% and 42.8 vs. 52.3%). The MDP diet had the highest digestibility coefficients for DM (72.4%) and neutral detergent fiber (53.6%) compared with the other 2 diets. The activities of plasma liver transaminases were higher after the MTX diet than after the CTR and MDP diets. Compared with the CTR diet, the MTX diet led to slightly lower expression of genes related to immune and inflammatory functions, indicating that Fusarium mycotoxins had an immunosuppressive effect. Our results indicated that feed contaminated with regular levels of Fusarium mycotoxins adversely affected the performance, milk quality, diet digestibility, metabolic variables, and immunity of dairy cows, and that supplementation with mycotoxin deactivator product counteracted most of these negative effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Gallo
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition (DIANA), Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy.
| | - A Minuti
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition (DIANA), Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - P Bani
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition (DIANA), Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - T Bertuzzi
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition (DIANA), Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - F Piccioli Cappelli
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition (DIANA), Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
| | - B Doupovec
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - J Faas
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - D Schatzmayr
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria
| | - E Trevisi
- Department of Animal Science, Food and Nutrition (DIANA), Faculty of Agricultural, Food and Environmental Sciences, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 29122 Piacenza, Italy
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45
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Radoman B, Grünwald-Gruber C, Schmelzer B, Zavec D, Gasser B, Altmann F, Mattanovich D. The Degree and Length of O-Glycosylation of Recombinant Proteins Produced in Pichia pastoris Depends on the Nature of the Protein and the Process Type. Biotechnol J 2020; 16:e2000266. [PMID: 32975831 DOI: 10.1002/biot.202000266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The methylotrophic yeast Pichia pastoris is known as an efficient host for the production of heterologous proteins. While N-linked protein glycosylation is well characterized in P. pastoris there is less knowledge of the patterns of O-glycosylation. O-glycans produced by P. pastoris consist of short linear mannose chains, which in the case of recombinant biopharmaceuticals can trigger an immune response in humans. This study aims to reveal the influence of different cultivation strategies on O-mannosylation profiles in P. pastoris. Sixteen different model proteins, produced by different P. pastoris strains, are analyzed for their O-glycosylation profile. Based on the obtained data, human serum albumin (HSA) is chosen to be produced in fast and slow growth fed batch fermentations by using common promoters, PGAP and PAOX1 . After purification and protein digestion, glycopeptides are analyzed by LC/ESI-MS. In the samples expressed with PGAP it is found that the degree of glycosylation is slightly higher when a slow growth rate is used, regardless of the efficiency of the producing strain. The highest glycosylation intensity is observed in HSA produced with PAOX1 . The results indicate that the O-glycosylation level is markedly higher when the protein is produced in a methanol-based expression system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bojana Radoman
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB), Vienna, 1190, Austria.,Department of Biotechnology, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Clemens Grünwald-Gruber
- Department of Chemistry, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Bernhard Schmelzer
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB), Vienna, 1190, Austria.,Department of Biotechnology, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Domen Zavec
- Department of Biotechnology, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Brigitte Gasser
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB), Vienna, 1190, Austria.,Department of Biotechnology, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Friedrich Altmann
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB), Vienna, 1190, Austria.,Department of Chemistry, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 1190, Austria
| | - Diethard Mattanovich
- Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology (ACIB), Vienna, 1190, Austria.,Department of Biotechnology, BOKU-University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, 1190, Austria
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46
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Ramírez-Vega H, Arteaga-Garibay RI, Maya-Lucas O, Gómez-Rodríguez VM, Chávez-Díaz IF, Ruvalcaba-Gómez JM, Heredia-Nava D, Loperena-Martínez R, Zelaya-Molina LX. The Bacterial Community Associated with the Amarillo Zamorano Maize ( Zea mays) Landrace Silage Process. Microorganisms 2020; 8:microorganisms8101503. [PMID: 33003516 PMCID: PMC7601214 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms8101503] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 09/15/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Maize silage is used in the diet of dairy cows, with suitable results in milk yield. In this study, the composition and diversity of the bacterial communities of the silage process of Amarillo Zamorano (AZ) Mexican maize landrace with relation to the Antilope (A) commercial hybrid are described. From both types of maize, seeds were sown in experimental plots, plants harvested at the reproductive stage, chopped, and packed in laboratory micro-silos. Physicochemical parameters were evaluated, and DNA was extracted from the juice in the micro-silos. The bacterial communities were analyzed by next-generation sequencing (NGS) of seven hypervariable regions of the 16S rRNA gene. The composition of both bacterial communities was dominated by Lactobacillales and Enterobacteriales, Lactobacillales mainly in A silage and Enterobacteriales in AZ silage; as well, the core bacterial community of both silages comprises 212 operational taxonomic units (OTUs). Sugar concentration showed the highest number of significant associations with OTUs of different phyla. The structure of the bacterial communities was different in both silage fermentation processes, showing that AZ silage has a shorter fermentation process than A silage. In addition, NGS demonstrated the effect of the type of maize and local conditions on silage fermentation and contributed to potential strategies to improve the quality of AZ silage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humberto Ramírez-Vega
- Departamento de Ciencias Pecuarias y Agrícolas, Centro Universitario de Los Altos, Universidad de Guadalajara, Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco 47600, Mexico; (H.R.-V.); (V.M.G.-R.); (D.H.-N.); (R.L.-M.)
| | - Ramón I. Arteaga-Garibay
- Laboratorio de Recursos Genéticos Microbianos, Centro Nacional de Recursos Genéticos, Instituto Nacional de Investigación Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarios, Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco 47600, Mexico; (R.I.A.-G.); (I.F.C.-D.)
| | - Otoniel Maya-Lucas
- Departamento de Genética y Biología Molecular, CINVESTAV-Unidad Zacatenco, Ciudad de México 07360, Mexico;
| | - Victor M. Gómez-Rodríguez
- Departamento de Ciencias Pecuarias y Agrícolas, Centro Universitario de Los Altos, Universidad de Guadalajara, Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco 47600, Mexico; (H.R.-V.); (V.M.G.-R.); (D.H.-N.); (R.L.-M.)
| | - Ismael F. Chávez-Díaz
- Laboratorio de Recursos Genéticos Microbianos, Centro Nacional de Recursos Genéticos, Instituto Nacional de Investigación Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarios, Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco 47600, Mexico; (R.I.A.-G.); (I.F.C.-D.)
| | - José M. Ruvalcaba-Gómez
- Campo Experimental Altos de Jalisco, Instituto Nacional de Investigación Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarios, Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco 47600, Mexico;
| | - Darwin Heredia-Nava
- Departamento de Ciencias Pecuarias y Agrícolas, Centro Universitario de Los Altos, Universidad de Guadalajara, Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco 47600, Mexico; (H.R.-V.); (V.M.G.-R.); (D.H.-N.); (R.L.-M.)
| | - Raquel Loperena-Martínez
- Departamento de Ciencias Pecuarias y Agrícolas, Centro Universitario de Los Altos, Universidad de Guadalajara, Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco 47600, Mexico; (H.R.-V.); (V.M.G.-R.); (D.H.-N.); (R.L.-M.)
| | - L. X. Zelaya-Molina
- Laboratorio de Recursos Genéticos Microbianos, Centro Nacional de Recursos Genéticos, Instituto Nacional de Investigación Forestales, Agrícolas y Pecuarios, Tepatitlán de Morelos, Jalisco 47600, Mexico; (R.I.A.-G.); (I.F.C.-D.)
- Correspondence:
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Toxicokinetics of Hydrolyzed Fumonisin B 1 after Single Oral or Intravenous Bolus to Broiler Chickens Fed a Control or a Fumonisins-Contaminated Diet. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12060413. [PMID: 32575914 PMCID: PMC7354465 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12060413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 06/08/2020] [Accepted: 06/18/2020] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The toxicokinetics (TK) of hydrolyzed fumonisin B1 (HFB1) were evaluated in 16 broiler chickens after being fed either a control or a fumonisins-contaminated diet (10.8 mg fumonisin B1, 3.3 mg B2 and 1.5 mg B3/kg feed) for two weeks, followed by a single oral (PO) or intravenous (IV) dose of 1.25 mg/kg bodyweight (BW) of HFB1. Fumonisin B1 (FB1), its partially hydrolyzed metabolites pHFB1a and pHFB1b, and fully hydrolyzed metabolite HFB1, were determined in chicken plasma using a validated ultra-performance liquid chromatography–tandem mass spectrometry method. None of the broiler chicken showed clinical symptoms of fumonisins (FBs) or HFB1 toxicity during the trial, nor was an aberration in body weight observed between the animals fed the FBs-contaminated diet and those fed the control diet. HFB1 was shown to follow a two-compartmental pharmacokinetic model with first order elimination in broiler chickens after IV administration. Toxicokinetic parameters of HFB1 demonstrated a total body clearance of 16.39 L/kg·h and an intercompartmental flow of 8.34 L/kg·h. Low levels of FB1 and traces of pHFB1b were found in plasma of chickens fed the FBs-contaminated diet. Due to plasma concentrations being under the limit of quantification (LOQ) after oral administration of HFB1, no toxicokinetic modelling could be performed in broiler chickens after oral administration of HFB1. Moreover, no phase II metabolites, nor N-acyl-metabolites of HFB1 could be detected in this study.
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48
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Dellafiora L, Gonaus C, Streit B, Galaverna G, Moll WD, Vogtentanz G, Schatzmayr G, Dall’Asta C, Prasad S. An In Silico Target Fishing Approach to Identify Novel Ochratoxin A Hydrolyzing Enzyme. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E258. [PMID: 32316122 PMCID: PMC7232302 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Ochratoxin A (OTA), a mycotoxin that is of utmost concern in food and feed safety, is produced by fungal species that mainly belong to the Aspergillus and Penicillium genera. The development of mitigation strategies to reduce OTA content along the supply chains is key to ensuring safer production of food and feed. Enzyme-based strategies are among the most promising methods due to their specificity, efficacy, and multi-situ applicability. In particular, some enzymes are already known for hydrolyzing OTA into ochratoxin alpha (OTα) and phenylalanine (Phe), eventually resulting in detoxification action. Therefore, the discovery of novel OTA hydrolyzing enzymes, along with the advancement of an innovative approach for their identification, could provide a broader basis to develop more effective mitigating strategies in the future. In the present study, a hybrid in silico/in vitro workflow coupling virtual screening with enzymatic assays was applied in order to identify novel OTA hydrolyzing enzymes. Among the various hits, porcine carboxypeptidase B was identified for the first time as an effective OTA hydrolyzing enzyme. The successful experimental endorsement of findings of the workflow confirms that the presented strategy is suitable for identifying novel OTA hydrolyzing enzymes, and it might be relevant for the discovery of other mycotoxin- mitigating enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luca Dellafiora
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (G.G.); (C.D.)
| | - Christoph Gonaus
- BIOMIN Research Centre, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria; (C.G.); (B.S.); (W.-D.M.); (G.V.); (G.S.)
| | - Barbara Streit
- BIOMIN Research Centre, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria; (C.G.); (B.S.); (W.-D.M.); (G.V.); (G.S.)
| | - Gianni Galaverna
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (G.G.); (C.D.)
| | - Wulf-Dieter Moll
- BIOMIN Research Centre, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria; (C.G.); (B.S.); (W.-D.M.); (G.V.); (G.S.)
| | - Gudrun Vogtentanz
- BIOMIN Research Centre, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria; (C.G.); (B.S.); (W.-D.M.); (G.V.); (G.S.)
| | - Gerd Schatzmayr
- BIOMIN Research Centre, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria; (C.G.); (B.S.); (W.-D.M.); (G.V.); (G.S.)
| | - Chiara Dall’Asta
- Department of Food and Drug, University of Parma, Parco Area delle Scienze 27/A, 43124 Parma, Italy; (G.G.); (C.D.)
| | - Shreenath Prasad
- BIOMIN Research Centre, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln an der Donau, Austria; (C.G.); (B.S.); (W.-D.M.); (G.V.); (G.S.)
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Kemboi DC, Antonissen G, Ochieng PE, Croubels S, Okoth S, Kangethe EK, Faas J, Lindahl JF, Gathumbi JK. A Review of the Impact of Mycotoxins on Dairy Cattle Health: Challenges for Food Safety and Dairy Production in Sub-Saharan Africa. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:E222. [PMID: 32252249 PMCID: PMC7232242 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12040222] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites of fungi that contaminate food and feed and have a significant negative impact on human and animal health and productivity. The tropical condition in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) together with poor storage of feed promotes fungal growth and subsequent mycotoxin production. Aflatoxins (AF) produced by Aspergillus species, fumonisins (FUM), zearalenone (ZEN), T-2 toxin (T-2), and deoxynivalenol (DON) produced by Fusarium species, and ochratoxin A (OTA) produced by Penicillium and Aspergillus species are well-known mycotoxins of agricultural importance. Consumption of feed contaminated with these toxins may cause mycotoxicoses in animals, characterized by a range of clinical signs depending on the toxin, and losses in the animal industry. In SSA, contamination of dairy feed with mycotoxins has been frequently reported, which poses a serious constraint to animal health and productivity, and is also a hazard to human health since some mycotoxins and their metabolites are excreted in milk, especially aflatoxin M1. This review describes the major mycotoxins, their occurrence, and impact in dairy cattle diets in SSA highlighting the problems related to animal health, productivity, and food safety and the up-to-date post-harvest mitigation strategies for the prevention and reduction of contamination of dairy feed.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Chebutia Kemboi
- Department of Pathology, Parasitology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, PO Box 29053, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya;
- Department of Animal Science, Chuka University, P.O Box 109-00625 Chuka, Kenya
| | - Gunther Antonissen
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (G.A.); (P.E.O.); (S.C.)
- Department of Pathology, Bacteriology and Avian Diseases, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium
| | - Phillis E. Ochieng
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (G.A.); (P.E.O.); (S.C.)
- Department of Food Sciences, University of Liège, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Avenue de Cureghem 10, 4000 Liège, Belgium
| | - Siska Croubels
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Ghent University, Salisburylaan 133, 9820 Merelbeke, Belgium; (G.A.); (P.E.O.); (S.C.)
| | - Sheila Okoth
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, P.O Box 30197-00100 Nairobi, Kenya;
| | | | - Johannes Faas
- BIOMIN Research Center, Technopark 1, 3430 Tulln, Austria;
| | - Johanna F. Lindahl
- Department of Biosciences, International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI), P.O Box 30709, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya
- Department of Medical Biochemistry and Microbiology, Uppsala University, P.O Box 582, 751 23 Uppsala, Sweden
- Department of Clinical Sciences, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, P.O Box 7054, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden
| | - James K. Gathumbi
- Department of Pathology, Parasitology and Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, PO Box 29053, 00100 Nairobi, Kenya;
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50
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Haque MA, Wang Y, Shen Z, Li X, Saleemi MK, He C. Mycotoxin contamination and control strategy in human, domestic animal and poultry: A review. Microb Pathog 2020; 142:104095. [PMID: 32097745 DOI: 10.1016/j.micpath.2020.104095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 161] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2020] [Accepted: 02/21/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Mycotoxins are secondary metabolites produced mainly by fungi belonging to the genera Aspergillus, Fusarium, Penicillium, Claviceps, and Alternaria that contaminate basic food products throughout the world, where developing countries are becoming predominantly affected. Currently, more than 500 mycotoxins are reported in which the most important concern to public health and agriculture include AFB1, OTA, TCTs (especially DON, T-2, HT-2), FB1, ZEN, PAT, CT, and EAs. The presence of mycotoxin in significant quantities poses health risks varying from allergic reactions to death on both humans and animals. This review brings attention to the present status of mycotoxin contamination of food products and recommended control strategies for mycotoxin mitigation. Humans are exposed to mycotoxins directly through the consumption of contaminated foods while, indirectly through carryover of toxins and their metabolites into animal tissues, milk, meat and eggs after ingestion of contaminated feeds. Pre-harvest (field) control of mycotoxin production and post-harvest (storage) mitigation of contamination represent the most effective approach to limit mycotoxins in food and feed. Compared with chemical and physical approaches, biological detoxification methods regarding biotransformation of mycotoxins into less toxic metabolites, are generally more unique, productive and eco-friendly. Along with the biological detoxification method, genetic improvement and application of nanotechnology show tremendous potential in reducing mycotoxin production thereby improving food safety and food quality for extended shelf life. This review will primarily describe the latest developments in the formation and detoxification of the most important mycotoxins by biological degradation and other alternative approaches, thereby reducing the potential adverse effects of mycotoxins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Atiqul Haque
- Key Lab of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonoses of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China; Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary & Animal Science, Hajee Mohammad Danesh Science and Technology University, Dinajpur, 5200, Bangladesh
| | - Yihui Wang
- Key Lab of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonoses of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Zhiqiang Shen
- Binzhou Animal Science and Veterinary Medicine Academy of Shandong Province, Binzhou, 256600, China
| | - Xiaohui Li
- Key Lab of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonoses of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Muhammad Kashif Saleemi
- Department of Pathology, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, 38040, Pakistan
| | - Cheng He
- Key Lab of Animal Epidemiology and Zoonoses of Ministry of Agriculture, College of Veterinary Medicine, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China.
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