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Dorothee S, Sørensen G, Olsen LR, Bastlund JF, Sotty F, Belling D, Olsen MH, Mathiesen TI, Møller K, Larsen F, Birkeland P. Negligible In Vitro Recovery of Macromolecules from Microdialysis Using 100 kDa Probes and Dextran in Perfusion Fluid. Neurochem Res 2024; 49:1322-1330. [PMID: 38478218 PMCID: PMC10991005 DOI: 10.1007/s11064-024-04119-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2023] [Revised: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 01/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024]
Abstract
Microdialysis is applied in neurointensive care to monitor cerebral glucose metabolism. If recoverable, macromolecules may also serve as biomarkers in brain disease and provide clues to their passage across the blood-brain barrier. Our study aimed to investigate the in vitro recovery of human micro- and macromolecules using microdialysis catheters and perfusion fluids approved for clinical use. In vitro microdialysis of a bulk solution containing physiological or supraphysiological concentrations of glucose, lactate, pyruvate, human IgG, serum albumin, and hemoglobin was performed using two different catheters and perfusion fluids. One had a membrane cut-off of 20 kDa and was used with a standard CNS perfusion fluid, and the other had a membrane cut-off of 100 kDa and was perfused with the same solution supplemented with dextran. The flow rate was 0.3 µl/min. We used both push and push-pull methods. Dialysate samples were collected at 2-h intervals for 6 h and analyzed for relative recovery of each substance. The mean relative recovery of glucose, pyruvate, and lactate was > 90% in all but two sets of experiments. In contrast, the relative recovery of human IgG, serum albumin, and hemoglobin from both bulk solutions was below the lower limit of quantification (LLOQ). Using a push-pull method, recovery of human IgG, serum albumin, and hemoglobin from a bulk solution with supraphysiological concentrations were above LLOQ but with low relative recovery (range 0.9%-1.6%). In summary, exchanging the microdialysis setup from a 20 kDa catheter with a standard perfusion fluid for a 100 kDa catheter with a perfusion solution containing dextran did not affect the relative recovery of glucose and its metabolites. However, it did not result in any useful recovery of the investigated macromolecules at physiological levels, either with or without a push-pull pump system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Spille Dorothee
- Department of Neurosurgery, University Hospital Münster, Münster, Germany
| | - G Sørensen
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Ottiliavej 9, 2500, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - L R Olsen
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Ottiliavej 9, 2500, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - J F Bastlund
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Ottiliavej 9, 2500, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - F Sotty
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Ottiliavej 9, 2500, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - D Belling
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Ottiliavej 9, 2500, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - M H Olsen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Blegdamsvej 3, 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - T I Mathiesen
- Department of Neurosurgery, Rigshospitalet, Inge Lehmannsvej 6, 2100, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Copenhagen, Blegdamsvej 3, Copenhagen, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - K Møller
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Blegdamsvej 3, 2200, Copenhagen N, Denmark
| | - F Larsen
- H. Lundbeck A/S, Ottiliavej 9, 2500, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - P Birkeland
- Department of Neurosurgery, Rigshospitalet, Inge Lehmannsvej 6, 2100, Copenhagen Ø, Denmark.
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Sun CK, Lee WH, Yang MH, Tsai TH. Pharmacokinetic analysis of placental transfer of ritonavir as a component of paxlovid using microdialysis in pregnant rats. Heliyon 2024; 10:e24333. [PMID: 38293424 PMCID: PMC10826739 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e24333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/07/2024] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Background Ritonavir is one of the most potent CYP3A4 inhibitor currently on the market, and is often used together with other antiviral drugs to increase their bioavailability and efficacy. Paxlovid, consisting of nirmatrelvir and ritonavir, was approved for the treatment of COVID-19. As previous studies regarding the use of ritonavir during pregnancy were limited to ex-vivo experiments and systemic safety data, to fully explore the detailed pharmacokinetics of ritonavir in pregnant rats' blood and conceptus, an analytical method consisted of multi-microdialysis coupled with UHPLC-MS/MS were developed to analyze the pharmacokinetics of ritonavir, both as a component of Paxlovid and by itself. 17 days pregnant female Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly split into three experimental group: normal dosage of ritonavir alone (7 mg kg-1), normal dosage of Paxlovid (ritonavir 7 mg kg-1 + nirmatrelvir 15 mg kg-1), and 3× dosage of ritonavir (21 mg kg-1). Results 3× dosage of ritonavir produced a more than 3× increase in rats' blood and placenta. Transfer rate of ritonavir to the placenta, amniotic fluid, and fetus were determined to be 20.7%, 13.8%, and 4.7% respectively. Concentration of ritonavir in the placenta, amniotic fluid, and fetus did not significantly go down after 8 h. Significance Overall, ritonavir's metabolism was not influenced by the presence of nirmatrelvir in pregnant rats. A 3× increase in dosage produced a concentration of roughly 4×, most likely a result of ritonavir's auto-inhibition effect on cytochrome P450 proteins. Accumulation of ritonavir is possible in placenta, amniotic fluid, and fetus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chung-Kai Sun
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, College of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Wan-Hsin Lee
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, College of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Muh-Hwa Yang
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, College of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, College of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Acupuncture Science, China Medical University, Taichung 404, Taiwan
- Department of Chemistry, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung 804, Taiwan
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung 807, Taiwan
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Chang CH, Peng WY, Lee WH, Yang L, Lin TY, Yang MH, Tsai TH. Transporter modulation of molnupiravir and its metabolite β-D-N4-hydroxycytidine across the blood-brain barrier in a rat. COMMUNICATIONS MEDICINE 2023; 3:150. [PMID: 37857815 PMCID: PMC10587300 DOI: 10.1038/s43856-023-00383-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/09/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The antiviral drug molnupiravir is an orally bioavailable prodrug of the nucleoside analog β-D-N4-hydroxycytidine (NHC), which is used to treat coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19). However, there is very little information on the barrier distribution of molnupiravir. Our hypothesis is that molnupiravir and NHC can penetrate the blood‒brain barrier (BBB) into brain tissue and that nucleoside transporters (equilibrative nucleoside transporters; ENT and concentrative nucleoside transporters; CNT) can modulate this process. METHODS To investigate the mechanism of molnupiravir transport through the BBB, multiple microdialyses coupled to a validated ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC‒MS/MS) was developed to monitor dialysates, and nitrobenzylthioinosine (NBMPR; an inhibitor of ENT) was administered concomitantly with molnupiravir (100 mg/kg, i.v.) in the male rat. RESULTS Here, we show that molnupiravir is rapidly metabolized to NHC in the blood and crossed the BBB in 20 min. Furthermore, when NBMPR is concomitantly administered to inhibit efflux, the concentrations of molnupiravir and NHC in the brain increased significantly. CONCLUSIONS In summary, molnupiravir rapidly transforms into NHC and crosses the BBB and reaches the brain at approximately 0.3-0.8% of the blood‒brain ratio. The maximum concentration of NHC in the blood and brain is above the average half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of the drug required to treat severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection, suggesting a therapeutic effect. The penetration of NHC is modulated by NBMPR. These findings provide constructive information on brain disorders in clinical patients with COVID-19.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun-Hao Chang
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ya Peng
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - Wan-Hsin Lee
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - Ling Yang
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Yi Lin
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - Muh-Hwa Yang
- Institute of Clinical Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan.
- Graduate Institute of Acupuncture Science, China Medical University, Taichung, 404, Taiwan.
- Department of Chemistry, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, 804, Taiwan.
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan.
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Chiang SY, Wey MT, Luo YS, Shih WC, Chimeddulam D, Hsu PC, Huang HF, Tsai TH, Wu KY. Simultaneous toxicokinetic studies of aristolochic acid I and II and aristolactam I and II using a newly-developed microdialysis liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Food Chem Toxicol 2023; 177:113856. [PMID: 37257633 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2023.113856] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2023] [Revised: 05/06/2023] [Accepted: 05/22/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Aristolochic acids (AAs) are naturally occurring genotoxic carcinogens linked to Balkan endemic nephropathy and aristolochic acid nephropathy. Aristolochic acid I and II (AA-I and AA-II) are the most abundant AAs, and AA-I has been reported to be more genotoxic and nephrotoxic than AA-II. This study aimed to explore metabolic differences underlying the differential toxicity. We developed a novel microdialysis sampling coupled with solid-phase extraction liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (MD-SPE-LC-MS/MS) to simultaneously study the toxicokinetics (TK) of AA-I and AA-II and their corresponding aristolactams (AL-I and AL-II) in the blood of Sprague Dawley rats co-treated with AA-1 and AA-II. Near real-time monitoring of these analytes in the blood of treated rats revealed that AA-I was absorbed, distributed, and eliminated more rapidly than AA-II. Moreover, the metabolism efficiency of AA-I to AL-I was higher compared to AA-II to AL-II. Only 0.58% of AA-I and 0.084% of AA-II was reduced to AL-I and AL-II, respectively. The findings are consistent with previous studies and support the contention that differences in the in vivo metabolism of AA-I and AA-II may be critical factors for their differential toxicities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-Yin Chiang
- School of Chinese Medicine, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, No. 91, Hsueh-Shih Rd, North Dist., Taichung, 404333, Taiwan
| | - Ming-Tsai Wey
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, No. 17, Xuzhou Rd., Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei, 100025, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Syuan Luo
- Institute of Food and Health, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, No. 17, Xuzhou Rd., Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei, 404333, Taiwan
| | - Wei-Chung Shih
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, No. 17, Xuzhou Rd., Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei, 100025, Taiwan
| | - Dalaijamts Chimeddulam
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, No. 17, Xuzhou Rd., Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei, 100025, Taiwan
| | - Po-Chi Hsu
- School of Chinese Medicine, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, No. 91, Hsueh-Shih Rd, North Dist., Taichung, 404333, Taiwan
| | - Hui-Fen Huang
- School of Post-baccalaureate Chinese Medicine, Tzu Chi University, Hualien, 97004, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, No. 155, Sec. 2. Linong St., Taipei, 100147, Taiwan
| | - Kuen-Yuh Wu
- Institute of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, No. 17, Xuzhou Rd., Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei, 100025, Taiwan; Institute of Food and Health, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, No. 17, Xuzhou Rd., Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei, 404333, Taiwan; Department of Public Health, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, No. 17, Xuzhou Rd., Zhongzheng Dist., Taipei, 100025, Taiwan.
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Chen JH, Lin IH, Hsueh TY, Dalley JW, Tsai TH. Pharmacokinetics and transplacental transfer of codeine and codeine metabolites from Papaver somniferum L. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2022; 298:115623. [PMID: 36007718 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2022.115623] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2022] [Revised: 07/04/2022] [Accepted: 08/06/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Papaveris Pericarpium, which is the dried husk of Papaver somniferum L., has been used as a phytomedicine to relieve cough, diarrhea and pain. The alkaloid codeine contained therein via biotransformation converts to morphine and potentially produces addictive and toxic effects. Due to the healthy concern for a pregnant woman, our hypothesis is that codeine and its metabolites can penetrate the placental barrier to reach the foetus and amniotic fluid, and these processes may be modulated by the transporter. AIM OF THE STUDY Because codeine is also considered a prodrug of morphine, it has a good analgesic effect. It is often used by pregnant women but may expose the foetus to the risk of morphine harm. The aim of this study is to investigate the metabolic rate, distribution and transplacental transfer mechanism of codeine and its metabolites morphine and morphine-3-glucuronide (M3G) in pregnant rats and to assess the risk of medication for pregnant women. MATERIALS AND METHODS Ultrahigh-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) combined with a microdialysis system was developed to monitor codeine, morphine and M3G in multiple sites of maternal blood, placenta, foetus and amniotic fluid after codeine administration. A compartmental model was used to calculate the pharmacokinetic parameters of codeine in blood after codeine administration (10 mg/kg, i.v.). The area under the concentration (AUC) ratio of AUCmetabolite/AUCcodeine and AUCtissue/AUCblood was used to represent the metabolic biotransformation ratio and the drug from blood-to-tissue transfer ratio, respectively. RESULTS The pharmacokinetic results demonstrated that codeine fit well with a two-compartment model and went through rapid metabolism to morphine and M3G in pregnant rats after codeine administration (10 mg/kg, i.v.). The biotransformation ratios of AUCmorphine/AUCcodeine, AUCM3G/AUCmorphine and AUCM3G/AUCcodeine were 0.12 ± 0.03, 54.45 ± 20.61 and 6.53 ± 2.47, respectively, after codeine administration (10 mg/kg, i.v.), which suggested that codeine was easily metabolized into M3G through morphine. The tissue distribution results demonstrated that all of the analytes penetrated into the foetus through the placenta; however, the blood-to-tissue transfer ratio (AUCtissue/AUCblood) of morphine and M3G was relatively lower than that of codeine after codeine administration (10 mg/kg, i.v.), which suggested that the blood-placenta barrier blocks the penetration of morphine and M3G into the foetus. Thus, the tissue transfer of morphine in the placenta and foetus was significantly enhanced by treatment with corticosterone, an inhibitor of organic cation transporter (OCT). CONCLUSION Based on microdialysis coupled to a validated UHPLC-MS/MS system, the pharmacokinetics and metabolic biotransformation of codeine and its metabolites were analyzed and clarified. The potential mechanism of morphine placental transfer was modulated by OCT transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Hung Chen
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - I-Hsin Lin
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - Thomas Y Hsueh
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Taipei City Hospital Renai Branch, Taipei, 106, Taiwan; Department of Urology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - Jeffrey W Dalley
- Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK; Department of Psychiatry, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 0SZ, UK
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan; Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3EB, UK.
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Chen JH, Lin IH, Sun CK, Yang L, Hsueh TY, Ting CT, Tsai TH. Transplacental transfer of acetaminophen in pregnant rats. Biomed Pharmacother 2022; 154:113613. [PMID: 36058146 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2022.113613] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Revised: 08/25/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Acetaminophen is among the most widely used analgesics; however, the proportion and mechanism of transplacental transfer of unbound acetaminophen with actual pharmacological activity remain unknown. Our hypothesis is that acetaminophen gradually penetrates the blood-placenta barrier to reach the fetus. A multiple microdialysis coupled to liquid chromatography with photodiode array detection method was developed to monitor acetaminophen levels in the maternal blood, placenta, fetus, and amniotic fluid of a pregnant rat and investigate this hypothesis. The pharmacokinetic data indicates that acetaminophen exhibits a nonlinear behavior in the maternal blood within the dosage regimen of 100 and 300 mg/kg. In addition, acetaminophen penetrates the placenta, fetus, and amniotic fluid during treatment. The transplacental transfer ratio represented by the area under the concentration curve (AUC) ratio for the conceptus (the collective term for the fetus, placenta, and amniotic fluid) and maternal blood (AUCtissue/AUCblood) was approximately 11-23 % after acetaminophen (100 and 300 mg/kg) administration. However, the transporter of multidrug resistance-associated protein (MRP) inhibitor MK-571 did not significantly change the transplacental transfer ratio. This basic study provides constructive information for the clinical application of acetaminophen in pregnant women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jung-Hung Chen
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - I-Hsin Lin
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Chung-Kai Sun
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Ling Yang
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Thomas Y Hsueh
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Taipei City Hospital Renai Branch, Taipei 106, Taiwan; Department of Urology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Tsung Ting
- Division of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Department of Surgery, Renai Branch, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei 106, Taiwan; General Education Center, University of Taipei, Taipei 100, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Acupuncture Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan; Department of Education and Research, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei 106, Taiwan.
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Luo YS, Chiang SY, Long TY, Tsai TH, Wu KY. Simultaneous toxicokinetics characterization of acrylamide and its primary metabolites using a novel microdialysis isotope-dilution liquid chromatography mass spectrometry method. ENVIRONMENT INTERNATIONAL 2022; 158:106954. [PMID: 34710730 DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2021.106954] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2021] [Revised: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Acrylamide (AA) is a toxicant in high-temperature processed foods and an animal carcinogen. Upon absorption, AA is metabolized to glycidamide (GA) or conjugates with glutathione (AA-GSH). Important advantages of microdialysis coupled with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (MD-LC-MS/MS) include its minimization of potential losses during sample collection, storage and preparation, as well as an improvement in temporal resolution for toxicokinetics (TKs). We aimed to simultaneously study the TKs of AA and products of its primary metabolism using an isotope-dilution (ID) MD-LC-MS/MS method. MD probes implanted into the jugular vein/right atrium of anesthetized Sprague Dawley rats were connected to the ID-LC-MS/MS for continuous monitoring of AA, GA and AA-GSH in the blood every 15 min over 8 h following intraperitoneal AA administration (0.1 mg/kg or 5 mg/kg). AA, GA, and AA-GSH TKs followed linear kinetics: GA AUC/AA AUC = 0.11 and AA-GSH AUC/AA AUC = 0.011 at 5 mg/kg. Elimination half-life (Te1/2) values were 2.44 ± 0.70, 4.93 ± 2.37 and 3.47 ± 1.47 h for AA, GA and AA-GSH, respectively. GA TKs reached a plateau at 3-6 h, suggesting that metabolic saturation of AA and Te1/2 values of the analytes were prolonged with AA at 5 mg/kg. Our results demonstrate that oxidation of AA to GA overwhelmed the conjugation of AA with GSH. Our innovative MD-ID-LC-MS/MS method facilitates the simultaneous characterization of multiple TKs associated with toxicants and their active metabolites with excellent temporal resolution to capture metabolic saturation of AA to GA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Syuan Luo
- Institute of Food Safety and Health, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Su-Yin Chiang
- School of Chinese Medicine, College of Chinese Medicine, China Medical University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Tai-Ying Long
- Institute of Environmental Health, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Kuen-Yuh Wu
- Institute of Food Safety and Health, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan; Institute of Environmental Health, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan; Department of Public Health, College of Public Health, National Taiwan University, Taipei, Taiwan.
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Lin IH, Yang L, Hsueh TY, Tsai TH. Blood-Placental Barrier Transfers and Pharmacokinetics of Unbound Morphine in Pregnant Rats with Multiple Microdialysis Systems. ACS Pharmacol Transl Sci 2021; 4:1588-1597. [PMID: 34661076 DOI: 10.1021/acsptsci.1c00142] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Microdialysis coupled to an analytical system can be used to continuously monitor unbound protein analytes in any biological fluid, tissue, or organ of animals. To date, no application of microdialysis has been performed to simultaneously monitor unbound morphine and its metabolites in the placenta and fetus of pregnant rats. Our hypothesis is that morphine and its metabolite penetrate the blood-placental barrier to reach the fetus during pregnancy. To investigate this hypothesis, this study aimed to develop a microdialysis experimental animal model coupled with an analytical system to monitor morphine and morphine-3-glucuronide (M3G) in the maternal blood, placenta, fetus, and amniotic fluid of pregnant rats. To determine the analytes in dialysates, a validated ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UHPLC-MS/MS) method was developed. The pharmacokinetic results indicated that morphine fit well to a two-compartment model and exhibited nonlinear pharmacokinetic behavior within the dosage regimen. The M3G-to-morphine metabolite ratio, determined by the area under the concentration curve (AUC) ratio (AUCM3G/AUCmorphine), was approximately 5.40 in the maternal blood. In terms of tissue distribution, the mother-to-fetus transfer ratio (AUCfetus/AUCblood) of morphine and M3G was about 0.34 and 0.18, respectively. In conclusion, the high metabolite ratio suggests that morphine has the characteristics of rapid biotransformation, and the mother-to-fetus transfer ratio indicates that morphine and M3G partially transfer the blood-placental barrier in pregnant rats. This newly developed multiple microdialysis coupled to UHPLC-MS/MS system can be applied to the studies of maternal pharmacokinetics and blood-placental transfer in pregnant rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- I-Hsin Lin
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Ling Yang
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Thomas Y Hsueh
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Taipei City Hospital Renai Branch, Taipei 106, Taiwan.,Department of Urology, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei 112, Taiwan.,Department of Chemistry, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung 804, Taiwan.,Department of Psychology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EB, United Kingdom
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Yang L, Lin IH, Ting CT, Tsai TH. Modulation of the transport of valproic acid through the blood-brain barrier in rats by the Gastrodia elata extracts. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 278:114276. [PMID: 34082013 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2021.114276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/30/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
HEADINGS ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Valproic acid (VPA) is primarily used as a medicine for the treatment of seizures. Gastrodia elata (G. elata) extract has been used as an alternative medicine for epilepsy patients. Cotreatment with VPA and G. elata extract is commonly prescribed in Taiwan and mainland China. Nevertheless, the mechanism of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) transportation effect of G. elata extract on VPA has not been characterized. AIM OF STUDY Our hypothesis is that G. elata extract modulates the BBB penetration of VPA through specific transporter transfer. MATERIALS AND METHODS A validated liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and multiple microdialysis method was developed to simultaneously monitor VPA in the blood and brain of rats. To investigate the mechanism of BBB modulation by the G. elata extract on VPA in the brain, cyclosporin A, a P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitor and organic anion transporting polypeptide (OATP) inhibitor, was coadministered with the G. elata extract and VPA. RESULTS The pharmacokinetic results demonstrated that the VPA penetration ratio of the BBB, determined by the area under the concentration curve (AUC) ratio of VPA (AUCbrain/AUCblood), was approximately 0.36. After treatment with the G. elata extract (1 and 3 g/kg, p.o. for 5 consecutive days), the VPA penetration ratios were significantly enhanced to 1.47 and 1.02, respectively. However, in the experimental group coadministered cyclosporin A, the G. elata extract was unable to enhance the BBB transportation of VPA. Instead, the VPA penetration ratio in the brain was suppressed back to 0.38. CONCLUSIONS The present study reveals that the enhancement effect of the transporter mechanism of G. elata extract on VPA transport into the brain occurs through the OATP transporter but not the P-gp transporter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ling Yang
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - I-Hsin Lin
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - Chin-Tsung Ting
- Division of Gastrointestinal Surgery, Department of Surgery, Ren-Ai Branch, Taipei City Hospital, Taipei, 106, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang Ming Chiao Tung University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan; Department of Chemistry, National Sun Yat-Sen University, Kaohsiung, 804, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan.
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10
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Chang WCW, Yen CC, Liu WY, Hsieh YS, Hsu MC, Wu YT. Blood-to-muscle distribution and urinary excretion of higenamine in rats. Drug Test Anal 2021; 13:1776-1782. [PMID: 34309209 DOI: 10.1002/dta.3132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 06/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Higenamine is a β2 -agonist that has been prohibited in sports by the World Anti-Doping Agency. Higenamine could potentially promote anabolism and lipolysis; however, its crucial pharmacokinetics data, particularly muscle distribution, remain unavailable. The present study aims to investigate the blood-to-muscle distribution as well as the urinary excretion of higenamine in laboratory rats. In the first experiment, the microdialysis technique was employed to continuously measure free, protein-unbound concentrations in blood and muscle for 90 min (sampling at a 5-min interval) after rats received IV infusion of higenamine. The mean half-lives of higenamine in blood and muscle were 17.9 and 19.0 min, respectively. The blood-to-muscle distribution ratio (AUCmuscle /AUCblood ) of higenamine was estimated to be 22%. In the second experiment, rats were orally administered with a single-dose higenamine and their urine samples were profiled at a 12-h interval for up to 48 h. Results showed only a small portion of total consumption (1.44%, ranging 0.71%-2.50%) was excreted in the urine. Among these time points, about 43% cumulative amount of higenamine was eliminated within the first 12 h. Our data suggested that one-quarter of the unbound higenamine rapidly penetrates from the vessels into muscle, distributes to the interstitial fluid, then eliminates from the rat in a short span of time. The muscle tissue is likely to have a low binding affinity for higenamine, and renal excretion plays a minor role in its elimination. Together, our findings provide valuable pharmacokinetics data that may gain deeper insights into higenamine's role in skeletal muscle functions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ching-Chi Yen
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Wan-Yi Liu
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yun-Shan Hsieh
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Chich Hsu
- Department of Sports Medicine, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Department of Medical Research, Kaohsiung Medical University Hospital, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
| | - Yu-Tse Wu
- School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan.,Drug Development and Value Creation Research Center, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, Taiwan
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11
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Yang CN, Peng WY, Lin LC, Tsai TH. Protein unbound pharmacokinetics of ambroxol in the blood and brains of rats and the interaction of ambroxol with Polygala tenuifolia by multiple microdialysis. JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2021; 269:113764. [PMID: 33383115 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2020.113764] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Revised: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Ambroxol elevates glucocerebrosidase (GCase) activity and reduces nigrostriatal alpha-synuclein burden to better ameliorate motor function in Parkinson's disease (PD). Polygala tenuifolia is a potential alternative botanical medicine for the treatment of many nonmotor symptoms of PD commonly used in Taiwanese patients. Co-administration of these two medicines pose potential herb-drug interaction. AIM OF THE STUDY Our hypothesis is that ambroxol and P. tenuifolia may potentially possess herbal drug synergetic effects in the blood and brain. MATERIALS AND METHODS To investigate this hypothesis, a multiple microdialysis system coupled with validated ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (UPLC-MS/MS) method was developed for rat blood and brain samples. Experimental rats were divided into three groups: low-dose and high-dose ambroxol alone (10 mg/kg, i.v. and 30 mg/kg, i.v., respectively) and ambroxol (10 mg/kg, i.v.) pretreated with P. tenuifolia extract (1 g/kg, p.o. for 5 consecutive days). RESULTS Ambroxol easily penetrated into the brain and reached a maximum concentration in the striatum at approximately 60 min after low- and high-dose treatment. The area under the concentration curve (AUC) ratio increased proportionally at the doses of 10 and 30 mg/kg, which suggested a linear pharmacokinetic manner of ambroxol. The brain penetration of ambroxol was approximately 30-34%, which was defined as the ambroxol AUC blood-to-brain distribution ratio (AUCbrain/AUCblood). The P. tenuifolia extract did not significantly alter the pharmacokinetics of ambroxol in the blood and brain of rats. CONCLUSION The present study suggests that it is safety without pharmacokinetic interactions for this dosing regimen to use P. tenuifolia extract and ambroxol together.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chao-Nan Yang
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan; Department of Neurology, China Medical University Hospital-Taipei Branch, China Medical University, Taichung, 40402, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Ya Peng
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - Lie-Chwen Lin
- National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Health and Welfare, Taipei, 112, Taiwan
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, Taipei, 112, Taiwan; Graduate Institute of Acupuncture Science, China Medical University, Taichung, 40402, Taiwan; School of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, Kaohsiung, 807, Taiwan.
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12
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Carbonaro TM, Nguyen V, Forster MJ, Gatch MB, Prokai L. Carisoprodol pharmacokinetics and distribution in the nucleus accumbens correlates with behavioral effects in rats independent from its metabolism to meprobamate. Neuropharmacology 2020; 174:108152. [PMID: 32479814 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2020.108152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/10/2019] [Revised: 04/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Carisoprodol (Soma®) is a centrally-acting skeletal-muscle relaxant frequently prescribed for treatment of acute musculoskeletal conditions. Carisoprodol's mechanism of action is unclear and is often ascribed to that of its active metabolite, meprobamate. The purpose of this study was to ascertain whether carisoprodol directly produces behavioral effects, or whether metabolism to meprobamate via cytochrome P450 (CYP450) enzymatic reaction is necessary. Rats were trained to discriminate carisoprodol (100 mg/kg) to assess time course and whether a CYP450 inhibitor (cimetidine) administered for 4 days would alter the discriminative effects of carisoprodol. Additionally, pharmacokinetics of carisoprodol and meprobamate with and without co-administration of cimetidine were assessed via in vivo microdialysis combined with liquid-chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry from blood and nucleus accumbens (NAc). The time course of the discriminative-stimulus effects of carisoprodol closely matched the time course of the levels of carisoprodol in blood and NAc, but did not match the time course of meprobamate. Administration of cimetidine increased levels of carisoprodol and decreased levels of meprobamate consistent with its interfering with metabolism of carisoprodol to meprobamate. However, cimetidine failed to alter the discriminative-stimulus effects of carisoprodol. Carisoprodol penetrated into brain tissue and directly produced behavioral effects without being metabolized to meprobamate. These findings indicate that understanding the mechanism of action of carisoprodol independently of meprobamate will be necessary to determine the validity of its clinical uses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Theresa M Carbonaro
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX, 76107-2699, USA
| | - Vien Nguyen
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX, 76107-2699, USA
| | - Michael J Forster
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX, 76107-2699, USA
| | - Michael B Gatch
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX, 76107-2699, USA
| | - Laszlo Prokai
- Department of Pharmacology and Neuroscience, University of North Texas Health Science Center, 3500 Camp Bowie Blvd, Fort Worth, TX, 76107-2699, USA.
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13
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Chen C, Zhou H, Guan C, Zhang H, Li Y, Jiang X, Dong Z, Tao Y, Du J, Wang S, Zhang T, Du N, Guo J, Wu Y, Song Z, Luan H, Wang Y, Du H, Zhang S, Li C, Chang H, Wang T. Applicability of free drug hypothesis to drugs with good membrane permeability that are not efflux transporter substrates: A microdialysis study in rats. Pharmacol Res Perspect 2020; 8:e00575. [PMID: 32266794 PMCID: PMC7138916 DOI: 10.1002/prp2.575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2020] [Accepted: 02/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
In clinical pharmacology, the free drug hypothesis has been widely applied in the interpretation of the relationship between pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics (PK/PD). The free drug hypothesis assumes that the unbound drug concentration in blood is the same as that in the site of action at steady state. The objective of this study is to demonstrate whether the free drug hypothesis is universally applicable for all drugs. The unbound concentrations of the 18 compounds in blood and in brain interstitial fluids (ISF) at steady state following constant intravenous infusion were simultaneously monitored up to 6 hours via in vivo microdialysis technique. Based on the permeability and efflux ratio (ER), the test compounds can be divided into two classes. Class I includes the compounds with good membrane permeability that are not substrates of efflux transporters (eg, P-gp, BCRP, and MRPs), whereas Class II includes the compounds that are substrates of efflux transporters. The steady-state unbound drug concentrations in blood, brain, and CSF are quantitatively very similar for Class I compounds, whereas the steady-state unbound concentrations in the brain and CSF are significantly lower than those in blood for Class II compounds. These results strongly suggest that the free drug hypothesis is not universal for all drugs but is only applicable for drugs with good permeability that are not substrates of efflux transporters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chun Chen
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Hongyu Zhou
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Chi Guan
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Huanhuan Zhang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Yingying Li
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Xue Jiang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Zheng Dong
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Yuanyuan Tao
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Juan Du
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Shuyao Wang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Teng Zhang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Na Du
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Junyang Guo
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Yaqiong Wu
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Zehai Song
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Haofei Luan
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Yu Wang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Hongwen Du
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Shaofeng Zhang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Chen Li
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Hang Chang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
| | - Tao Wang
- Drug Metabolism and Pharmacokinetics (DMPK) DepartmentPharmaronBeijingChina
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14
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Le J, Lin Z, Song L, Wang H, Hong Z. LC-MS/MS combined with in vivo microdialysis sampling from conscious rat striatum for simultaneous determination of active constituents of Yuanhu- Baizhi herb pair and endogenous neurotransmitters: Application to pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic study. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2019; 176:112807. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2019.112807] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 08/04/2019] [Accepted: 08/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
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15
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Öncü Kaya EM, Korkmaz OT, Yeniceli Uğur D, Şener E, Tunçel AN, Tunçel M. Determination of Ochratoxin-A in the brain microdialysates and plasma of awake, freely moving rats using ultra high performance liquid chromatography fluorescence detection method. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2019; 1125:121700. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2019.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2019] [Revised: 06/21/2019] [Accepted: 06/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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16
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Stable isotope labeling derivatization coupled with magnetic dispersive solid phase extraction for the determination of hydroxyl-containing cholesterol and metabolites by in vivo microdialysis and ultra-high performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. J Chromatogr A 2019; 1594:23-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chroma.2019.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/10/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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17
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Clinical application of microsampling versus conventional sampling techniques in the quantitative bioanalysis of antibiotics: a systematic review. Bioanalysis 2018; 10:407-423. [DOI: 10.4155/bio-2017-0269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Conventional sampling techniques for clinical pharmacokinetic studies often require the removal of large blood volumes from patients. This can result in a physiological or emotional burden, particularly for neonates or pediatric patients. Antibiotic pharmacokinetic studies are typically performed on healthy adults or general ward patients. These may not account for alterations to a patient’s pathophysiology and can lead to suboptimal treatment. Microsampling offers an important opportunity for clinical pharmacokinetic studies in vulnerable patient populations, where smaller sample volumes can be collected. This systematic review provides a description of currently available microsampling techniques and an overview of studies reporting the quantitation and validation of antibiotics using microsampling. A comparison of microsampling to conventional sampling in clinical studies is included.
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18
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Shi P, Lin X, Yao H. A comprehensive review of recent studies on pharmacokinetics of traditional Chinese medicines (2014–2017) and perspectives. Drug Metab Rev 2017; 50:161-192. [DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2017.1417424] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Peiying Shi
- Department of Traditional Chinese Medicine Resource and Bee Products, Bee Science College, Fujian Agriculture and Forestry University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Xinhua Lin
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
| | - Hong Yao
- Department of Pharmaceutical Analysis, School of Pharmacy, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, China
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19
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Dorn C, Kratzer A, Liebchen U, Schleibinger M, Murschhauser A, Schlossmann J, Kees F, Simon P, Kees MG. Impact of Experimental Variables on the Protein Binding of Tigecycline in Human Plasma as Determined by Ultrafiltration. J Pharm Sci 2017; 107:739-744. [PMID: 28927988 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2017.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2017] [Revised: 09/11/2017] [Accepted: 09/11/2017] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Tigecycline, a tetracycline derivative, shows atypical plasma protein binding behavior. The unbound fraction decreases with increasing concentration at therapeutic concentrations. Moreover, uncertainty exists about the magnitude of tigecyline's protein binding in man. Unbound fractions between 2.5% and 35% have been reported in plasma from healthy volunteers, and between 25% and 100% in patients, respectively. In the present study, the protein binding of tigecycline has been investigated by ultrafiltration using different experimental conditions. Whereas temperature had only a marginal influence, the unbound fraction at 0.3/3.0 mg/L was low at pH 8.2 (9.4%/1.9%) or in unbuffered pooled plasma (6.3%/1.2%), compared with plasma buffered with HEPES to pH 7.4 (65.9%/39.7%). In experiments with phosphate buffer and EDTA, the concentration dependency was markedly attenuated or abolished, which is compatible with a cooperative binding mechanism involving divalent cations such as calcium. The unbound fraction in clinical plasma samples from patients treated with tigecycline was determined to 66.3 ± 13.7% at concentrations <0.3 mg/L compared with 41.3 ± 16.0% at >1 to <5 mg/L. To summarize, tigecycline appears to be only moderately bound to plasma proteins as determined by ultrafiltration, when a physiological pH is maintained.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Dorn
- Department of Clinical Pharmacy, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany.
| | - Alexander Kratzer
- Hospital Pharmacy, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Uwe Liebchen
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Michael Schleibinger
- Department of Internal Medicine I, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | | | - Jens Schlossmann
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Frieder Kees
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
| | - Philipp Simon
- Department of Anesthesia and Intensive Care Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Martin G Kees
- Department of Anesthesiology, University Hospital Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany
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20
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Liu M, Wang P, Yu X, Dong G, Yue J. Intracerebral microdialysis coupled to LC-MS/MS for the determination tramadol and its major pharmacologically active metaboliteO-desmethyltramadol in rat brain microdialysates. Drug Test Anal 2017; 9:1243-1250. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2016] [Revised: 12/22/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Mingzhou Liu
- Department of Pharmacology; Basic Medical School of Wuhan University; No. 185 Donghu Road Wuhan 430071 China
| | - Peng Wang
- Inspection & Quarantine Technical Center; Hubei Entry-Exit Inspection Quarantine Bureau; No. 588 Qintai Road Wuhan 430050 China
| | - Xuming Yu
- Department of Pharmacology; Basic Medical School of Wuhan University; No. 185 Donghu Road Wuhan 430071 China
| | - Guicheng Dong
- School of Biological Sciences; Baotou Teachers' College of Inner Mongolia University of Science and Technology; No. 3 of Kexue Street, Qingshan District Baotou 014030 China
| | - Jiang Yue
- Department of Pharmacology; Basic Medical School of Wuhan University; No. 185 Donghu Road Wuhan 430071 China
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21
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Porwal PK, Talele GS. Glycation alter serum albumin binding of valsartan and nateglinide when studied contemporarily. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2017. [DOI: 10.1080/10826076.2017.1280817] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Pawan K. Porwal
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, SNJB’s SSDJ College of Pharmacy, University of Pune, Chandwad, Nasik, India
| | - Gokul S. Talele
- NGSPM’s College of Pharmacy, University of Pune, Nasik, India
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22
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Hendrickx S, Uğur DY, Yilmaz IT, Şener E, Van Schepdael A, Adams E, Broeckhoven K, Cabooter D. A sensitive capillary LC-UV method for the simultaneous analysis of olanzapine, chlorpromazine and their FMO-mediated N-oxidation products in brain microdialysates. Talanta 2017; 162:268-277. [DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2016.09.053] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2016] [Revised: 09/19/2016] [Accepted: 09/23/2016] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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23
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Wang L, Liu S, Xing J, Liu Z, Song F. Characterization of interaction property of multi-components in Gardenia jasminoides with aldose reductase by microdialysis combined with liquid chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry. RAPID COMMUNICATIONS IN MASS SPECTROMETRY : RCM 2016; 30 Suppl 1:87-94. [PMID: 27539421 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.7620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
RATIONALE An application of microdialysis sampling for evaluation of the interaction property of small molecules to macromolecules is presented. Microdialysis combined with liquid chromatography coupled to quadrupole time-of-flight tandem mass spectrometry (LC/QTOF-MS/MS) was established for the purpose of screening of the multiple bioactive compounds in traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs). METHODS Microdialysis experiments were performed in vitro using a syringe pump and probes. Separation was achieved via liquid chromatography, and MS analysis was conducted by electrospray ionization quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry in negative mode. The interaction property of compounds in TCMs with aldose reductase can be deduced from the comparison of the peak areas in chromatograms using a stable internal standard. RESULTS In this work, 23 compounds including iridoids, flavonoids, monoterpenoids, carotenoids and phenolic acids were identified by comparison with reference compounds, characteristic high-resolution mass spectrometry and the MS/MS fragmentations simultaneously. Binding degrees of 23 compounds in Gardenia jasminoides Eliis (G. jasminoide) with aldose reductase ranged from 13.91% to 66.25%. Also, microdialysis recoveries of 23 compounds in G. jasminoides were determined. CONCLUSIONS The Interaction properties of 23 compounds in G. jasminoides with aldose reductase were investigated and they are potential bioactive ingredients. Microdialysis coupled to LC/QTOF-MS/MS can be used for screening of bioactive multicomponents from TCMs with appropriate targets. Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu Wang
- National Center of Mass Spectrometry in Changchun, Jilin Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Chemistry and Mass Spectrometry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China
- University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100039, China
| | - Shu Liu
- National Center of Mass Spectrometry in Changchun, Jilin Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Chemistry and Mass Spectrometry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China
| | - Junpeng Xing
- National Center of Mass Spectrometry in Changchun, Jilin Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Chemistry and Mass Spectrometry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China
| | - Zhiqiang Liu
- National Center of Mass Spectrometry in Changchun, Jilin Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Chemistry and Mass Spectrometry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China
| | - Fengrui Song
- National Center of Mass Spectrometry in Changchun, Jilin Province Key Laboratory of Chinese Medicine Chemistry and Mass Spectrometry, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun, 130022, China
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24
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Hellman K, Aadal Nielsen P, Ek F, Olsson R. An ex Vivo Model for Evaluating Blood-Brain Barrier Permeability, Efflux, and Drug Metabolism. ACS Chem Neurosci 2016; 7:668-80. [PMID: 26930271 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.6b00024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The metabolism of drugs in the brain is difficult to study in most species because of enzymatic instability in vitro and interference from peripheral metabolism in vivo. A locust ex vivo model that combines brain barrier penetration, efflux, metabolism, and analysis of the unbound fraction in intact brains was evaluated using known drugs. Clozapine was analyzed, and its major metabolites, clozapine N-oxide (CNO) and N-desmethylclozapine (NDMC), were identified and quantified. The back-transformation of CNO into clozapine observed in humans was also observed in locusts. In addition, risperidone, citalopram, fluoxetine, and haloperidol were studied, and one preselected metabolite for each drug was analyzed, identified, and quantified. Metabolite identification studies of clozapine and midazolam showed that the locust brain was highly metabolically active, and 18 and 14 metabolites, respectively, were identified. The unbound drug fraction of clozapine, NDMC, carbamazepine, and risperidone was analyzed. In addition, coadministration of drugs with verapamil or fluvoxamine was performed to evaluate drug-drug interactions in all setups. All findings correlated well with the data in the literature for mammals except for the stated fact that CNO is a highly blood-brain barrier permeant compound. Overall, the experiments indicated that invertebrates might be useful for screening of blood-brain barrier permeation, efflux, metabolism, and analysis of the unbound fraction of drugs in the brain in early drug discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Hellman
- Chemical Biology & Therapeutics unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund S-22184, Sweden
| | | | - Fredrik Ek
- Chemical Biology & Therapeutics unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund S-22184, Sweden
| | - Roger Olsson
- Chemical Biology & Therapeutics unit, Department of Experimental Medical Science, Lund University, Lund S-22184, Sweden
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25
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A Review on Microdialysis Calibration Methods: the Theory and Current Related Efforts. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:3506-3527. [PMID: 27189617 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-9929-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2016] [Accepted: 05/03/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Microdialysis is a sampling technique first introduced in the late 1950s. Although this technique was originally designed to study endogenous compounds in animal brain, it is later modified to be used in other organs. Additionally, microdialysis is not only able to collect unbound concentration of compounds from tissue sites; this technique can also be used to deliver exogenous compounds to a designated area. Due to its versatility, microdialysis technique is widely employed in a number of areas, including biomedical research. However, for most in vivo studies, the concentration of substance obtained directly from the microdialysis technique does not accurately describe the concentration of the substance on-site. In order to relate the results collected from microdialysis to the actual in vivo condition, a calibration method is required. To date, various microdialysis calibration methods have been reported, with each method being capable to provide valuable insights of the technique itself and its applications. This paper aims to provide a critical review on various calibration methods used in microdialysis applications, inclusive of a detailed description of the microdialysis technique itself to start with. It is expected that this article shall review in detail, the various calibration methods employed, present examples of work related to each calibration method including clinical efforts, plus the advantages and disadvantages of each of the methods.
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Wang C, Lu X, Li L, Zhang R, shi T, Li S. Microdialysis combined with liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for the determination of nimodipine in the guinea pig hippocampus. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2016; 1017-1018:226-232. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2016.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2015] [Revised: 02/24/2016] [Accepted: 02/28/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Hou ML, Lu CM, Lin CH, Lin LC, Tsai TH. Pharmacokinetics of Maleic Acid as a Food Adulterant Determined by Microdialysis in Rat Blood and Kidney Cortex. Molecules 2016; 21:367. [PMID: 26999094 PMCID: PMC6273185 DOI: 10.3390/molecules21030367] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Revised: 03/04/2016] [Accepted: 03/11/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Maleic acid has been shown to be used as a food adulterant in the production of modified starch by the Taiwan Food and Drug Administration. Due to the potential toxicity of maleic acid to the kidneys, this study aimed to develop an analytical method to investigate the pharmacokinetics of maleic acid in rat blood and kidney cortex. Multiple microdialysis probes were simultaneously inserted into the jugular vein and the kidney cortex for sampling after maleic acid administration (10 or 30 mg/kg, i.v., respectively). The pharmacokinetic results demonstrated that maleic acid produced a linear pharmacokinetic phenomenon within the doses of 10 and 30 mg/kg. The area under concentration versus time curve (AUC) of the maleic acid in kidney cortex was 5-fold higher than that in the blood after maleic acid administration (10 and 30 mg/kg, i.v., respectively), indicating that greater accumulation of maleic acid occurred in the rat kidney.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mei-Ling Hou
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Section 2, Li-Nong Street, Beitou District, Taipei 11221, Taiwan.
| | - Chia-Ming Lu
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Section 2, Li-Nong Street, Beitou District, Taipei 11221, Taiwan.
| | - Chi-Hung Lin
- Institute of Microbiology and Immunology, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Section 2, Li-Nong Street, Beitou District, Taipei 11221, Taiwan.
| | - Lie-Chwen Lin
- National Research Institute of Chinese Medicine, Ministry of Health and Welfare, No. 155-1, Section 2, Li-Nong Street, Beitou District, Taipei 11221, Taiwan.
| | - Tung-Hu Tsai
- Institute of Traditional Medicine, School of Medicine, National Yang-Ming University, No. 155, Section 2, Li-Nong Street, Beitou District, Taipei 11221, Taiwan.
- Graduate Institute of Acupuncture Science, China Medical University, No. 91, Hsueh-Shih Road, Taichung 40402, Taiwan.
- School of Pharmacy, College of Pharmacy, Kaohsiung Medical University, 100, Shih-Chuan 1st Road, Kaohsiung 80708, Taiwan.
- Department of Education and Research, Taipei City Hospital, No. 145, Zhengzhou Road, Datong District, Taipei 103, Taiwan.
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Zhao XE, He Y, Yan P, Wei N, Wang R, Sun J, Zheng L, Zhu S, You J. Sensitive and accurate determination of neurotransmitters from in vivo rat brain microdialysate of Parkinson's disease using in situ ultrasound-assisted derivatization dispersive liquid–liquid microextraction by UHPLC-MS/MS. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra23808d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
In situ UA-DDLLME coupled with UHPLC-MS/MS has been developed for simultaneous determination of neurotransmitters and baicalein from Parkinson's disease rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian-En Zhao
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis & Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Intermediates and Analysis of Natural Medicine
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu 273165
- P. R. China
| | - Yongrui He
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis & Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Intermediates and Analysis of Natural Medicine
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu 273165
- P. R. China
| | - Ping Yan
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis & Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Intermediates and Analysis of Natural Medicine
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu 273165
- P. R. China
| | - Na Wei
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis & Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Intermediates and Analysis of Natural Medicine
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu 273165
- P. R. China
| | - Renjun Wang
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis & Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Intermediates and Analysis of Natural Medicine
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu 273165
- P. R. China
| | - Jing Sun
- Qinghai Key Laboratory of Qinghai-Tibet Plateau Biological Resources & Key Laboratory of Tibetan Medicine Research
- Northwest Institute of Plateau Biology
- Chinese Academy of Science
- Xining 810001
- P. R. China
| | - Longfang Zheng
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis & Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Intermediates and Analysis of Natural Medicine
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu 273165
- P. R. China
| | - Shuyun Zhu
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis & Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Intermediates and Analysis of Natural Medicine
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu 273165
- P. R. China
| | - Jinmao You
- Shandong Provincial Key Laboratory of Life-Organic Analysis & Key Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Intermediates and Analysis of Natural Medicine
- College of Chemistry and Chemical Engineering
- Qufu Normal University
- Qufu 273165
- P. R. China
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Hou ML, Lin CH, Lin LC, Tsai TH. The Drug-Drug Effects of Rhein on the Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Clozapine in Rat Brain Extracellular Fluid by In Vivo Microdialysis. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2015. [DOI: 10.1124/jpet.115.225763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
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Herb-drug pharmacokinetic interaction of a traditional chinese medicine jia-wei-xiao-yao-san with 5-Fluorouracil in the blood and brain of rat using microdialysis. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2015; 2015:729679. [PMID: 25861367 PMCID: PMC4377464 DOI: 10.1155/2015/729679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2014] [Revised: 01/03/2015] [Accepted: 02/16/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
According to a survey from the National Health Insurance Research Database (NHIRD), Jia-Wei-Xiao-Yao-San (JWXYS) is the most popular Chinese medicine for cancer patients in Taiwan. 5-Fluorouracil (5-FU) is a general anticancer drug for the chemotherapy. To investigate the herb-drug interaction of JWXYS on pharmacokinetics of 5-FU, a microdialysis technique coupled with a high-performance liquid chromatography system was used to monitor 5-FU in rat blood and brain. Rats were divided into four parallel groups, one of which was treated with 5-FU (100 mg/kg, i.v.) alone and the remaining three groups were pretreated with a different dose of JWXYS (600, 1200, or 2400 mg/kg/day for 5 consecutive days) followed by a combination with 5-FU. This study demonstrates that 5-FU with JWXYS (600 mg/kg/day or 1200 mg/kg/day) has no significant effect on the pharmacokinetics of 5-FU in the blood and brain. However, JWXYS (2400 mg/kg/day) coadministered with 5-FU extends the elimination half-life and increases the volume of distribution of 5-FU in the blood. The elimination half-life of 5-FU in the brain for the pretreatment group with 2400 mg/kg/day of JWXYS is significantly longer than that for the group treated with 5-FU alone and also reduces the clearance. This study provides practical dosage information for clinical practice and proves the safety of 5-FU coadministered with JWXYS.
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Lu CM, Hou ML, Lin LC, Tsai TH. Development of a microdialysis system to monitor lamivudine in blood and liver for the pharmacokinetic application in herbal drug interaction and the gene expression in rats. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2014; 96:231-40. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2014.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2014] [Revised: 03/31/2014] [Accepted: 04/01/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Gallardo E, Palma-Valdés R, Espartero JL, Santiago M. In vivo striatal measurement of hydroxytyrosol, and its metabolite (homovanillic alcohol), compared with its derivative nitrohydroxytyrosol. Neurosci Lett 2014; 579:173-6. [PMID: 25072818 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2014.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Revised: 07/03/2014] [Accepted: 07/21/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Phenolic compounds were measured by in vivo brain microdialysis in rat striatum. Basal extracellular levels of hydroxytyrosol, homovanillic alcohol and nitro-hydroxytyrosol were not detectable by HPLC with electrochemical detection. However, systemic administration of hydroxytyrosol (20 and 40mg/kg, i.p.) showed a clear increase in the extracellular level of this compound. This increase was accompanied by an increase in the extracellular level of homovanillic alcohol, a metabolite of hydroxytyrosol formed by catechol-O-methyltransferase activity. Perfusion of hydroxytyrosol (20μM) through the microdialysis cannula also produced an increase in the extracellular level of homovanillic alcohol. Systemic administration of nitro-hydroxytyrosol (20 and 40mg/kg, i.p.) produced a small increase in the extracellular level of this compound. Our data show that hydroxytyrosol is a more brain penetrant phenolic compound than nitro-hydroxytyrosol. Accordingly, there is high cerebral metabolism of hydroxytyrosol to produce homovanillic alcohol by catechol-O-methyltransferase activity, that is saturated at the higher administered dose of hydroxytyrosol.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elena Gallardo
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica. Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, 41012 Seville, Spain
| | - Rocío Palma-Valdés
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica. Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, 41012 Seville, Spain
| | - José Luis Espartero
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Farmacéutica. Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, 41012 Seville, Spain
| | - Marti Santiago
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de Sevilla, 41012 Seville, Spain.
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Li J, Mao C, Li L, Ji D, Yin F, Lang Y, Lu T, Xiao Y, Li L. Pharmacokinetics and liver distribution study of unbound curdione and curcumol in rats by microdialysis coupled with rapid resolution liquid chromatography (RRLC) and tandem mass spectrometry. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2014; 95:146-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2014.02.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2013] [Revised: 02/18/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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Zhao L, Li Q, Zhu H, Chen X, Bi K. Determination of cefuroxime lysine in rat brain microdialysates by ultra-fast liquid chromatography with UV and tandem mass spectrometry: application to an acute toxicokinetic study. Biomed Chromatogr 2014; 28:1199-204. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.3145] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2013] [Revised: 12/14/2013] [Accepted: 01/04/2014] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Longshan Zhao
- School of Pharmacy; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; 110016 Shenyang China
| | - Qing Li
- School of Pharmacy; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; 110016 Shenyang China
| | - Heyun Zhu
- School of Pharmacy; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; 110016 Shenyang China
| | - Xiaohui Chen
- School of Pharmacy; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; 110016 Shenyang China
| | - Kaishun Bi
- School of Pharmacy; Shenyang Pharmaceutical University; 110016 Shenyang China
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Farnaes L, La Clair JJ, Fenical W. Napyradiomycins CNQ525.510B and A80915C target the Hsp90 paralogue Grp94. Org Biomol Chem 2014; 12:418-23. [PMID: 24292715 PMCID: PMC3893886 DOI: 10.1039/c3ob41355a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The intracellular localization and target of the napyradiomycin congeners CNQ525.510B and A80815C were explored using an immunoaffinity fluorescence (IAF) approach. Semi-synthetic methods were used to prepare probes from napyradiomycin CNQ525.510B and derivative A80815C. The results of confocal microscopy indicated that probes from both natural products localized predominantly within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of HCT-116 human colon carcinoma cells. Parallel immunoaffinity precipitation efforts using a monoclonal antibody designed against the IAF tag, resulted in the isolation of an Hsp90 family member. This protein was identified as human Grp94 (hGrp94), by its specific mass spectral signature. This observation was validated by Western blot analyses and by the result of an in vitro Grp94 binding assay. The fact that the napyradiomycins CNQ525.510B and A80815C bind to hGrp94, and their associated probes localize within the ER, suggest the use of these materials as molecular probes for monitoring ER-based chaperone function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauge Farnaes
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0204, USA
| | - James J. La Clair
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, California 92093- 0378, USA
| | - William Fenical
- Center for Marine Biotechnology and Biomedicine, Scripps Institution of Oceanography, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093-0204, USA
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Liu R, Duan JA, Guo J, Tang Y, Qian D. DETERMINATION OF 5-HYDROXYINDOLE-3-ACETIC ACID, DIHYDROXYPHENYLACETIC ACID, AND HOMOVANILLIC ACID IN THE BRAINS OF FREELY MOVING RATS USING MICRODIALYSIS COUPLED WITH HPLC–ECD. J LIQ CHROMATOGR R T 2014. [DOI: 10.1080/10826076.2012.758144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Rui Liu
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , China
| | - Jin-ao Duan
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , China
| | - Jianming Guo
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , China
| | - Yuping Tang
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , China
| | - Dawei Qian
- a Jiangsu Key Laboratory for High Technology Research of TCM Formulae , Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine , Nanjing , China
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Zhao G, Peng C, Du W, Wang S. Simultaneous determination of imperatorin and its metabolitesin vitroandin vivoby a GC-MS method: application to a bioavailability and protein binding ability study in rat plasma. Biomed Chromatogr 2013; 28:947-56. [DOI: 10.1002/bmc.3100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2013] [Revised: 10/09/2013] [Accepted: 11/05/2013] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Gang Zhao
- School of Medicine; Xi'an Jiaotong University; Xi'an 710061 China
| | - Cheng Peng
- School of Medicine; Xi'an Jiaotong University; Xi'an 710061 China
| | - Wei Du
- School of Medicine; Xi'an Jiaotong University; Xi'an 710061 China
| | - Sicen Wang
- School of Medicine; Xi'an Jiaotong University; Xi'an 710061 China
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Interaction of acupuncture and electroacupuncture on the pharmacokinetics of aspirin and the effect of brain blood flow in rats. EVIDENCE-BASED COMPLEMENTARY AND ALTERNATIVE MEDICINE 2013; 2013:670858. [PMID: 24371465 PMCID: PMC3858995 DOI: 10.1155/2013/670858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/07/2013] [Revised: 10/12/2013] [Accepted: 10/21/2013] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Acupuncture and electroacupuncture have been used to improve the brain and motor functions of poststroke patients, and aspirin is used for the prevention of stroke recurrence. Our hypothesis is that acupuncture and electroacupuncture treatments may interact with aspirin in terms of pharmacokinetics via affecting the brain blood flow. The aim of this study is to investigate the potential interactions of acupuncture and electroacupuncture on the pharmacokinetics of aspirin. The effects of acupuncture treatments on brain blood flow were measured by the laser Doppler blood flow imager. The parallel pharmacokinetic study design included three groups: control, acupuncture, and electroacupuncture groups. Two acupoints, namely, Quchi (LI 11) and Zusanli (ST 36), were needled and stimulated electronically in anaesthetized rats. The concentrations of aspirin and its metabolite, salicylic acid were determined by microdialysis and HPLC analysis after aspirin administration (30 mg/kg, i.v.). The brain blood flow responded to electroacupuncture treatments, but the pharmacokinetic parameters of aspirin and salicylic acid in blood and brain were not significantly changed by acupuncture and electroacupuncture treatments. This study may, in part, offer some evidence to support the contention that there is no significant interaction for the combination of aspirin with acupuncture or electroacupuncture.
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Microdialysis sampling for investigations of tetramethylpyrazine following transdermal and intraperitoneal administration. Eur J Pharm Sci 2013; 50:454-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejps.2013.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2013] [Accepted: 08/13/2013] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Su CK, Sun YC. Chemically differentiating ascorbate-mediated dissolution of quantum dots in cell culture media. NANOSCALE 2013; 5:2073-9. [PMID: 23377100 DOI: 10.1039/c2nr33365a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
To investigate the dynamic dissolution of quantum dots (QDs) in cell culture media, in this study we constructed an online automatic analytical system comprising a sequential in-tube solid phase extraction (SPE) device and an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) mass spectrometer. By means of selectively extracting QDs and cadmium ions (Cd(2+)) onto the interior surface of the polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) tube, this novel SPE device could be used to determine the degree of QD dissolution through a simple adjustment of sample acidity. To the best of our knowledge, this study is the first to exploit PTFE tubing as a selective SPE adsorbent for the online chemical differentiation of QDs and Cd(2+) ions with the goal of monitoring the phenomenon of QD dissolution in complicated biological matrices. We confirmed the analytical reliability of this system through comparison of the measured Cd-to-QD ratios to the expected values. When analyzing QDs and Cd(2+) ions at picomolar levels, a temporal resolution of 8 min was required to load sufficient amounts of the analytes to meet the sensitivity requirements of the ICP mass spectrometer. To demonstrate the practicability of this developed method, we measured the dynamic variations in the Cd-to-QD705 ratio in the presence of ascorbate as a physiological stimulant to generate reactive oxygen species in cell culture media and trigger the dissolution of QDs; our results suggest that the ascorbate-induced QD dissolution was dependent on the time, treatment concentration, and nature of the biomolecule.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cheng-Kuan Su
- Department of Biomedical Engineering and Environmental Sciences, National Tsing-Hua University, Hsinchu, 30013, Taiwan
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Wang C, Williams NS. A mass balance approach for calculation of recovery and binding enables the use of ultrafiltration as a rapid method for measurement of plasma protein binding for even highly lipophilic compounds. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2013; 75:112-7. [PMID: 23312388 PMCID: PMC3545278 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2012.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2012] [Revised: 11/10/2012] [Accepted: 11/14/2012] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
The aim of this study is to further validate the use of ultrafiltration (UF) as a method for determining plasma protein binding (PPB) by demonstrating that non-specific binding (NSB) is not a limitation, even for highly lipophilic compounds, because NSB sites on the apparatus are passivated in the presence of plasma. Mass balance theory was used to calculate recovery of 20 commercial and seven investigational compounds during ultrafiltration in the presence and absence of plasma. PPB was also measured using this mass balance approach for comparison to PPB determined by rapid equilibrium dialysis (RED) and as found in the literature. Compound recovery during UF was dramatically different in the presence and absence of plasma for compounds with high NSB in PBS only. A comparison of PPB calculated by ultrafiltration with literature values or calculated by RED gave concordant results. Discrepancies could be explained by changes in pH, insufficient time to equilibrium, or compound instability during RED, problems which were circumvented by ultrafiltration. Therefore, NSB, as measured by the traditional incubation of compound in PBS, need not be an issue when choosing UF as a PPB assay method. It is more appropriate to calculate compound recovery from the device in plasma as measured by mass balance to determine the suitability of the method for an individual compound. The speed with which UF can be conducted additionally avoids changes in pH or compound loss that can occur with other methods. The mass balance approach to UF is thus a preferred method for rapid determination of PPB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changguang Wang
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390, U.S.A
| | - Noelle S. Williams
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, 5323 Harry Hines Boulevard, Dallas, Texas 75390, U.S.A
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Ouyang E, Zhang C, Li X. Determination of 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde of crude and processed Fructus Corni in freely moving rats using in vivo microdialysis sampling and liquid chromatography. Pharmacogn Mag 2012; 7:271-6. [PMID: 22262928 PMCID: PMC3261059 DOI: 10.4103/0973-1296.90394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2011] [Revised: 09/04/2011] [Accepted: 11/30/2011] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Fructus Corni is derived from the dry ripe sarcocarp of Cornus officinalis Sieb. et Zucc. 5-hydroxymethyl-2-furaldehyde (5-HMF) is an important active composition of the Fructus Corni. However, there have been no reports on the concentration of 5-HMF in freely moving rats using microdialysis coupled with HPLC. MATERIALS AND METHODS The concentration of 5-HMF in free-moving rats after intra-gastric (i.g.) administration of the water extract of Fructus Corni and JZP was analyzed by microdialysis coupled with high-performance liquid chromatographic (HPLC). RESULTS Results demonstrated that the concentration of 5-HMF in microdialysate was 1.4951 μg/l, but higher in rat microdialysate after i.g. administration of the aqueous extract of JZP (5.2662 μg/l). CONCLUSION This method is proved to be rapid, accurate and simple. Real-time in vivo monitoring the concentration of 5-HMF provides the theoretical basis for further explaining the processing mechanism of Fructus Corni.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enhong Ouyang
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Shaoyang Medical College, Shangyang 422000, China
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Immobilized Ru(bpy)32+ Electrochemiluminescence Coupled with Microdialysis Sampling for On-line Studying Drug-protein Interaction. CHINESE JOURNAL OF ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY 2012. [DOI: 10.1016/s1872-2040(11)60548-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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44
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Shaw LH, Tsai TH. Simultaneous determination and pharmacokinetics of protein unbound aspirin and salicylic acid in rat blood and brain by microdialysis: An application to herbal–drug interaction. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2012; 895-896:31-8. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2012.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2011] [Revised: 01/30/2012] [Accepted: 03/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Zhang F, Xue J, Shao J, Jia L. Compilation of 222 drugs’ plasma protein binding data and guidance for study designs. Drug Discov Today 2012; 17:475-85. [DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2011.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2011] [Revised: 10/19/2011] [Accepted: 12/15/2011] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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Erdő F, Gordon J, Wu JT, Sziráki I. Verification of brain penetration of the unbound fraction of a novel HER2/EGFR dual kinase inhibitor (TAK-285) by microdialysis in rats. Brain Res Bull 2012; 87:413-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresbull.2012.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2011] [Accepted: 01/02/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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Ma RH, Yang J, Qi LW, Xin GZ, Wang CZ, Yuan CS, Wen XD, Li P. In vivo microdialysis with LC–MS for analysis of spinosin and its interaction with cyclosporin A in rat brain, blood and bile. J Pharm Biomed Anal 2012; 61:22-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jpba.2011.11.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2011] [Revised: 11/11/2011] [Accepted: 11/12/2011] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Brainpeps: the blood-brain barrier peptide database. Brain Struct Funct 2011; 217:687-718. [PMID: 22205159 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-011-0375-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2011] [Accepted: 12/12/2011] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Peptides are able to cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB) through various mechanisms, opening new diagnostic and therapeutic avenues. However, their BBB transport data are scattered in the literature over different disciplines, using different methodologies reporting different influx or efflux aspects. Therefore, a comprehensive BBB peptide database (Brainpeps) was constructed to collect the BBB data available in the literature. Brainpeps currently contains BBB transport information with positive as well as negative results. The database is a useful tool to prioritize peptide choices for evaluating different BBB responses or studying quantitative structure-property (BBB behaviour) relationships of peptides. Because a multitude of methods have been used to assess the BBB behaviour of compounds, we classified these methods and their responses. Moreover, the relationships between the different BBB transport methods have been clarified and visualized.
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Escher BI, Cowan-Ellsberry CE, Dyer S, Embry MR, Erhardt S, Halder M, Kwon JH, Johanning K, Oosterwijk MTT, Rutishauser S, Segner H, Nichols J. Protein and lipid binding parameters in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) blood and liver fractions to extrapolate from an in vitro metabolic degradation assay to in vivo bioaccumulation potential of hydrophobic organic chemicals. Chem Res Toxicol 2011; 24:1134-43. [PMID: 21604782 DOI: 10.1021/tx200114y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Binding of hydrophobic chemicals to colloids such as proteins or lipids is difficult to measure using classical microdialysis methods due to low aqueous concentrations, adsorption to dialysis membranes and test vessels, and slow kinetics of equilibration. Here, we employed a three-phase partitioning system where silicone (polydimethylsiloxane, PDMS) serves as a third phase to determine partitioning between water and colloids and acts at the same time as a dosing device for hydrophobic chemicals. The applicability of this method was demonstrated with bovine serum albumin (BSA). Measured binding constants (K(BSAw)) for chlorpyrifos, methoxychlor, nonylphenol, and pyrene were in good agreement with an established quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR). A fifth compound, fluoxypyr-methyl-heptyl ester, was excluded from the analysis because of apparent abiotic degradation. The PDMS depletion method was then used to determine partition coefficients for test chemicals in rainbow trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) liver S9 fractions (K(S9w)) and blood plasma (K(bloodw)). Measured K(S9w) and K(bloodw) values were consistent with predictions obtained using a mass-balance model that employs the octanol-water partition coefficient (K(ow)) as a surrogate for lipid partitioning and K(BSAw) to represent protein binding. For each compound, K(bloodw) was substantially greater than K(S9w), primarily because blood contains more lipid than liver S9 fractions (1.84% of wet weight vs 0.051%). Measured liver S9 and blood plasma binding parameters were subsequently implemented in an in vitro to in vivo extrapolation model to link the in vitro liver S9 metabolic degradation assay to in vivo metabolism in fish. Apparent volumes of distribution (V(d)) calculated from the experimental data were similar to literature estimates. However, the calculated binding ratios (f(u)) used to relate in vitro metabolic clearance to clearance by the intact liver were 10 to 100 times lower than values used in previous modeling efforts. Bioconcentration factors (BCF) predicted using the experimental binding data were substantially higher than the predicted values obtained in earlier studies and correlated poorly with measured BCF values in fish. One possible explanation for this finding is that chemicals bound to proteins can desorb rapidly and thus contribute to metabolic turnover of the chemicals. This hypothesis remains to be investigated in future studies, ideally with chemicals of higher hydrophobicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beate I Escher
- The University of Queensland, National Research Centre for Environmental Toxicology (Entox), 39 Kessels Road, Brisbane, Qld 4108, Australia.
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Abstract
'It is better to be useful than perfect'. This review attempts to critically cover and assess the currently available approaches and tools to answer the crucial question: Is it possible (and if it is, to what extent is it possible) to predict in vivo metabolites and their abundances on the basis of in vitro and preclinical animal studies? In preclinical drug development, it is possible to produce metabolite patterns from a candidate drug by virtual means (i.e., in silico models), but these are not yet validated. However, they may be useful to cover the potential range of metabolites. In vitro metabolite patterns and apparent relative abundances are produced by various in vitro systems employing tissue preparations (mainly liver) and in most cases using liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry analytical techniques for tentative identification. The pattern of the metabolites produced depends on the enzyme source; the most comprehensive source of drug-metabolizing enzymes is cultured human hepatocytes, followed by liver homogenate fortified with appropriate cofactors. For specific purposes, such as the identification of metabolizing enzyme(s), recombinant enzymes can be used. Metabolite data from animal in vitro and in vivo experiments, despite known species differences, may help pinpoint metabolites that are not apparently produced in in vitro human systems, or suggest alternative experimental approaches. The range of metabolites detected provides clues regarding the enzymes attacking the molecule under study. We also discuss established approaches to identify the major enzymes. The last question, regarding reliability and robustness of metabolite extrapolations from in vitro to in vivo, both qualitatively and quantitatively, cannot be easily answered. There are a number of examples in the literature suggesting that extrapolations are generally useful, but there are only a few systematic and comprehensive studies to validate in vitro-in vivo extrapolations. In conclusion, extrapolation from preclinical metabolite data to the in vivo situation is certainly useful, but it is not known to what extent.
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