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Martínez-Senra T, Losada-Barreiro S, Bravo-Díaz C. Efficiency of δ-Tocopherol in Inhibiting Lipid Oxidation in Emulsions: Effects of Surfactant Charge and of Surfactant Concentration. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:1158. [PMID: 37371888 PMCID: PMC10294913 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12061158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2023] [Revised: 05/23/2023] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Charged interfaces may play an important role in the fate of chemical reactions. Alterations in, for instance, the interfacial acidity of emulsions induced by the charge of the surfactant head group and associated counterions may change the ionization status of antioxidants, modifying their effective concentrations. The chemical reactivity between interfacial reactants and charged species of opposite charge (protons, metallic ions, etc.) is usually interpreted in terms of pseudophase ion-exchange models, treating the distribution of charged species in terms of partitioning and ion exchange. Here, we focus on analyzing the effects of charged interfaces on the oxidative stability of soybean oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions prepared with anionic (sodium dodecyl sulfate, SDS), cationic (cetyltrimethylammonium bromide, CTAB) and neutral (Tween 20) surfactants, and some of their mixtures, in the presence and absence of δ-tocopherol (δ-TOC). We have also determined the effective concentrations of δ-TOC in the oil, interfacial and aqueous regions of the intact emulsions. In the absence of δ-TOC, the relative oxidative stability order was CTAB < TW20 ~ TW20/CTAB < SDS. Surprisingly, upon the addition of δ-TOC, the relative order was SDS ≈ TW20 << TW20/CTAB < CTAB. These apparently surprising results can be rationalized in terms of the nice correlation that exists between the relative oxidative stability and the effective interfacial concentrations of δ-TOC in the various emulsions. The results emphasize the importance of considering the effective interfacial concentrations of antioxidants in interpreting their relative efficiency in emulsions.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- Departamento Química-Física, Facultad de Química, Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain (C.B.-D.)
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Martínez-Senra T, Losada-Barreiro S, Hermida-Ramón JM, Graña AM, Bravo-Díaz C. Molecular Design of Interfaces of Model Food Nanoemulsions: A Combined Experimental and Theoretical Approach. Antioxidants (Basel) 2023; 12:antiox12020484. [PMID: 36830043 PMCID: PMC9951901 DOI: 10.3390/antiox12020484] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 02/09/2023] [Accepted: 02/12/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The composition and structure of the interfacial region of emulsions frequently determine its functionality and practical applications. In this work, we have integrated theory and experiments to enable a detailed description of the location and orientation of antioxidants in the interfacial region of olive-oil-in-water nanoemulsions (O/W) loaded with the model gallic acid (GA) antioxidant. For the purpose, we determined the distribution of GA in the intact emulsions by employing the well-developed pseudophase kinetic model, as well as their oxidative stability. We also determined, by employing an in silico design, the radial distribution functions of GA to gain insights on its insertion depth and on its orientation in the interfacial region. Both theoretical and experimental methods provide comparable and complementary results, indicating that most GA is located in the interfacial region (~81.2%) with a small fraction in the aqueous (~18.82%). Thus, GA is an effective antioxidant to inhibit lipid oxidation in emulsions not only because of the energy required for its reaction with peroxyl radical is much lower than that between the peroxyl radical and the unsaturated lipid but also because its effective concentration in the interfacial region is much higher than the stoichiometric concentration. The results demonstrate that the hybrid approach of experiments and simulations constitutes a complementary and useful pathway to design new, tailored, functionalized emulsions to minimize lipid oxidation.
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Distributions of α- and δ-TOCopherol in Intact Olive and Soybean Oil-in-Water Emulsions at Various Acidities: A Test of the Sensitivity of the Pseudophase Kinetic Model. Antioxidants (Basel) 2022; 11:antiox11122477. [PMID: 36552687 PMCID: PMC9774782 DOI: 10.3390/antiox11122477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2022] [Revised: 12/11/2022] [Accepted: 12/13/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
During the last years, the formalism of the pseudophase kinetic model (PKM) has been successfully applied to determine the distributions of antioxidants and their effective interfacial concentrations, and to assess the relative importance of emulsion and antioxidant properties (oil and surfactant nature, temperature, acidity, chemical structure, hydrophilic-liphophilic balance (HLB), etc.) on their efficiency in intact lipid-based emulsions. The PKM permits separating the contributions of the medium and of the concentration to the overall rate of the reaction. In this paper, we report the results of a specifically designed experiment to further test the suitability of the PKM to evaluate the distributions of antioxidants among the various regions of intact lipid-based emulsions and provide insights into their chemical reactivity in multiphasic systems. For this purpose, we employed the antioxidants α- and δ-TOCopherol (α- and δ-TOC, respectively) and determined, at different acidities well below their pKa, the interfacial rate constants kI for the reaction between 16-ArN2+ and α- and δ-TOC, and the antioxidant distributions in intact emulsions prepared with olive and soybean oils. Results show that the effective interfacial concentration of δ-TOC is higher than that of α-TOC in 1:9 (v/v) soybean and 1:9 olive oil emulsions. The effective interfacial concentrations of tocopherols are much higher (15-96-fold) than the stoichiometric concentrations, as the effective interfacial concentrations of both δ-TOC and α-TOC in soybean oil emulsions are higher (2-fold) than those in olive oil emulsions. Overall, the results demonstrate that the PKM grants an effective separation of the medium and concentration effects, demonstrating that the PKM constitutes a powerful non-destructive tool to determine antioxidant concentrations in intact emulsions and to assess the effects of various factors affecting them.
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Bravo-Díaz C. Advances in the control of lipid peroxidation in oil-in-water emulsions: kinetic approaches †. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2022; 63:6252-6284. [PMID: 35104177 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2022.2029827] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Large efforts have been, and still are, devoted to minimize the harmful effects of lipid peroxidation. Much of the early work focused in understanding both the lipid oxidation mechanisms and the action of antioxidants in bulk solution. However, food-grade oils are mostly present in the form of oil-in-water emulsions, bringing up an increasing complexity because of the three-dimensional interfacial region. This review presents an overview of the kinetic approaches employed in controlling the oxidative stability of edible oil-in-water emulsions and of the main outcomes, with particular emphasis on the role of antioxidants and on the kinetics of the inhibition reaction. Application of physical-organic chemistry methods, such as the pseudophase models to investigate antioxidant partitioning, constitute a remarkable example on how kinetic methodologies contribute to model chemical reactivity in multiphasic systems and to rationalize the role of interfaces, opening new opportunities for designing novel antioxidants with tailored properties and new prospects for modulating environmental conditions in attempting to optimize their efficiency. Here we will summarize the main kinetic features of the inhibition reaction and will discuss on the main factors affecting its rate, including the determination of antioxidant efficiencies from kinetic profiles, structure-reactivity relationships, partitioning of antioxidants and concentration effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Facultad de Ciencias, Departamento de Química Física, Universidad de Vigo, Vigo, Spain
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5
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Villeneuve P, Bourlieu-Lacanal C, Durand E, Lecomte J, McClements DJ, Decker EA. Lipid oxidation in emulsions and bulk oils: a review of the importance of micelles. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2021:1-41. [PMID: 34839769 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2021.2006138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Lipid oxidation is a major cause of quality deterioration in food products. In these foods, lipids are often present in a bulk or in emulsified forms. In both systems, the rate, extent and pathway of oxidation are highly dependent on the presence of colloidal structures and interfaces because these are the locations where oxidation normally occurs. In bulk oils, reverse micelles (association colloids) are present and are believed to play a crucial role on lipid oxidation. Conversely, in emulsions, surfactant micelles are present that also play a major role in lipid oxidation pathways. After a brief description of lipid oxidation and antioxidants mechanisms, this review discusses the current understanding of the influence of micellar structures on lipid oxidation. In particular, is discussed the major impact of the presence of micelles in emulsions, or reverse micelles (association colloids) in bulk oil on the oxidative stability of both systems. Indeed, both micelles in emulsions and associate colloids in bulk oils are discussed in this review as nanoscale structures that can serve as reservoirs of antioxidants and pro-oxidants and are involved in their transport within the concerned system. Their role as nanoreactors where lipid oxidation reactions occur is also commented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Villeneuve
- CIRAD, UMR QualiSud, Montpellier, France.,QualiSud, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Université d'Avignon, Université de La Réunion, Montpellier, France
| | - Claire Bourlieu-Lacanal
- QualiSud, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Université d'Avignon, Université de La Réunion, Montpellier, France.,UMR IATE, Univ Montpellier, INRAE, Institut Agro, Montpellier, France
| | - Erwann Durand
- CIRAD, UMR QualiSud, Montpellier, France.,QualiSud, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Université d'Avignon, Université de La Réunion, Montpellier, France
| | - Jérôme Lecomte
- CIRAD, UMR QualiSud, Montpellier, France.,QualiSud, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, Montpellier SupAgro, Université d'Avignon, Université de La Réunion, Montpellier, France
| | | | - Eric A Decker
- Department of Food Science, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts, USA
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Costa M, Losada-Barreiro S, Paiva-Martins F, Bravo-Díaz C. Effects of Surfactant Volume Fraction on the Antioxidant Efficiency and on The Interfacial Concentrations of Octyl and Tetradecyl p-Coumarates in Corn Oil-in-Water Emulsions. Molecules 2021; 26:molecules26196058. [PMID: 34641602 PMCID: PMC8512349 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26196058] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2021] [Revised: 09/29/2021] [Accepted: 10/02/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Surfactants have been used for decades in the food industry for the preparation of lipid-based emulsified food stuffs. They play two main roles in the emulsification processes: first they decrease the interfacial tension between the oil and water, facilitating droplet deformation and rupture; second, they reduce droplet coalescence by forming steric barriers. However, addition of surfactants to binary oil-water mixtures also brings up the formation of three-dimensional interfacial layers, surrounding each emulsion droplet, that significantly alter chemical reactivity. This is the case, for instance, in the inhibition reaction between antioxidants and the lipid radicals formed in the course of the spontaneous oxidation reaction of unsaturated lipids, which are commonly employed in the preparation of food-grade emulsions. The rate of the inhibition reaction depends on the effective concentrations of antioxidants, which are mostly controlled by the amount of surfactant employed in the preparation of the emulsion. In this work, we analyze the effects of the surfactant Tween 20 on the oxidative stability and on the effective concentrations of two model antioxidants derived from cinnamic acid, determining their interfacial concentrations in the intact emulsions to avoid disrupting the existing equilibria and biasing results. For this purpose, a recently developed methodology was employed, and experimental results were interpreted on the grounds of a pseudophase kinetic model.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Costa
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; (M.C.); (F.P.-M.)
| | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- Departamento de Química-Física, Facultad de Química, Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain;
| | - Fátima Paiva-Martins
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; (M.C.); (F.P.-M.)
| | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Departamento de Química-Física, Facultad de Química, Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain;
- Correspondence:
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7
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Costa M, Paiva-Martins F, Losada-Barreiro S, Bravo-Díaz C. Modeling Chemical Reactivity at the Interfaces of Emulsions: Effects of Partitioning and Temperature. Molecules 2021; 26:4703. [PMID: 34361854 PMCID: PMC8348087 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26154703] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/09/2021] [Revised: 07/28/2021] [Accepted: 07/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Bulk phase chemistry is hardly ever a reasonable approximation to interpret chemical reactivity in compartmentalized systems, because multiphasic systems may alter the course of chemical reactions by modifying the local concentrations and orientations of reactants and by modifying their physical properties (acid-base equilibria, redox potentials, etc.), making them-or inducing them-to react in a selective manner. Exploiting multiphasic systems as beneficial reaction media requires an understanding of their effects on chemical reactivity. Chemical reactions in multiphasic systems follow the same laws as in bulk solution, and the measured or observed rate constant of bimolecular reactions can be expressed, under dynamic equilibrium conditions, in terms of the product of the rate constant and of the concentrations of reactants. In emulsions, reactants distribute between the oil, water, and interfacial regions according to their polarity. However, determining the distributions of reactive components in intact emulsions is arduous because it is physically impossible to separate the interfacial region from the oil and aqueous ones without disrupting the existing equilibria and, therefore, need to be determined in the intact emulsions. The challenge is, thus, to develop models to correctly interpret chemical reactivity. Here, we will review the application of the pseudophase kinetic model to emulsions, which allows us to model chemical reactivity under a variety of experimental conditions and, by carrying out an appropriate kinetic analysis, will provide important kineticparameters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Costa
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; (M.C.); (F.P.-M.)
| | - Fátima Paiva-Martins
- REQUIMTE/LAQV, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, University of Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre 687, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; (M.C.); (F.P.-M.)
| | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- Departamento de Química—Física, Facultad de Química, Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain;
| | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Departamento de Química—Física, Facultad de Química, Universidade de Vigo, 36310 Vigo, Spain;
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Costa M, Freiría-Gándara J, Losada-Barreiro S, Paiva-Martins F, Aliaga C, Bravo-Díaz C. Interfacial kinetics in olive oil-in-water nanoemulsions: Relationships between rates of initiation of lipid peroxidation, induction times and effective interfacial antioxidant concentrations. J Colloid Interface Sci 2021; 604:248-259. [PMID: 34271487 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2021.06.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS A detailed quantitative description of the effects of antioxidants in inhibiting lipid peroxidation in oil-in-water emulsions can be achieved by determining the relationships between the rates of initiation of the lipid peroxidation reaction, the length of the induction period preceding the propagation step of the radical oxidation process and the effective antioxidant interfacial concentrations. EXPERIMENTS We successfully prepared and characterized a series of olive oil-in-water nanoemulsions and allowed them to spontaneously oxidize. Their oxidative stability was evaluated by carrying out in the presence, and absence, of antioxidants derived from gallic acid, by monitoring the formation of primary oxidation products with time, by determining the corresponding induction periods, and by determining the effective interfacial concentrations of the antioxidants in the intact emulsions. FINDINGS Results show that both, the length of the induction periods and the antioxidant interfacial concentrations change concomitantly, increasing with the hydrophobicity of the antioxidant up to a maximum at the octyl derivative; longer aliphatic chains decrease their efficiency. The ratio between the interfacial antioxidant concentration and the induction period remains constant independently of the antioxidant, demonstrating that the effective concentrations of antioxidant at the interface control their efficiencies in emulsions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Costa
- Requimte-Laqv, University of Porto, Science Faculty, Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | | | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- Requimte-Laqv, University of Porto, Science Faculty, Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; University of Vigo, Chemistry Faculty, Dept. of Physical-Chemistry, 36310 Vigo, Spain
| | - Fátima Paiva-Martins
- Requimte-Laqv, University of Porto, Science Faculty, Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Carolina Aliaga
- Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Centro para el Desarrollo de la Nanociencia y la Nanotecnología, Cedenna, Av. B.O'Higgins 3363, Santiago, Chile
| | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- University of Vigo, Chemistry Faculty, Dept. of Physical-Chemistry, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
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Farooq S, Abdullah, Zhang H, Weiss J. A comprehensive review on polarity, partitioning, and interactions of phenolic antioxidants at oil-water interface of food emulsions. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2021; 20:4250-4277. [PMID: 34190411 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12792] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2020] [Revised: 05/07/2021] [Accepted: 05/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
There has been a growing interest in developing effective strategies to inhibit lipid oxidation in emulsified food products by utilization of natural phenolic antioxidants owing to their growing popularity over the past decades. However, due to the complexity of emulsified systems, the inhibition mechanism of phenolic antioxidants against lipid oxidation is rather complicated and not yet fully understood. In order to highlight the importance of polarity of phenolic antioxidants in emulsified systems according to the polar paradox, this review covers the recent progress on chemical, enzymatic, and chemoenzymatic lipophilization techniques used to modify the polarity of antioxidants. The partitioning behavior of phenolic antioxidants at the oil-water interface, which can be influenced by the presence of synthetic surfactants and/or antioxidant emulsifiers (e.g., polysaccharides, proteins, and phospholipids), is discussed. In addition, the emerging phenolic antioxidants among phenolic acids, flavonoids, tocopherols, and stilbenes applied in food emulsions are elaborated. As well, the interactions of polar-nonpolar antioxidants are stressed as a promising strategy to induce synergistic interactions at oil-water interface for improved oxidative stability of emulsions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shahzad Farooq
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Abdullah
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Hui Zhang
- College of Biosystems Engineering and Food Science, Zhejiang Key Laboratory for Agro-Food Processing, Zhejiang University, Hangzhou, China.,Ningbo Research Institute, Zhejiang University, Ningbo, China
| | - Jochen Weiss
- Department of Food Physics and Meat Science, Institute of Food Science and Biotechnology, University of Hohenheim, Stuttgart, Germany
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Zhao Z, Wang W, Xiao J, Chen Y, Cao Y. Interfacial Engineering of Pickering Emulsion Co-Stabilized by Zein Nanoparticles and Tween 20: Effects of the Particle Size on the Interfacial Concentration of Gallic Acid and the Oxidative Stability. NANOMATERIALS 2020; 10:nano10061068. [PMID: 32486322 PMCID: PMC7352959 DOI: 10.3390/nano10061068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2020] [Revised: 05/17/2020] [Accepted: 05/28/2020] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Lipid oxidation is still one of the major food-safety issues associated with the emulsion-based food systems. Engineering the interfacial region is an effective way to improve the oxidative stability of emulsion. Herein, a novel Pickering emulsion with strong oxidative stability was prepared by using zein nanoparticles and Tween 20 as stabilizers (ZPE). The modulation effects of the particle size on the distribution of gallic acid (GA) and the oxidative stability of ZPE were investigated. In the absence of GA, Pickering emulsions stabilized with different sizes of zein nanoparticles showed similar oxidative stability, and the physical barrier effect took the dominant role in retarding lipid oxidation. Moreover, in the presence of GA, ZPE stabilized by zein nanoparticles with the averaged particle size of 130 nm performed stronger oxidation than those stabilized by zein nanoparticles of 70 and 220 nm. Our study revealed that the interfacial concentration of GA (GAI) was tuned by zein nanoparticles due to the interaction between them, but the difference in the binding affinity between GA and zein nanoparticles was not the dominant factor regulating the (GAI). It was the interfacial content of zein nanoparticles (Γ), which was affected by the particle size, modulated the (GAI) and further dominated the oxidative stability of ZPEs. The present study suggested that the potential of thickening the interfacial layer to prevent lipid oxidation was limited, increasing the interfacial concentration of antioxidant by interfacial engineering offered a more efficient alternative.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zijun Zhao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.C.); (Y.C.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Wenbo Wang
- College of Electronic Engineering, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China;
| | - Jie Xiao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.C.); (Y.C.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, China
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-20-85286234; Fax: +86-20-85281885
| | - Yunjiao Chen
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.C.); (Y.C.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, China
| | - Yong Cao
- Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Nutraceuticals and Functional Foods, College of Food Science, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou 510642, China; (Z.Z.); (Y.C.); (Y.C.)
- Guangdong Laboratory for Lingnan Modern Agriculture, Guangzhou 510642, Guangdong, China
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Raimúndez-Rodríguez EA, Losada-Barreiro S, Bravo-Díaz C. Enhancing the fraction of antioxidants at the interfaces of oil-in-water emulsions: A kinetic and thermodynamic analysis of their partitioning. J Colloid Interface Sci 2019; 555:224-233. [PMID: 31382141 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2019.07.085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2019] [Revised: 07/26/2019] [Accepted: 07/28/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
HYPOTHESIS The distribution of antioxidants (AOs) in O/W emulsions depends on two partition constants, that between oil-interfacial (POI), and that between the aqueous-interfacial (PWI) regions, that need to be determined in the unbroken emulsion to prevent disruptions of the present equilibria. Prediction of the effects of temperature on AO partitioning is challenging because may change both POI and PWI in a different extent and the control of their interfacial concentrations is crucial to optimize their antioxidant efficiency. Such effects can be analyzed in the intact emulsions with the aid of a pseudophase kinetic model. EXPERIMENTS Here we estimated the partition constants of the food-grade antioxidants -propyl (PG), octyl (OG) and lauryl (LG) gallates- in intact corn oil-in-water emulsions and their interfacial concentrations by employing a kinetic methods, and carried out a thermodynamic analysis of the transfer parameters controlling their partitioning. FINDINGS Results show that the Gibbs free energy for the transfer of gallates to the interfacial region is spontaneous and the transfer process is enthalpy driven. An increase in T favors their incorporation into the interfacial region in an extent that depends on AO hydrophobicity. For any of AOs, the effective interfacial concentrations are much higher (15-170 fold) than the stoichiometric concentration. Results are basic to get a deeper knowledge on the driving force that partitions the AOs in lipid-based foods and to select the best AO to minimize the oxidation of lipids.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- University of Vigo, Chemistry Faculty, Dept. of Physical-Chemistry, 36310 Vigo, Spain; REQUIMTE-LAQV, University of Porto, Science Faculty, Dept. of Chemistry and Biochemistry, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal.
| | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- University of Vigo, Chemistry Faculty, Dept. of Physical-Chemistry, 36310 Vigo, Spain
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12
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Freiría-Gándara J, Losada-Barreiro S, Paiva-Martins F, Bravo-Díaz C. Enhancement of the antioxidant efficiency of gallic acid derivatives in intact fish oil-in-water emulsions through optimization of their interfacial concentrations. Food Funct 2018; 9:4429-4442. [PMID: 30070303 DOI: 10.1039/c8fo00977e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The antioxidant (AO) efficiencies and the distributions of gallic acid (GA) and a series of alkyl gallates (propyl, PG, butyl, BG, octyl, OG and lauryl, LG) were determined in intact fish oil-in-water emulsions. The efficiency of the AOs in inhibiting the oxidation of the fish oil lipids increases upon increasing AO hydrophobicity up to a maximum (∼3-fold) at the octyl derivative, after which the efficiency decreases (LG). The observed non-linear variation in the efficiency with the AO alkyl chain length parallels those of the percentages of AOs in the interfacial region and of their interfacial concentrations, but does not parallel that of the percentage of AOs in the oil region. The interfacial AO concentrations are 20-100 times greater than the stoichiometric (added) antioxidant concentration, depending on the interfacial surfactant volume fraction ΦI, meanwhile the AO concentrations in the oil are similar or slightly higher (1-6 fold) and the concentrations in the aqueous region are much smaller (0.8-10 fold). The effects of the oil to water (o : w) ratio on the interfacial concentrations are complex and depend on both the hydrophobicity of the AO and ΦI. An increase in the o : w ratio favors incorporation of hydrophilic AOs to the interfacial region of emulsions but it decreases the incorporation of hydrophobic AOs. Results provide, for the first time, experimental evidence supporting the interfacial region of emulsions as the main site of production of lipid radicals. Results also provide physical evidence that the efficiency of AOs depends on their interfacial concentrations, which can be modulated by increasing the hydrophobicity of the AOs and by employing the minimum amount of surfactant necessary to stabilize the emulsions. Changes in the o : w ratio can also be used to modulate the interfacial concentrations of hydrophobic (OG, LG, and to a lesser extent BG) or hydrophilic (GA) AOs, but not those of AOs of intermediate hydrophobicity (PG).
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Affiliation(s)
- J Freiría-Gándara
- Universidad de Vigo, Fac. Química, Dpto. Químic- Física, 36310 Vigo, Spain.
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Silva W, Torres-Gatica MF, Oyarzun-Ampuero F, Silva-Weiss A, Robert P, Cofrades S, Giménez B. Double emulsions as potential fat replacers with gallic acid and quercetin nanoemulsions in the aqueous phases. Food Chem 2018; 253:71-78. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2018.01.128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2017] [Revised: 01/18/2018] [Accepted: 01/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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14
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Gallego MG, Skowyra M, Gordon MH, Azman NAM, Almajano MP. Effect of Leaves of Caesalpinia decapetala on Oxidative Stability of Oil-in-Water Emulsions. Antioxidants (Basel) 2017; 6:antiox6010019. [PMID: 28273843 PMCID: PMC5384182 DOI: 10.3390/antiox6010019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Caesalpinia decapetala (Roth) Alston (Fabaceae) (CD) is used in folk medicine to prevent colds and treat bronchitis. This plant has antitumor and antioxidant activity. The antioxidant effects of an extract from Caesalpinia decapetala (Fabaceae) were assessed by storage of model food oil-in-water emulsions with analysis of primary and secondary oxidation products. The antioxidant capacity of the plant extract was evaluated by the diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH), Trolox equivalent antioxidant capacity (TEAC), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) assays and by electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectroscopy. Lyophilized extracts of CD were added at concentrations of 0.002%, 0.02% and 0.2% into oil-in-water emulsions, which were stored for 30 days at 33 ± 1 °C, and then, oxidative stability was evaluated. The CD extract had high antioxidant activity (700 ± 70 µmol Trolox/g dry plant for the ORAC assay), mainly due to its phenolic components: gallic acid, quercetin, catechin, 4-hydroxybenzoic acid and p-coumaric acid. At a concentration of 0.2%, the extract significantly reduced the oxidative deterioration of oil-in-water emulsions. The results of the present study show the possibility of utilizing CD as a promising source of natural antioxidants for retarding lipid oxidation in the food and cosmetic industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Gabriela Gallego
- Chemical Engineering Department, Technical University of Catalonia, Av. Diagonal 647, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Monika Skowyra
- Chemical Engineering Department, Technical University of Catalonia, Av. Diagonal 647, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Michael H Gordon
- Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University of Reading, Whiteknights, P.O. Box 226, Reading RG6 6AP, UK.
| | - Nurul Aini Mohd Azman
- Chemical Engineering Department, Technical University of Catalonia, Av. Diagonal 647, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
| | - María Pilar Almajano
- Chemical Engineering Department, Technical University of Catalonia, Av. Diagonal 647, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
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15
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Costa M, Losada-Barreiro S, Paiva-Martins F, Bravo-Díaz C. Physical evidence that the variations in the efficiency of homologous series of antioxidants in emulsions are a result of differences in their distribution. JOURNAL OF THE SCIENCE OF FOOD AND AGRICULTURE 2017; 97:564-571. [PMID: 27097916 DOI: 10.1002/jsfa.7765] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2016] [Revised: 04/17/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The relationships between the hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB) of antioxidants (AOs) and their distributions and efficiencies in emulsions are not fully understood. Recent reports indicate that, for series of homologous antioxidants of different hydrophobicity, the variation of their efficiency with the HLB of the AO increases with the alkyl chain length up to a maximum (C3 -C8 ester) followed by a decrease (cut-off effect). RESULTS We determined the distributions of a series of caffeic acid derivatives in intact soybean emulsions by employing a specifically designed chemical probe located in the interfacial region of the emulsion. We also determined the AO efficiencies in the very same emulsions. We demonstrate that the variation of the percentage of AO in the interfacial region of soybean oil-in-water emulsions with the AO HLB parallels that of their antioxidant efficiency. CONCLUSION The results provide physical evidence that the variations in the efficiency of homologous series of antioxidants in emulsions are the result of differences in their distribution. The results confirm that, with other things being equal, there is a direct relationship between the percentage of AO in the interfacial region of the emulsions and their efficiency, providing a natural explanation, based on molecular properties, of the cut-off effect. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Costa
- REQUIMTE-LAQV, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007, Portugal
| | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- REQUIMTE-LAQV, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007, Portugal
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vigo, Vigo, 36200, Spain
| | - Fátima Paiva-Martins
- REQUIMTE-LAQV, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007, Portugal
| | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vigo, Vigo, 36200, Spain
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16
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Almeida J, Losada-Barreiro S, Costa M, Paiva-Martins F, Bravo-Díaz C, Romsted LS. Interfacial Concentrations of Hydroxytyrosol and Its Lipophilic Esters in Intact Olive Oil-in-Water Emulsions: Effects of Antioxidant Hydrophobicity, Surfactant Concentration, and the Oil-to-Water Ratio on the Oxidative Stability of the Emulsions. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2016; 64:5274-5283. [PMID: 27157893 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jafc.6b01468] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
We determined the interfacial molarities of the antioxidants, AOs, hydroxytyrosol (HT), and HT fatty acid esters with chain lengths of 1 to 16 carbons in intact olive oil/water/Tween 20 emulsions. The results were compared with chain length effects on the oxidative stability of the same emulsions, and a direct correlation was established. Both (AOI) molarities (varying 50-250 times greater than the stoichiometric 3.5 × 10(-3) M AO concentration) and antioxidant efficiencies show similar parabola-like dependences on AO chain length with a maximum at C8, consistent with the "cut-off" effect often observed at longer chain lengths. Results should aid in understanding the complex structure-reactivity relationships between AO efficiencies in emulsified systems and their hydrophobilic-hydrophobic balance.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Almeida
- REQUIMTE-LAQV, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto , 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- REQUIMTE-LAQV, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto , 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
- Universidad de Vigo , Fac. Química, Dpto Química Física, 36200 Vigo, Spain
| | - Marlene Costa
- REQUIMTE-LAQV, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto , 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Fátima Paiva-Martins
- REQUIMTE-LAQV, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto , 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
| | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Universidad de Vigo , Fac. Química, Dpto Química Física, 36200 Vigo, Spain
| | - Laurence S Romsted
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , Piscataway, New Jersey 08854, United States
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17
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Costa M, Losada-Barreiro S, Paiva-Martins F, Bravo-Díaz C. Optimizing the efficiency of antioxidants in emulsions by lipophilization: tuning interfacial concentrations. RSC Adv 2016. [DOI: 10.1039/c6ra18282h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Antioxidant efficiencies in emulsions can be optimized by tailoring interfacial concentrations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Costa
- REQUIMTE-LAQV
- Departamento de Química e Bioquímica
- Faculdade de Ciências. Universidade Do Porto
- Portugal
| | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- REQUIMTE-LAQV
- Departamento de Química e Bioquímica
- Faculdade de Ciências. Universidade Do Porto
- Portugal
- Universidad de Vigo
| | - Fátima Paiva-Martins
- REQUIMTE-LAQV
- Departamento de Química e Bioquímica
- Faculdade de Ciências. Universidade Do Porto
- Portugal
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18
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Gomes A, Costa ALR, de Assis Perrechil F, da Cunha RL. Role of the phases composition on the incorporation of gallic acid in O/W and W/O emulsions. J FOOD ENG 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfoodeng.2015.07.041] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
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19
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Galan A, Losada-Barreiro S, Bravo-Díaz C. A Physicochemical Study of the Effects of Acidity on the Distribution and Antioxidant Efficiency of Trolox in Olive Oil-in-Water Emulsions. Chemphyschem 2015; 17:296-304. [PMID: 26592178 DOI: 10.1002/cphc.201500882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2015] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
The efficiency of antioxidants to inhibit the oxidation of lipid-based emulsions depends on several factors including their nature and their concentration at the reaction site. Here, we have analyzed the effects of acidity and of surfactant concentration on the distribution and efficiency of the vitamin E analog Trolox (TR) in stripped olive oil-in-water emulsions stabilized with Tween 20. The distribution was assessed in the intact emulsions by employing a kinetic method that exploits the reaction between the hydrophobic 4-hexadecylbenzenediazonium ions and TR. Kinetic results are interpreted on the grounds of the pseudophase model. The effects of TR on the oxidative stability of the emulsion were determined at different pH values by monitoring the formation of conjugated dienes over time. The results show that the efficiency of TR increases upon increasing pH even though its concentration in the interfacial region decreases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Galan
- Departamento de Química Física, Universidad de Vigo, Rua das Abelleiras S/N, 36200 Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain
| | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- Departamento de Química Física, Universidad de Vigo, Rua das Abelleiras S/N, 36200 Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain.
| | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Departamento de Química Física, Universidad de Vigo, Rua das Abelleiras S/N, 36200 Vigo, Pontevedra, Spain
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20
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Bravo-Díaz C, Romsted LS, Liu C, Losada-Barreiro S, Pastoriza-Gallego MJ, Gao X, Gu Q, Krishnan G, Sánchez-Paz V, Zhang Y, Dar AA. To Model Chemical Reactivity in Heterogeneous Emulsions, Think Homogeneous Microemulsions. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2015; 31:8961-8979. [PMID: 25805058 DOI: 10.1021/acs.langmuir.5b00112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Two important and unsolved problems in the food industry and also fundamental questions in colloid chemistry are how to measure molecular distributions, especially antioxidants (AOs), and how to model chemical reactivity, including AO efficiency in opaque emulsions. The key to understanding reactivity in organized surfactant media is that reaction mechanisms are consistent with a discrete structures-separate continuous regions duality. Aggregate structures in emulsions are determined by highly cooperative but weak organizing forces that allow reactants to diffuse at rates approaching their diffusion-controlled limit. Reactant distributions for slow thermal bimolecular reactions are in dynamic equilibrium, and their distributions are proportional to their relative solubilities in the oil, interfacial, and aqueous regions. Our chemical kinetic method is grounded in thermodynamics and combines a pseudophase model with methods for monitoring the reactions of AOs with a hydrophobic arenediazonium ion probe in opaque emulsions. We introduce (a) the logic and basic assumptions of the pseudophase model used to define the distributions of AOs among the oil, interfacial, and aqueous regions in microemulsions and emulsions and (b) the dye derivatization and linear sweep voltammetry methods for monitoring the rates of reaction in opaque emulsions. Our results show that this approach provides a unique, versatile, and robust method for obtaining quantitative estimates of AO partition coefficients or partition constants and distributions and interfacial rate constants in emulsions. The examples provided illustrate the effects of various emulsion properties on AO distributions such as oil hydrophobicity, emulsifier structure and HLB, temperature, droplet size, surfactant charge, and acidity on reactant distributions. Finally, we show that the chemical kinetic method provides a natural explanation for the cut-off effect, a maximum followed by a sharp reduction in AO efficiency with increasing alkyl chain length of a particular AO. We conclude with perspectives and prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Universidade de Vigo , Facultad de Química, Departamento Química Física, 36200, Vigo, Spain
| | - Laurence Stuart Romsted
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , New Brunswick, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Changyao Liu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , New Brunswick, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- Universidade de Vigo , Facultad de Química, Departamento Química Física, 36200, Vigo, Spain
| | | | - Xiang Gao
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , New Brunswick, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Qing Gu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , New Brunswick, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Gunaseelan Krishnan
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , New Brunswick, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Verónica Sánchez-Paz
- Universidade de Vigo , Facultad de Química, Departamento Química Física, 36200, Vigo, Spain
| | - Yongliang Zhang
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey , New Brunswick, New Jersey 08854, United States
| | - Aijaz Ahmad Dar
- Department of Chemistry, University of Kashmir , Hazratbal, Srinagar, J&K India
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21
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Losada-Barreiro S, Sánchez-Paz V, Bravo-Díaz C. Transfer of antioxidants at the interfaces of model food emulsions: distributions and thermodynamic parameters. Org Biomol Chem 2015; 13:876-85. [PMID: 25408193 DOI: 10.1039/c4ob02058h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Knowledge on the driving force for the hydrophobic effect that partitions antioxidants (AOs) between the oil (O), aqueous (W) and interfacial (I) regions of food emulsions is crucial to predict their efficiency in inhibiting lipid oxidation and to preserve the organoleptic properties of lipid-based foods. Here, we have investigated the effects of temperature and surfactant volume fraction (ΦI) on the distribution of two representative AOs, the water insoluble α-tocopherol (TOC) and the oil insoluble caffeic acid (CA), in a model food emulsion composed of stripped corn oil, acidic water and the nonionic surfactant Tween 20. The distribution of the AOs is assessed in the intact emulsions by employing a well-established kinetic method based on the reaction between a hydrophobic arenediazonium ion and the AOs. The variations of the observed rate constant, kobs, with ΦI are interpreted on the grounds of the pseudophase kinetic model, which provides values for the interfacial rate constant kI and the partition constants between the aqueous-interfacial (P) and oil-interfacial (P) regions of the emulsions. From the variations of P, P and kI at a series of temperatures, we determined the Gibbs free energy, enthalpy and entropy values for the transfer of CA from the water to the interfacial (W → I) region and of TOC from the oil to the interfacial (O → I) regions of the emulsions, and the activation parameters for the reaction in the interfacial region. Activation energy values are in line with those expected for a bimolecular reaction. Results show that the W → I and O → I transfer processes are spontaneous and entropy driven.
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22
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Losada-Barreiro S, Bravo-Díaz C, Romsted LS. Distributions of phenolic acid antioxidants between the interfacial and aqueous regions of corn oil emulsions: Effects of pH and emulsifier concentration. EUR J LIPID SCI TECH 2015. [DOI: 10.1002/ejlt.201400507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Departamento Química Física, Facultad de Química; Universidad de Vigo; Vigo Spain
| | - Laurence S. Romsted
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology; Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey; NJ USA
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23
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Costa M, Losada-Barreiro S, Paiva-Martins F, Bravo-Díaz C, Romsted LS. A direct correlation between the antioxidant efficiencies of caffeic acid and its alkyl esters and their concentrations in the interfacial region of olive oil emulsions. The pseudophase model interpretation of the "cut-off" effect. Food Chem 2014; 175:233-42. [PMID: 25577075 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2014.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2013] [Revised: 07/21/2014] [Accepted: 10/04/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
Recently published results for a series of homologous antioxidants, AOs, of increasing alkyl chain length show a maximum in AO efficiency followed by a significant decrease for the more hydrophobic AOs, typically called the "cut-off" effect. Here we demonstrate that in olive oil emulsions both antioxidant efficiencies and partition constants for distributions of AOs between the oil and interfacial regions, PO(I), show a maximum at the C8 ester. A reaction between caffeic acid, CA, and its specially synthesised C1-C16 alkyl esters, and a chemical probe is used to estimate partition constants for AO distributions and interfacial rate constants, kI, in intact emulsions based on the pseudophase kinetic model. The model provides a natural interpretation for both the maximum and the "cut-off" effect. More than 70% of the CA esters are in the interfacial region even at low surfactant volume fraction, ΦI=0.005.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marlene Costa
- CIQ-UP, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007, Portugal
| | - Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- CIQ-UP, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007, Portugal; Universidad de Vigo, Fac. Química, Dpto Química Física, 36200 Vigo, Spain
| | - Fátima Paiva-Martins
- CIQ-UP, Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007, Portugal.
| | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Universidad de Vigo, Fac. Química, Dpto Química Física, 36200 Vigo, Spain.
| | - Laurence S Romsted
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, NJ 08854, USA
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24
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Coupland JN, Hayes JE. Physical approaches to masking bitter taste: lessons from food and pharmaceuticals. Pharm Res 2014; 31:2921-39. [PMID: 25205460 PMCID: PMC4898047 DOI: 10.1007/s11095-014-1480-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2014] [Accepted: 08/15/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Many drugs and desirable phytochemicals are bitter, and bitter tastes are aversive. Food and pharmaceutical manufacturers share a common need for bitterness-masking strategies that allow them to deliver useful quantities of the active compounds in an acceptable form and in this review we compare and contrast the challenges and approaches by researchers in both fields. We focus on physical approaches, i.e., micro- or nano-structures to bind bitter compounds in the mouth, yet break down to allow release after they are swallowed. In all of these methods, the assumption is the degree of bitterness suppression depends on the concentration of bitterant in the saliva and hence the proportion that is bound. Surprisingly, this hypothesis has only rarely been fully tested using a combination of adequate human sensory trials and measurements of binding. This is especially true in pharmaceutical systems, perhaps due to the greater experimental challenges in sensory analysis of drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- John N Coupland
- Department of Food Science, The Pennsylvania State University, 337 Food Science Building, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA,
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25
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Berton-Carabin CC, Ropers MH, Genot C. Lipid Oxidation in Oil-in-Water Emulsions: Involvement of the Interfacial Layer. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2014. [DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 362] [Impact Index Per Article: 36.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Claude Genot
- INRA; UR1268 Biopolymères Interactions Assemblages; F-44316 Nantes France
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26
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Losada-Barreiro S, Costa M, Bravo-Díaz C, Paiva-Martins F. Distribution and Antioxidant Efficiency of Resveratrol in Stripped Corn Oil Emulsions. Antioxidants (Basel) 2014; 3:212-28. [PMID: 26784868 PMCID: PMC4665480 DOI: 10.3390/antiox3020212] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Revised: 02/19/2014] [Accepted: 02/28/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
We investigated the effects of resveratrol (RES) on the oxidative stability of emulsions composed of stripped corn oil, acidic water and Tween 20 and determined its distribution in the intact emulsions by employing a well-established kinetic method. The distribution of RES is described by two partition constants, that between the oil-interfacial region, PO(I), and that between the aqueous and interfacial region, PW(I). The partition constants, PO(I) and PW(I), are obtained in the intact emulsions from the variations of the observed rate constant, kobs, for the reaction between the hydrophobic 4-hexadecylbenzenediazonium ion and RES with the emulsifier volume fraction, ФI. The obtained PO(I) and PW(I) values are quite high, PW(I) = 4374 and PO(I) = 930, indicating that RES is primarily located in the interfacial region of the emulsions, %RESI > 90% at ФI = 0.005, increasing up to 99% at ФI = 0.04. The oxidative stability of the corn oil emulsions was determined by measuring the formation of conjugated dienes at a given time in the absence and in the presence of RES. The addition of RES did not improve their oxidative stability in spite that more than 90% of RES is located in the interfacial region of the emulsion, because of the very low radical scavenging activity of RES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vigo, Vigo 36200, Spain.
| | - Marlene Costa
- CIQ-UP, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto 4169-007, Portugal.
| | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vigo, Vigo 36200, Spain.
| | - Fátima Paiva-Martins
- CIQ-UP, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Porto 4169-007, Portugal.
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27
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Influence of Temperature on the Distribution of Catechin in Corn Oil-in-Water Emulsions and Some Relevant Thermodynamic Parameters. FOOD BIOPHYS 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s11483-014-9332-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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28
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Effects of Acidity, Temperature and Emulsifier Concentration on the Distribution of Caffeic Acid in Stripped Corn and Olive Oil-in-Water Emulsions. J AM OIL CHEM SOC 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s11746-013-2309-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
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30
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Losada Barreiro S, Bravo-Díaz C, Paiva-Martins F, Romsted LS. Maxima in antioxidant distributions and efficiencies with increasing hydrophobicity of gallic acid and its alkyl esters. The pseudophase model interpretation of the "cutoff effect". JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2013; 61:6533-6543. [PMID: 23701266 DOI: 10.1021/jf400981x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
Antioxidant (AO) efficiencies are reported to go through maxima with increasing chain length (hydrophobicity) in emulsions. The so-called "cutoff" after the maxima, indicating a decrease in efficiency, remains unexplained. This paper shows, for gallic acid (GA) and propyl, octyl, and lauryl gallates (PG, OG, and LG, respectively), that at any given volume fraction of emulsifier, the concentrations of antioxidants in the interfacial region of stripped corn oil emulsions and their efficiency order follow PG > GA > OG > LG. These results provide clear evidence that an AO's efficiency correlates with its fraction in the interfacial region. AO distributions were obtained in intact emulsions by using the pseudophase kinetic model to interpret changes in observed rate constants of the AOs with a chemical probe, and their efficiencies were measured by employing the Schaal oven test. The model provides a natural explanation for the maxima with increasing AO hydrophobicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Losada Barreiro
- Departamento Química Física, Facultad Química, Universidad de Vigo, 36200 Vigo, Spain
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31
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Gu Q, Bravo-Díaz C, Romsted LS. Using the pseudophase kinetic model to interpret chemical reactivity in ionic emulsions: determining antioxidant partition constants and interfacial rate constants. J Colloid Interface Sci 2013; 400:41-8. [PMID: 23545243 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2013.02.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 02/10/2013] [Accepted: 02/11/2013] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Kinetic results obtained in cationic and anionic emulsions show for the first time that pseudophase kinetic models give reasonable estimates of the partition constants of reactants, here t-butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) between the oil and interfacial region, P(O)(I), and the water and interfacial region, P(W)(I), and of the interfacial rate constant, k(I), for the reaction with an arenediazonium ion in emulsions containing a 1:1 volume ratio of a medium chain length triglyceride, MCT, and aqueous acid or buffer. The results provide: (a) an explanation for the large difference in pH, >4 pH units, required to run the reaction in CTAB (pH 1.54, added HBr) and SDS (pH 5.71, acetate buffer) emulsions; (b) reasonable estimates of PO(I) and k(I) in the CTAB emulsions; (c) a sensible interpretation of added counterion effects based on ion exchange in SDS emulsions (Na(+)/H3O(+) ion exchange in the interfacial region) and Donnan equilibrium in CTAB emulsions (Br(-) increasing the interfacial H3O(+)); and (d) the significance of the effect of the much greater solubility of TBHQ in MCT versus octane, 1000/1, as the oil. These results should aid in interpreting the effects of ionic surfactants on chemical reactivity in emulsions in general and in selecting the most efficient antioxidant for particular food applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing Gu
- Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Wright and Rieman Laboratories, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA.
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Lisete-Torres P, Losada-Barreiro S, Albuquerque H, Sánchez-Paz V, Paiva-Martins F, Bravo-Díaz C. Distribution of hydroxytyrosol and hydroxytyrosol acetate in olive oil emulsions and their antioxidant efficiency. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:7318-7325. [PMID: 22720906 DOI: 10.1021/jf301998s] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
We employed a kinetic method to determine the distributions of the antioxidants hydroxytyrosol (HT) and hydroxytyrosol acetate (HTA) between the oil, aqueous, and interfacial regions of a model food emulsion composed of stripped olive oil, acidic water, and a blend of Tween 80 and Span 80 [hydrophilic–lipophilic balance (HLB) = 8.05] as an emulsifier. HT is oil-insoluble, but HTA is both oil- and water-soluble (partition constant P(O)(W) = 0.61). Results indicate that, at a given emulsifier volume fraction Φ(I), the fraction of HTA in the interfacial region is higher than that of HT. The percentage of both antioxidants increases with an increasing Φ(I), so that % HT > 40% at Φ(I) = 0.005 and % HT > 80% at Φ(I) = 0.04. HTA appears to be a better antioxidant than HT, as shown by an accelerated oxidative test (Schaal oven method). A correlation between their distribution in the emulsion and their efficiency was established.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrícia Lisete-Torres
- Departamento de Química e Bioquímica, Centro de Investigação em Química (CIQ-UP), Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal
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Losada-Barreiro S, Sánchez-Paz V, Bravo-Díaz C. Effects of emulsifier hydrophile-lipophile balance and emulsifier concentration on the distributions of gallic acid, propyl gallate, and α-tocopherol in corn oil emulsions. J Colloid Interface Sci 2012; 389:1-9. [PMID: 22939258 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcis.2012.07.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2012] [Revised: 07/10/2012] [Accepted: 07/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
We evaluated the effects of the hydrophile-lipophile balance (HLB) and emulsifier concentration on the distribution of the antioxidants gallic acid (GA), propyl gallate (PG), and α-tocopherol (TOC) between the aqueous, interfacial, and oil regions of food-grade emulsions composed of stripped corn oil, acidic water, and a mixture of the non-ionic surfactants Tween 20, 40, 80, and Span 20. The distribution of the antioxidants (AOs) is described by two partition constants, that between the oil-interfacial region, P(O)(I), and that between the aqueous and interfacial region, P(W)(I), of the emulsions. The partition constants were determined from the kinetic analyses of the variation in the observed rate constant, k(obs), for the reaction between the AOs and the hydrophobic 4-hexadecylbenzenediazonium ions, 16-ArN(2)(+), with the emulsifier volume fraction. The effects of emulsifier HLB on the second-order rate constants in the interfacial region k(I) were also evaluated for each antioxidant. Results show that an increase in emulsifier concentration promotes the incorporation of AOs to the interfacial region of the emulsions, so that at surfactant volume fractions of 0.04, more than 90% of GA and PG and more than 50% of TOC are located in that region. A decrease in the HLB favors the incorporation of PG and TOC to the interfacial region of the emulsions but has a negligible effect on the fraction of GA in that region. The %AOs in the interfacial region of the emulsions does not correlate with the polarity of the antioxidant, so that GA and PG are predominantly located in the aqueous-interfacial regions of the emulsion rather that in the oil droplet interior; meanwhile, TOC is mostly located in the oil-interfacial regions. Results should aid to understand how antioxidants are distributed in food-grade emulsions and their relative efficiency in inhibiting lipid oxidation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonia Losada-Barreiro
- Universidad de Vigo, Facultad Química, Departamento Química Física, 36200 Vigo, Spain
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Pastoriza-Gallego MJ, Losada-Barreiro S, Bravo-Díaz C. Effects of acidity and emulsifier concentration on the distribution of vitamin C in a model food emulsion. J PHYS ORG CHEM 2012. [DOI: 10.1002/poc.2949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Carlos Bravo-Díaz
- Facultad de Química, Dpto. Química Física; Universidad de Vigo; 36200 Vigo Spain
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