DNA microarray analysis of the cyanotroph Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 in response to nitrogen starvation, cyanide and a jewelry wastewater

Impact of bacterial outer membrane and general porins on cyanide diffusion and biodegradation kinetics

The present study focuses on the analysis of the diffusion process of various cyanide compounds through general porins and outer membranes of gram-negative bacteria. We demonstrate the impact of the compound-to-porin radius ratio, the charge of cyanide ion, the Donnan potential, the intrinsic porin potential, the number and length of general porins, the fraction of open channels, and the size of bacteria on the effective diffusion coefficients and permeability coefficients of cyanide compounds. Moreover, we report, for the first time, the procedure for comparison of the rate of cyanide diffusion across the outer membrane with the rate of cyanide biodegradation that allows establishing the conditions for which the biodegradation is a diffusion-limited process or the diffusion is a significantly faster process than biodegradation. We apply this procedure to several experimental studies and predict the range of extracellular cyanide concentrations for which diffusion is a significantly faster process than biodegradation. We also demonstrate how these results affect the theoretical view of the cyanide biodegradation kinetics.

Analysis on pollutants removal and sludge characteristics of a novel two-phase anaerobic/aerobic/integrated deoxygenated and anoxic reactor associated with membrane process for treating pesticide wastewater

Most frequently used biological method was improved anaerobic/anoxic/aerobic (A/A/O) process for treating actual pesticide wastewater presently. However, the effluent results were far away from what the national standard expects due to pesticide wastewater characteristics of high COD concentration, high total nitrogen (TN) concentration and high toxicity. In this study, a novel two-phase anaerobic/aerobic/integrated deoxygenated and anoxic reactor associated with membrane process (P1) were regarded as excellent candidates for the treatment of pesticide wastewater, compared the removal efficiency of pollutants with improved A/A/O process (P2) under different hydraulic retention times (HRTs). Effluent ethylene thiourea (ETU) concentration was reduced effectively by 67.1 % in P1. The average cyanide (CN-) effluent concentration in P1 and P2 was 0.40 mg/L and 6.67 mg/L, respectively. During the entire HRT change period, P1 significantly increased the biological oxygen demand (BOD5) removal efficiency by 12.98 %. The average effluent COD concentration of P1 was 36.41 mg/L, while that of P2 was 984.42 mg/L. In addition, TN removal efficiency of P1 exhibited distinct superiority. When HRT was 72 h, the average TN effluent concentration of P1 and P2 was 12.67 mg/L and 67.66 mg/L. The sludge performance indicators have been determined and results showed that the sludge viscosity of the membrane reactor in P1 had merely 32.6 % higher than that of the secondary sedimentation tank in P2, and the average vertical displacement of sludge settleability in P1 was 23.0 % slight lower than that of P2. The overall sludge performance proved that higher sludge concentration was allowed in P1. Moreover, experiment improved nitrite reductase (NIR) and nitrate reductase (NAR) in P1 were less susceptible to be suppressed by ETU and CN- increase compared with P2. Finally, the positive correlation relationship of sludge settleability with ETU and CN- has been identified successfully in P1.

Genomic Insights into Cyanide Biodegradation in the Pseudomonas Genus

Molecular studies about cyanide biodegradation have been mainly focused on the hydrolytic pathways catalyzed by the cyanide dihydratase CynD or the nitrilase NitC. In some Pseudomonas strains, the assimilation of cyanide has been linked to NitC, such as the cyanotrophic model strain Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT 5344, which has been recently reclassified as Pseudomonas oleovorans CECT 5344. In this work, a phylogenomic approach established a more precise taxonomic position of the strain CECT 5344 within the species P. oleovorans. Furthermore, a pan-genomic analysis of P. oleovorans and other species with cyanotrophic strains, such as P. fluorescens and P. monteilii, allowed for the comparison and identification of the cioAB and mqoAB genes involved in cyanide resistance, and the nitC and cynS genes required for the assimilation of cyanide or cyanate, respectively. While cyanide resistance genes presented a high frequency among the analyzed genomes, genes responsible for cyanide or cyanate assimilation were identified in a considerably lower proportion. According to the results obtained in this work, an in silico approach based on a comparative genomic approach can be considered as an agile strategy for the bioprospection of putative cyanotrophic bacteria and for the identification of new genes putatively involved in cyanide biodegradation.

Bacterial tolerance and detoxification of cyanide, arsenic and heavy metals: Holistic approaches applied to bioremediation of industrial complex wastes

Cyanide is a highly toxic compound that is found in wastewaters generated from different industrial activities, such as mining or jewellery. These residues usually contain high concentrations of other toxic pollutants like arsenic and heavy metals that may form different complexes with cyanide. To develop bioremediation strategies, it is necessary to know the metabolic processes involved in the tolerance and detoxification of these pollutants, but most of the current studies are focused on the characterization of the microbial responses to each one of these environmental hazards individually, and the effect of co-contaminated wastes on microbial metabolism has been hardly addressed. This work summarizes the main strategies developed by bacteria to alleviate the effects of cyanide, arsenic and heavy metals, analysing interactions among these toxic chemicals. Additionally, it is discussed the role of systems biology and synthetic biology as tools for the development of bioremediation strategies of complex industrial wastes and co-contaminated sites, emphasizing the importance and progress derived from meta-omic studies.

Proteomic Analysis of Arsenic Resistance during Cyanide Assimilation by Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT 5344

Wastewater from mining and other industries usually contains arsenic and cyanide, two highly toxic pollutants, thereby creating the need to develop bioremediation strategies. Here, molecular mechanisms triggered by the simultaneous presence of cyanide and arsenite were analyzed by quantitative proteomics, complemented with qRT-PCR analysis and determination of analytes in the cyanide-assimilating bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT 5344. Several proteins encoded by two ars gene clusters and other Ars-related proteins were up-regulated by arsenite, even during cyanide assimilation. Although some proteins encoded by the cio gene cluster responsible for cyanide-insensitive respiration decreased in the presence of arsenite, the nitrilase NitC required for cyanide assimilation was unaffected, thus allowing bacterial growth with cyanide and arsenic. Two complementary As-resistance mechanisms were developed in this bacterium, the extrusion of As(III) and its extracellular sequestration in biofilm, whose synthesis increased in the presence of arsenite, and the formation of organoarsenicals such as arseno-phosphoglycerate and methyl-As. Tetrahydrofolate metabolism was also stimulated by arsenite. In addition, the ArsH2 protein increased in the presence of arsenite or cyanide, suggesting its role in the protection from oxidative stress caused by both toxics. These results could be useful for the development of bioremediation strategies for industrial wastes co-contaminated with cyanide and arsenic.

An Overview of Emerging Cyanide Bioremediation Methods

Cyanide compounds are hazardous compounds which are extremely toxic to living organisms, especially free cyanide in the form of hydrogen cyanide gas (HCN) and cyanide ion (CN−). These cyanide compounds are metabolic inhibitors since they can tightly bind to the metals of metalloenzymes. Anthropogenic sources contribute significantly to CN− contamination in the environment, more specifically to surface and underground waters. The treatment processes, such as chemical and physical treatment processes, have been implemented. However, these processes have drawbacks since they generate additional contaminants which further exacerbates the environmental pollution. The biological treatment techniques are mostly overlooked as an alternative to the conventional physical and chemical methods. However, the recent research has focused substantially on this method, with different reactor configurations that were proposed. However, minimal attention was given to the emerging technologies that sought to accelerate the treatment with a subsequent resource recovery from the process. Hence, this review focuses on the recent emerging tools that can be used to accelerate cyanide biodegradation. These tools include, amongst others, electro-bioremediation, anaerobic biodegradation and the use of microbial fuel cell technology. These processes were demonstrated to have the possibility of producing value-added products, such as biogas, co-factors of neurotransmitters and electricity from the treatment process.

Alternative Pathway for 3-Cyanoalanine Assimilation in Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 under Noncyanotrophic Conditions

3-Cyanoalanine and cyanohydrins are intermediate nitriles produced in cyanide degradation pathways in plants and bacteria. 3-Cyanoalanine is generated from cyanide by the 3-cyanoalanine synthase, an enzyme mainly characterized in cyanogenic plants. NIT4-type nitrilases use 3-cyanoalanine as a substrate, forming ammonium and aspartate. In some organisms, this enzyme also generates asparagine through an additional nitrile hydratase activity. The alkaliphilic bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 assimilates cyanide through an intermediate cyanohydrin, which is further converted into ammonium by the nitrilase NitC. This bacterium also contains three additional nitrilases, including Nit4. In this work, a proteomic analysis of P. pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 cells grown with 3-cyanoalanine as the sole nitrogen source has revealed the overproduction of different proteins involved in nitrogen metabolism, including the nitrilase NitC. In contrast, the nitrilase Nit4 was not induced by 3-cyanoalanine, and it was only overproduced in cells grown with a cyanide-containing jewelry-manufacturing residue. Phenotypes of single and double mutant strains defective in nit4 or/and nitC revealed the implication of the nitrilase NitC in the assimilation of 3-cyanoalanine and suggest that the 3-cyanoalanine assimilation pathway in P. pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 depends on the presence or absence of cyanide. When cyanide is present, 3-cyanoalanine is assimilated via Nit4, but in the absence of cyanide, a novel pathway for 3-cyanoalanine assimilation, in which the nitrilase NitC uses the nitrile generated after deamination of the α-amino group from 3-cyanoalanine, is proposed. IMPORTANCE Nitriles are organic cyanides with important industrial applications, but they are also found in nature. 3-Cyanoalanine is synthesized by plants and some bacteria to detoxify cyanide from endogenous or exogenous sources, but this nitrile may be also involved in other processes such as stress tolerance, nitrogen and sulfur metabolism, and signaling. The cyanide-degrading bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 grows with 3-cyanoalanine as the sole nitrogen source, but it does not use this nitrile as an intermediate in the cyanide assimilation pathway. In this work, a quantitative proteomic analysis by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) was performed to study, for the first time, the response to 3-cyanoalanine at the proteomic level. Proteomic data, together with phenotypes of different nitrilase-defective mutants of P. pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344, provide evidence that in the absence of cyanide, the nitrilase Nit4 is not involved in 3-cyanoalanine assimilation, and instead, the nitrilase NitC participates in a novel alternative 3-cyanoalanine assimilation pathway.

Bioremediation of cyanide-containing wastes: The potential of systems and synthetic biology for cleaning up the toxic leftovers from mining

Synthetic biology could harness the ability of microorganisms to use highly toxic cyanide compounds for growth applied to bioremediation of cyanide-contaminated mining wastes and areas.

Turning Pore Size of Silica-Based Nano-TiO₂ for Treating Cyanide Wastewater

Cyanide wastewater is a very highly toxic substance. In this study, a kind of silicon-based nano-TiO₂ material by turning pore size accurately is prepared to treat cyanide wastewater. The materials are characterized by XRD, TG analysis, N₂ adsorption/desorption test, UVAS analysis and TEM. Results show that adding NaCl to the synthesis of silica supports can change the size of pores. It emerges that pore size can affect the catalytic performance of the material. Catalytic experiments confirm that cyanide has the best catalytic effect when it has a pore size of 16.47 nm. UVAS spectrum demonstrate that the cyanide has been broken down rather than adsorbed onto the material.

Synergistic effect of adsorptive photocatalytic oxidation and degradation mechanism of cyanides and Cu/Zn complexes over TiO2/ZSM-5 in real wastewater

The treatment of cyanide wastewater from the gold industry is essential. Photocatalytic oxidation is an effective method for the elimination of cyanides and metal cyanide complexes. TiO₂/ZSM-5 composite photocatalysts with different SiO₂/Al₂O₃ ratios were prepared using the solid-state dispersion (SSD) method. The composite catalysts were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), N₂ adsorption-desorption, and ultraviolet-visible diffuse reflectance spectroscopy (UV-Vis DRS). The catalytic efficiency of different SiO₂/Al₂O₃ ratios and the synergistic effect of adsorptive photocatalytic oxidation for the degradation of cyanide wastewater was investigated under different adsorption and illumination times. With the extension of the photocatalytic time (>2.0 h), the composite catalyst with a high SiO₂/Al₂O₃ ratio had better photocatalytic performance. A 93.97% degradation efficiency of total cyanides was observed after adsorption for 3.0 h and illumination for 4.0 h under room temperature with air as the oxidant. The removal efficiencies of the copper and zinc ions were 81.67% and 100%, respectively. The degradation of cyanide followed pseudo-first-order kinetics. Energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS) results showed that the generally irregular surface of the catalyst with a high SiO₂/Al₂O₃ ratio contains more nano-TiO₂. The adsorption capacities of copper and zinc were relatively high. X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) suggested that cyanide was eventually degraded to CO₂ and NO₃^-. Copper and zinc were removed in the form of Cu(II) and Zn(II).

Role of the Dihydrodipicolinate Synthase DapA1 on Iron Homeostasis During Cyanide Assimilation by the Alkaliphilic Bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344

Cyanide is a toxic compound widely used in mining and jewelry industries, as well as in the synthesis of many different chemicals. Cyanide toxicity derives from its high affinity for metals, which causes inhibition of relevant metalloenzymes. However, some cyanide-degrading microorganisms like the alkaliphilic bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 may detoxify hazardous industrial wastewaters that contain elevated cyanide and metal concentrations. Considering that iron availability is strongly reduced in the presence of cyanide, mechanisms for iron homeostasis should be required for cyanide biodegradation. Previous omic studies revealed that in the presence of a cyanide-containing jewelry residue the strain CECT5344 overproduced the dihydrodipicolinate synthase DapA1, a protein involved in lysine metabolism that also participates in the synthesis of dipicolinates, which are excellent metal chelators. In this work, a dapA1 ^- mutant of P. pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 has been generated and characterized. This mutant showed reduced growth and cyanide consumption in media with the cyanide-containing wastewater. Intracellular levels of metals like iron, copper and zinc were increased in the dapA1 ^- mutant, especially in cells grown with the jewelry residue. In addition, a differential quantitative proteomic analysis by LC-MS/MS was carried out between the wild-type and the dapA1 ^- mutant strains in media with jewelry residue. The mutation in the dapA1 gene altered the expression of several proteins related to urea cycle and metabolism of arginine and other amino acids. Additionally, the dapA1 ^- mutant showed increased levels of the global nitrogen regulator PII and the glutamine synthetase. This proteomic study has also highlighted that the DapA1 protein is relevant for cyanide resistance, oxidative stress and iron homeostasis response, which is mediated by the ferric uptake regulator Fur. DapA1 is required to produce dipicolinates that could act as iron chelators, conferring protection against oxidative stress and allowing the regeneration of Fe-S centers to reactivate cyanide-damaged metalloproteins.

Assimilation of cyanide and cyano-derivatives by Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344: from omic approaches to biotechnological applications

Mining, jewellery and metal-processing industries use cyanide for extracting gold and other valuable metals, generating large amounts of highly toxic wastewater. Biological treatments may be a clean alternative under the environmental point of view to the conventional physical or chemical processes used to remove cyanide and related compounds from these industrial effluents. Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 can grow under alkaline conditions using cyanide, cyanate or different nitriles as the sole nitrogen source, and is able to remove up to 12 mM total cyanide from a jewellery industry wastewater that contains cyanide free and complexed to metals. Complete genome sequencing of this bacterium has allowed the application of transcriptomic and proteomic techniques, providing a holistic view of the cyanide biodegradation process. The complex response to cyanide by the cyanotrophic bacterium P. pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 and the potential biotechnological applications of this model organism in the bioremediation of cyanide-containing industrial residues are reviewed.

Cyanate Assimilation by the Alkaliphilic Cyanide-Degrading Bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344: Mutational Analysis of the cyn Gene Cluster

The alkaliphilic bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 can grow with cyanate, cyanide, or cyanide-containing industrial residues as the sole nitrogen source, but the assimilation of cyanide and cyanate takes place through independent pathways. Therefore, cyanide degradation involves a chemical reaction between cyanide and oxaloacetate to form a nitrile that is hydrolyzed to ammonium by the nitrilase NitC, whereas cyanate assimilation requires a cyanase that catalyzes cyanate decomposition to ammonium and carbon dioxide. The P. pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 cynFABDS gene cluster codes for the putative transcriptional regulator CynF, the ABC-type cyanate transporter CynABD, and the cyanase CynS. In this study, transcriptional analysis revealed that the structural cynABDS genes constitute a single transcriptional unit, which was induced by cyanate and repressed by ammonium. Mutational characterization of the cyn genes indicated that CynF was essential for cynABDS gene expression and that nitrate/nitrite transporters may be involved in cyanate uptake, in addition to the CynABD transport system. Biodegradation of hazardous jewelry wastewater containing high amounts of cyanide and metals was achieved in a batch reactor operating at an alkaline pH after chemical treatment with hydrogen peroxide to oxidize cyanide to cyanate.

Putative small RNAs controlling detoxification of industrial cyanide-containing wastewaters by Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344

The alkaliphilic bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 uses free cyanide and several metal−cyanide complexes as the sole nitrogen source and tolerates high concentrations of metals like copper, zinc and iron, which are present in the jewelry wastewaters. To understand deeply the regulatory mechanisms involved in the transcriptional regulation of cyanide-containing wastewaters detoxification by P. pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344, RNA-Seq has been performed from cells cultured with a cyanide-containing jewelry wastewater, sodium cyanide or ammonium chloride as the sole nitrogen source. Small RNAs (sRNAs) that may have potential regulatory functions under cyanotrophic conditions were identified. In total 20 sRNAs were identified to be differentially expressed when compared the jewelry residue versus ammonium as nitrogen source, 16 of which could be amplified successfully by RT-PCR. As predicted targets of these 16 sRNAs were several components of the nit1C gene cluster encoding the nitrilase NitC essential for cyanide assimilation, the cioAB gene cluster that codes for the cyanide-insensitive cytochrome bd-type terminal oxidase, the medium length-polyhydroxyalkanoates (ml-PHAs) gene cluster, and gene clusters related with a global nitrogen limitation response like those coding for glutamine synthase and urease. Other targets were non-clustered genes (or their products) involved in metal resistance and iron acquisition, such as metal extrusion systems and the ferric uptake regulatory (Fur) protein, and a GntR-like regulatory family member probably involved in the regulation of the cyanide assimilation process in the strain CECT5344. Induction of genes targeted by sRNAs in the jewelry residue was demonstrated by qRT-PCR.

Study on bioremediation of Lead by exopolysaccharide producing metallophilic bacterium isolated from extreme habitat

Lead released from manufacturing factories, recycling plants, automobile company and landfill leachate is abundantly found in wastewater. An efficient bioremediating agent for lead removal from wastewater is expected to ease the ever increasing problem. The present study reports Pseudomonas sp. W6 isolated from extreme habitat of hot water spring of North-East India evaluated for its Lead biosorption property. The bacterium showed capacity to resist 1.0 mM lead in both solid and liquid minimal media. Epifluorescence microscopy reveal the viability of bacterial cells under metal stress condition. ICP-MS analysis revealed 65% and 61.2% removal of lead from the Synthetic Bangladesh Ground Water medium in batch culture and column study respectively which was higher when compared to biosorption capacity of P. aeruginosa MTCC2474, P. alcaligenes MJ7 from forest soil and P. ficuserectae PKRS11 from uranium rich soil. Exopolysaccharide released by the isolate which influenced biosorption revealed the presence of ligands assayed using microbial hydrophobicity and FTIR. The extremophilic isolate is proposed as a choice for efficient bioremediation of lead contaminated wastewater.

Quantitative proteomic analysis of Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 in response to industrial cyanide-containing wastewaters using Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry/Mass Spectrometry (LC-MS/MS)

Biological treatments to degrade cyanide are a powerful technology for cyanide removal from industrial wastewaters. It has been previously demonstrated that the alkaliphilic bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 is able to use free cyanide and several metal−cyanide complexes as the sole nitrogen source. In this work, the strain CECT5344 has been used for detoxification of the different chemical forms of cyanide that are present in alkaline wastewaters from the jewelry industry. This liquid residue also contains large concentrations of metals like iron, copper and zinc, making this wastewater even more toxic. To elucidate the molecular mechanisms involved in the bioremediation process, a quantitative proteomic analysis by LC-MS/MS has been carried out in P. pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 cells grown with the jewelry residue as sole nitrogen source. Different proteins related to cyanide and cyanate assimilation, as well as other proteins involved in transport and resistance to metals were induced by the cyanide-containing jewelry residue. GntR-like regulatory proteins were also induced by this industrial residue and mutational analysis revealed that GntR-like regulatory proteins may play a role in the regulation of cyanide assimilation in P. pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344. The strain CECT5344 has been used in a batch reactor to remove at pH 9 the different forms of cyanide present in industrial wastewaters from the jewelry industry (0.3 g/L, ca. 12 mM total cyanide, including both free cyanide and metal−cyanide complexes). This is the first report describing the biological removal at alkaline pH of such as elevated concentration of cyanide present in a heterogeneous mixture from an industrial source.

Biodegradation of cyanide wastes from mining and jewellery industries

Cyanide, one of the known most toxic chemicals, is widely used in mining and jewellery industries for gold extraction and recovery from crushed ores or electroplating residues. Cyanide toxicity occurs because this compound strongly binds to metals, inactivating metalloenzymes such as cytochrome c oxidase. Despite the toxicity of cyanide, cyanotrophic microorganisms such as the alkaliphilic bacterium Pseudomonas pseudoalcaligenes CECT5344 may use cyanide and its derivatives as a nitrogen source for growth, making biodegradation of cyanurated industrial waste possible. Genomic, transcriptomic and proteomic techniques applied to cyanide biodegradation ('cyan-omics') provide a holistic view that increases the global insights into the genetic background of cyanotrophic microorganisms that could be used for biodegradation of industrial cyanurated wastes and other biotechnological applications.