Solid self emulsifying drug delivery system: Superior mode for oral delivery of hydrophobic cargos

Self-Nanoemulsifying Formulation Improves Oral Bioavailability and Insulin Sensitizing Potency of Formononetin-Vitamin E Conjugate in Type 2 Diabetic Mice

The escalating incidence of obesity, diabetes, and insulin resistance has become a significant global health concern. In this study, we have developed a self-nanoemulsifying delivery system (SNEDS) of formononetin-vitamin E conjugate (VESylated-FMN) for improving its oral bioavailability and improving insulin sensitivity and glycemic control. The developed SNEDS were characterized using dynamic light scattering and transmission electron microscopy. Thereafter, the loading capacity, in vitro release, thermodynamic, and gastrointestinal stability of the developed formulation were evaluated. The safety and oral bioavailability of VESylated-FMN-SNEDS were assessed in Sprague-Dawley rats, whereas insulin-sensitizing potency was assessed in high-fat diet-induced type 2 diabetic mice. The VESylated-FMN-SNEDS quickly emulsified on dilution (droplet size ∼79.17 nm) and showed remarkable thermodynamic and gastrointestinal stability. The developed formulation demonstrated enhanced oral bioavailability (∼1.3-fold higher AUC0-t) of VESylated-FMN without liver and kidney injury. Consequently, VESylated-FMN-SNEDS significantly improves insulin sensitivity and glycemic control in HFD-fed mice compared to VESylated-FMN by upregulating the transcript level of insulin-sensitizing genes. Therefore, the SNEDS formulation could be an effective strategy to augment the oral bioavailability and insulin-sensitizing potency of VESylated-FMN.

Contemplating Novel W/O Emulsion Based Gel for Anti-Psoriatic Activity of Tofacitinib in Imiquimod-Induced Balb/C Mice Model

Tyrosine kinase inhibitors like tofacitinib (TCB), are excellent examples of small molecular compounds that have demonstrated success in treating psoriasis. The current study aims to improve the efficacy of TCB and reduce its systemic adverse effects by developing a topical w/o emulgel formulation that will ameliorate the anti-psoriatic activity in a model of Imiquimod-induced BALB/c mice. In order to create w/o emulgel, the TCB was incorporated into the w/o emulsion using Peppermint oil, Transcutol P®, and PEG-200 followed by converted into a gel by adding Carbopol 940. The final formulation was optimized by applying a 3-level, 3-factor Box-Behnken Design (BBD). The optimized formulation showed a viscosity of 560606.6 ± 80.8 cps (560 Pa.S), and firmness of 356 ± 48 g, and that was within the acceptable range with respect to the marketed emulgel preparation available for topical application. The developed TCB-emulgel also exhibited a controlled release profile, with 68.26 ± 8.33% release of TCB over 24 h and a 5-fold greater skin permeation as compared to normal TCB-gel. Apart from that, the application of TCB-emulgel on the diseased model results in a 3.3-times reduction in the PASI (Psoriasis Area Severity Index) scoring. Lastly, the epidermal reduction in histopathological evaluation, along with the reduction in TNF-α and Ki-67 levels observed in immunostaining, ensures the enhanced anti-psoriatic effect of the developed TCB-emulgel in comparison to the marketed product. To put it briefly, the findings of the study and the therapeutic effectiveness of the developed TCB-emulgel provide a strong basis for the clinical management of psoriasis in the future.

Solubilization techniques used for poorly water-soluble drugs

About 40% of approved drugs and nearly 90% of drug candidates are poorly water-soluble drugs. Low solubility reduces the drugability. Effectively improving the solubility and bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs is a critical issue that needs to be urgently addressed in drug development and application. This review briefly introduces the conventional solubilization techniques such as solubilizers, hydrotropes, cosolvents, prodrugs, salt modification, micronization, cyclodextrin inclusion, solid dispersions, and details the crystallization strategies, ionic liquids, and polymer-based, lipid-based, and inorganic-based carriers in improving solubility and bioavailability. Some of the most commonly used approved carrier materials for solubilization techniques are presented. Several approved poorly water-soluble drugs using solubilization techniques are summarized. Furthermore, this review summarizes the solubilization mechanism of each solubilization technique, reviews the latest research advances and challenges, and evaluates the potential for clinical translation. This review could guide the selection of a solubilization approach, dosage form, and administration route for poorly water-soluble drugs. Moreover, we discuss several promising solubilization techniques attracting increasing attention worldwide.

Treatment of Inflammatory Bowel Disease by Using Curcumin-Containing Self-Microemulsifying Delivery System: Macroscopic and Microscopic Analysis

Background: The lack of local availability for drugs in the colon can be addressed by preparing a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) of curcumin (Cur) which is ultimately used for the treatment of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD). Methods: From preformulation studies, Lauroglycol FCC (oil), Tween 80 (surfactant), Transcutol HP (co-surfactant), and Avicel (solid carrier) were selected for the preparation of blank liquid and solid Cur-loaded SMEDDSs (S-Cur-SMEDDSs). Results: Z-average size (12.36 ± 0.04 nm), zeta potential (-14.7 ± 0.08 mV), and polydispersity index (PDI) (0.155 ± 0.036) showed a comparative droplet surface area and charge of both SMEDDSs. The physicochemical stability of Cur in S-Cur-SMEDDSs was confirmed via FTIR, DSC, TGA, and XRD analyses, while morphological analysis through SEM and atomic force microscopy (AFM) confirmed Cur loading into SMEDDSs with an increased surface roughness root mean square (RMS) of 11.433 ± 0.91 nm, greater than the blank SMEDDS. Acute toxicity studies with an organ weight ratio and % hemolysis of 15.65 ± 1.32% at a high concentration of 600 mM showed that S-Cur-SMEDDSs are safe at a medium dose (0.2-0.8 g/kg/day). The excellent in vitro antioxidant (68.54 ± 1.42%) and anti-inflammatory properties (56.47 ± 1.17%) of S-Cur-SMEDDS proved its therapeutic efficacy for IBD. Finally, S-Cur-SMEDDS significantly improved acetic acid-induced IBD in albino rats through a reduction in the disease activity index (DAI) and macroscopic ulcer score (MUS) from 4.15 ± 0.21 to 1.62 ± 0.12 at 15 mg/kg/day dose, as confirmed via histopathological assay. Conclusions: Based on the above findings, S-Cur-SMEDDS appears to be a stable, less toxic, and more efficacious alternative for Cur delivery with strong competence in treating IBD.

Research Progress on Peptide Drugs for Type 2 Diabetes and the Possibility of Oral Administration

Diabetes is a global disease that can lead to a range of complications. Currently, the treatment of type 2 diabetes focuses on oral hypoglycemic drugs and insulin analogues. Studies have shown that drugs such as oral metformin are useful in the treatment of diabetes but can limit the liver's ability to release sugar. The development of glucose-lowering peptides has provided new options for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Peptide drugs have low oral utilization due to their easy degradation, short half-life, and difficulty passing through the intestinal mucosa. Therefore, improving the oral utilization of peptide drugs remains an urgent problem. This paper reviews the research progress of peptide drugs in the treatment of diabetes mellitus and proposes that different types of nano-formulation carriers, such as liposomes, self-emulsifying drug delivery systems, and polymer particles, should be combined with peptide drugs for oral administration to improve their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.

Single-Step Extrusion Process for Formulation Development of Self-Emulsifying Granules for Oral Delivery of a BCS Class IV Drug

This study aimed to develop and optimize formulations containinga BCS Class IV drug by improving its solubility and permeability. Herein development of self-emulsifying solid lipid matrices was investigated as carrier systems for a BCS Class IV model drug. Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) have been extensively investigated for formulating drugs with poor water solubility. However, manufacturing SEDDS is challenging. These systems usually have low drug-loading capacities, and the incorporated drugs tend to recrystallize during storage, which severely impacts the storage stability in vitro and performance in vivo. Moreover, they require greater amounts (>80%) of lipid carriers, cosolvents, surfactants, and other excipients to keep them from recrystallizing. This in turn is again challenging for high-dose drugs as it affects the size of the final drug product (tablets and capsules). Also, the final liquid nature of the formulation affects the handling and processability of the formulation, which poses challenges during the manufacturing and packaging steps. In this work, we have studied the feasibility of a single-step extrusion process to formulate and optimize solid self-emulsifying granules with a relatively higher drug loading of Ritonavir (RTV), a BCS Class IV drug. Further, we have compared the performance of using these granules as the feedstock for direct powder extrusion-based 3D printing as opposed to the use of physical blends. The stability and solubility-permeability advantage of these granules was also evaluated where SEDDS showed about 27 and 20 fold increase in apparent solublity and permeability compared to bulk drug, respectively. Combining the capabilities of HME to form drug-loaded homogeneous granules as a continuous process along with application of direct printing extruiosn (DPE) 3D printing improves the drug delivery prospects for such candidates.

Establishment of nanoparticle screening technique: A pivotal role of sodium carboxymethylcellulose in enhancing oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble aceclofenac

A novel nanoparticle screening technique was established to mostly enhance the aqueous solubility and oral bioavailability of aceclofenac using nanoparticle systems. Among the polymers investigated, sodium carboxymethylcellulose (Na-CMC) showed the greatest increase in drug solubility. Utilizing spray-drying technique, the solvent-evaporated solid dispersion (SESD), surface-attached solid dispersion (SASD), and solvent-wetted solid dispersion (SWSD) were prepared using aceclofenac and Na-CMC at a weight ratio of 1:1 in 50 % ethanol, distilled water, and ethanol, respectively. Using Na-CMC as a solid carrier, an aceclofenac-loaded liquid self-emulsifying drug delivery system was spray-dried and fluid-bed granulated together with microcrystalline cellulose, producing a solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) and solid self-nanoemulsifying granule system (SNEGS), respectively. Their physicochemical properties and preclinical assessments in rats were performed. All nanoparticles exhibited very different properties, including morphology, crystallinity, and size. As a result, they significantly enhanced the solubility, dissolution, and oral bioavailability in the following order: SNEDDS ≥ SNEGS > SESD ≥ SASD ≥ SWSD. Based on our screening technique, the SNEDDS was selected as the optimal nanoparticle with the highest bioavailability of aceclofenac. Thus, our nanoparticle screening technique should be an excellent guideline for solubilization research to improve the solubility and bioavailability of many poorly water-soluble bioactive materials.

Solid Self Nano-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System of Dasatinib: Optimization, In-vitro, Ex-vivo and In-vivo assessment

Aim: Dasatinib (DST) is an oral tyrosine kinase inhibitor with poor aqueous solubility. To outwit this issue, a solid self-nano emulsifying drug delivery system (S-SNEDDS) of DST was formulated.Methods: I-optimal mixture design was used for optimization of DST-loaded SNEDDS using Linalool, Cremophor RH40 and Transcutol P. S-SNEDDS underwent physicochemical characterization, in-vitro release and ex-vivo permeation, cell-based assays and pharmacokinetic study.Results: DST-S-SNEDDS showed globule size and PDI of 141.53 ± 5.371 nm and 0.282 ± 0.020, respectively. DST-S-SNEDDS revealed significantly lower IC50 (1.825 μg/mL) than free DST (7.298 μg/mL) in MDA-MB-231. In-vivo pharmacokinetic study revealed 1.94-fold increment in AUC0-t for the DST-S-SNEDDS group than free DST.Conclusion: S-SNEDDS could be promising approach for improving bioavailability and efficacy of DST.

Comparison of two self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems using different solidification techniques for enhanced solubility and oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble celecoxib

In this study, we aimed to develop a solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SNEDDS) and a solid self-nanoemulsifying granule system (S-SNEGS) to enhance the solubility and oral bioavailability of celecoxib. This process involved the preparation of a liquid SNEDDS (L-SNEDDS) and its subsequent solidification into a S-SNEDDS and a S-SNEGS. The L-SNEDDS consisted of celecoxib (drug), Captex® 355 (Captex; oil), Tween® 80 (Tween 80; surfactant) and D-α-Tocopherol polyethylene glycol 1000 succinate (TPGS; cosurfactant) in a weight ratio of 3.5:25:60:15 to produce the smallest nanoemulsion droplet size. The S-SNEDDS and S-SNEGS were prepared with L-SNEDDS/Ca-silicate/Avicel PH 101 in a weight ratio of 103.5:50:0 using a spray dryer and 103.5:50:100 using a fluid bed granulator, respectively. We compared the two novel developed systems and celecoxib powder based on their solubility, dissolution rate, physicochemical properties, flow properties and oral bioavailability in rats. S-SNEGS showed a significant improvement in solubility and dissolution rate compared to S-SNEDDS and celecoxib powder. Both systems had been converted from crystalline drug to amorphous form. Furthermore, S-SNEGS exhibited a significantly reduced angle of repose, compressibility index and Hausner ratio than S-SNEDDS, suggesting that S-SNEGS was significantly superior in flow properties. Compared to S-SNEDDS and celecoxib powder, S-SNEGS increased the oral bioavailability (AUC value) in rats by 1.3 and 4.5-fold, respectively. Therefore, S-SNEGS wolud be recommended as a solid self-nanoemulsifying system suitable for poorly water-soluble celecoxib.

Design and Evaluation of Clove Oil-Based Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems for Improving the Oral Bioavailability of Neratinib Maleate

Neratinib maleate (NM), a tyrosine kinase inhibitor, is used in the treatment of breast cancer. NM is orally administered at a high dose of 290 mg due to its low solubility and poor dissolution rate at pH > 3, as well as gut-wall metabolism limiting its bioavailability. Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDSs) of NM were developed in the current study to improve its oral bioavailability. The oily vehicle (clove oil) was selected based on the solubility of NM, while the surfactant and the cosurfactant were selected based on the turbidimetric analysis. Three different sets were screened for surfactant selection in the preparation of SEDDS formulations, the first set containing Cremophor® EL alone as the surfactant, the second set containing a mixture of Cremophor® EL (surfactant) and Caproyl® PGMC (cosurfactant), and the third set containing a mixture of Cremophor® EL (surfactant) and Capmul® MCM C8 (cosurfactant). Propylene glycol was used as the cosolubilizer in the preparation of SEDDSs. A series of studies, including the construction of ternary phase diagrams to determine the zone of emulsification, thermodynamic stability studies (involving dilution studies, freeze-thaw, and heating-cooling studies), turbidimetric analysis, and physicochemical characterization studies were conducted to identify the two most stable combinations of SEDDSs. The two optimized SEDDS formulations, TP16 and TP25, consisted of clove oil (45% w/w) and propylene glycol (5% w/w) in common but differed with respect to the surfactant or surfactant mixture in the formulations. TP16 was prepared using a mixture of Cremophor® EL (surfactant) and Caproyl® PGMC (cosurfactant) in a 4:1 ratio (50% w/w), while TP25 contained only Cremophor® EL (50% w/w). The mean globule sizes were 239.8 ± 77.8 nm and 204.8 ± 2.4 nm for TP16 and TP25, respectively, with an emulsification time of <12 s for both formulations. In vitro drug dissolution studies performed at different pH conditions (3.0, 4.5, 6.8) have confirmed the increase in solubility and dissolution rate of the drug by TP16 and TP25 at all pH conditions compared to plain NM. An oral pharmacokinetic study in female Wistar rats showed that the relative bioavailability (Frel) values of TP16 and TP25 over the plain NM were 2.18 (p < 0.05) and 2.24 (p < 0.01), respectively.

Development of fexofenadine self-microemulsifying delivery systems: an efficient way to improve intestinal permeability

Aim: The present study aimed to prepare and evaluate fexofenadine self-microemulsifying drug-delivery systems (SMEDDS) formulation and to determine and compare its intestinal permeability using in situ single-pass intestinal perfusion (SPIP) technique.Methods: Fexofenadine-loaded SMEDDS were prepared and optimized. Droplet size, polydispersity index, zeta potential, drug release and intestinal permeability were evaluated.Results: Optimized formulation consisted of 15% oil, 80% surfactant and 5% cosolvent. Droplet size and drug loading of optimized formulation was 13.77 nm and 60 mg/g and it has released 90% of its drug content. Intestinal permeability of fexofenadine was threefold enhanced in SMEDDS compared with free fexofenadine.Conclusion: The results of our study revealed that SMEDDS could be a promising tool for oral delivery of fexofenadine with enhanced dissolution rate and intestinal permeability.

Nanomedicine for colon-targeted drug delivery: strategies focusing on inflammatory bowel disease and colon cancer

The nanostructured drug-delivery systems for colon-targeted drug delivery are a promising field of research for localized diseases particularly influencing the colonic region, in other words, ulcerative colitis, Crohn's disease, and colorectal cancer. There are various drug-delivery approaches designed for effective colonic disease treatment, including stimulus-based formulations (enzyme-triggered systems, pH-sensitive systems) and magnetically driven drug-delivery systems. In addition, targeted drug delivery by means of overexpressed receptors also offers site specificity and reduces drug resistance. It also covers GI tract-triggered emulsifying systems, nontoxic plant-derived nanoformulations as advanced drug-delivery techniques as well as nanotechnology-based clinical trials toward colonic diseases. This review gives insight into advancements in colon-targeted drug delivery to meet site specificity or targeted drug-delivery requirements.

Lipid-based systems with precipitation inhibitors as formulation approach to improve the drug bioavailability and/or lower its dose: a review

Lipid-based systems, such as self-microemulsifying systems (SMEDDS) are attracting strong attention as a formulation approach to improve the bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs. By applying the "spring and parachute" strategy in designing supersaturable SMEDDS, it is possible to maintain the drug in the supersaturated state long enough to allow absorption of the complete dose, thus improving the drug's bio-availability. As such an approach allows the incorporation of larger amounts of the drug in equal or even lower volumes of SMEDDS, it also enables the production of smaller final dosage forms as well as decreased gastrointestinal irritation, being of particular importance when formulating dosage forms for children or the elderly. In this review, the technological approaches used to prolong the drug supersaturation are discussed regarding the type and concentration of polymers used in liquid and solid SMEDDS formulation. The addition of hypromellose derivatives, vinyl polymers, polyethylene glycol, polyoxyethylene, or polymetacrylate copolymers proved to be effective in inhibiting drug precipitation. Regarding the available literature, hypromellose has been the most commonly used polymeric precipitation inhibitor, added in a concentration of 5 % (m/m). However, the inhibiting ability is mainly governed not only by the physicochemical properties of the polymer but also by the API, therefore the choice of optimal precipitation inhibitor is recommended to be evaluated on an individual basis.

Tabletized Nanomedicine: From the Current Scenario to Developing Future Medicine

The limitations of conventional therapeutic treatments prevailed in the development of nanotechnology-based medical formulations, termed nanomedicine. Nanomedicine is an advanced medicine that often consists of therapeutic agent(s) embedded in biodegradable or biocompatible nanomaterial-based formulations. Among nanomedicine approaches, tablet (oral) nanomedicine is still under development. In tabletized nanomedicine, the dynamic interplay between nanoformulations and the intricate milieu of the gastrointestinal tract simulates a pivotal role, particularly accentuating the influence exerted upon the luminal, mucosal, and epithelial cells. In this work, we document the perspectives and opportunities of nanoformulations toward the development of tabletized nanomedicine. This review also unveils the notion of integrating nanomedicine within a tablet formulation, which facilitates the controlled release of drugs, biomolecules, and agent(s) from the formulation to achieve a better therapeutic response. Finally, an attempt was made to explore current trends in nanomedicine technology such as bacteriophage, probiotic, and oligonucleotide tabletized nanomedicine and the combination of nanomedicine with imaging agents, i.e., nanotheranostics.

Solid self-emulsifying casein carrier for the improvement on the oral bioavailability of simvastatin

Simvastatin (SV) is a statin drug that can effectively control cholesterol and prevent cardiovascular diseases. However, SV is water-insoluble, and poor oral bioavailability (<5 %). Solid self-emulsifying carrier system is more stable than liquid emulsions, facilitating to improve the solubility and bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs. In the present study, a solid self-emulsifying carrier stabilized by casein (Cas-SSE) was successfully used to load SV to improve its solubility in water, by formulation selection and emulsification process optimization. Compared with oral tablets, the release of SV from Cas-SSE was significantly enhanced in artificial intestinal fluid. Furthermore, everted gut sac experiments indicated some water-soluble dispersing agents such as hydroxyethyl starch (HES), were not conducive to drug absorption. Pharmacokinetic studies suggested Cas-SSE without dispersing agent has much higher relative bioavailability (184.1 % of SV and 284.5 % of simvastatin acid) than SV tablet. The present work suggests Cas-SSE is a promising drug delivery platform with good biocompatibility for improving oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Zeta potential changing self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems: A newfangled approach for enhancing oral bioavailability of poorly soluble drugs

The mucus is a defensive barrier for different drug-loaded systems. To overcome this obstacle, the crucial factor is the surface charge. Due to mucus negative charge behavior; it was revealed that negatively charged formulations can move across mucus, whereas positively charged nanoformulations could not diffuse via mucus due to interactions. However, cellular intake of negatively charged nanoformulations to the epithelium by endocytosis is less prominent as compared to positively charged carriers. Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) improve the drug permeability of drugs, especially which have poor oral drug solubility. Moreover, SEDDS have the ability to reduce the degradation of drugs in the GI tract. Currently, drug carrier systems that can shift zeta potential from negative to positive were developed. The benefits of inducing zeta potential changing approach are that negatively charged nanoformulations permeate quickly across the mucus and surface charges reversed to positive at epithelium surface to increase cellular uptake. Among various systems of drug delivery, zeta potential changing SEDDS seem to signify a promising approach as they can promptly diffuse over mucus due to their smaller size and shape distortion ability. Due to such findings, mucus permeation and drug diffusion may improve by the mixture of the zeta potential changing approach and SEDDS.

Multi-site isomerization of synergistically regulated stimuli-responsive AIE materials toward multi-level decryption

Stimuli-responsive aggregation-induced emission (AIE) materials are highly sensitive and rapidly responsive to external signals, making them ideal solid materials for anti-counterfeiting encryption. However, the limited conformational and packing variations resulting from regio-isomerization with a single substituent restricts the stimuli-responsive behavior of these materials. In this work, several AIE-active regio-structural isomers based on the salicylaldehyde Schiff base scaffold have been straightforwardly obtained through multiple substitutions with bromide and triphenylamine moieties. Solvent-effect experiments demonstrate their different orders of charge-transfer and excited-state intramolecular proton transfer upon photoexcitation, indicating the regulation of excited-state processes via multi-site isomerization. These isomers also demonstrate mechanochromism and acidichromism, allowing for adjustable stimuli-responsive effects. As a demonstration, p-Br-TPA with both mechanochromism and acidichromism can be synergistically utilized for multi-level decryption. This study successfully regulates the evolution of excited states through multi-site isomerization, offering a general approach for achieving tunable stimuli-responsive properties in AIE-active salicylaldehyde Schiff bases toward multi-level decryption.

Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Enhanced Oral Delivery of Tenofovir: Formulation, Physicochemical Characterization, and Bioavailability Assessment

Tenofovir (TNF) is a common component of many antiretroviral therapy regimens, but it is associated with poor membrane permeability and low oral bioavailability. To improve its oral bioavailability and membrane permeability, a self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) was developed and characterized, and its relative bioavailability was compared to the marketed tablets (Tenof). Based on solubility and ternary phase diagram analysis, eucalyptus oil was selected as an oil phase, Kolliphor EL, and Kollisolv MCT 70 were chosen as surfactant and cosurfactant, respectively, while glycerol was used as cosolvent in surfactant mixture. Optimized SEDDS formulation F6 showed an oil droplet size of 98.82 nm and zeta potential of -13.03 mV, indicating the high stability of oil droplets. Differential scanning calorimetry, X-ray diffraction, and scanning electron microscopy characterization studies were also carried out to assess the amorphous and morphological states of the drug in the prepared SEDDS formulation. The in vitro dissolution profile of SEDDS shows the rapid release of the drug. SEDDS F6 demonstrates a higher drug permeability than the plain TNF and TNF-marketed tablets (Tenof). A pharmacokinetic study in rats revealed that SEDDS F6 showed significantly higher Cmax and AUC0-t than the marketed tablets and pure drug suspension. In addition, the relative bioavailability of SEDDS formulation dramatically improved by 21.53-fold compared to marketed tablets and 66.27-fold compared to pure drugs. These findings show that SEDDS composed of eucalyptus oil, glycerol, Kolliphor EL, and Kollisolv MCT 70 could be a useful tool for enhancing physiochemical properties and oral TNF absorption. Therefore, SEDDS has shown promise in improving the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs.

Oral Insulin Delivery: A Review on Recent Advancements and Novel Strategies

BACKGROUND

Due to the lifestyle of people in the community in recent years, the prevalence of diabetes mellitus has increased, so New drugs and related treatments are also being developed.

INTRODUCTION

One of the essential treatments for diabetes today is injectable insulin forms, which have their problems and limitations, such as invasive and less admission of patients and high cost of production. According to the mentioned issues, Theoretically, Oral insulin forms can solve many problems of injectable forms.

METHODS

Many efforts have been made to design and introduce Oral delivery systems of insulin, such as lipid-based, synthetic polymer-based, and polysaccharide-based nano/microparticle formulations. The present study reviewed these novel formulations and strategies in the past five years and checked their properties and results.

RESULTS

According to peer-reviewed research, insulin-transporting particles may preserve insulin in the acidic and enzymatic medium and decrease peptide degradation; in fact, they could deliver appropriate insulin levels to the intestinal environment and then to blood. Some of the studied systems increase the permeability of insulin to the absorption membrane in cellular models. In most investigations, in vivo results revealed a lower ability of formulations to reduce BGL than subcutaneous form, despite promising results in in vitro and stability testing.

CONCLUSION

Although taking insulin orally currently seems unfeasible, future systems may be able to overcome mentioned obstacles, making oral insulin delivery feasible and producing acceptable bioavailability and treatment effects in comparison to injection forms.

Fish oil-based microemulsion can efficiently deliver oral peptide blocking PD-1/PD-L1 and simultaneously induce ferroptosis for cancer immunotherapy

Peptide immune checkpoint inhibitors in cancer immunotherapy have attracted great attention recently, but oral delivery of these peptides remains a huge challenge due to the harsh gastrointestinal environment, large molecular size, high hydrophilic, and poor transmembrane permeability. Here, for the first time, a fish oil-based microemulsion was developed for oral delivery of programmed death-1/programmed cell death-ligand 1 (PD-1/PD-L1) blocking model peptide, OPBP-1. The delivery system was characterized, in vitro and in vivo studies were conducted to evaluate its overall implication. As a result, this nutraceutical microemulsion was easily formed without the need of co-surfactants, and it appeared light yellow, transparent, good flowability with a particle size of 152 ± 0.73 nm, with a sustained drug release manner of 56.45 ± 0.36% over 24 h and a great stability within the harsh intestinal environment. It enhanced intestinal drug uptake and transportation over human intestinal epithelial Caco-2 cells, and drastically elevated the oral peptide bioavailability of 4.1-fold higher than that of OPBP-1 solution. Meanwhile, the mechanism of these dietary droplets permeated over the intestinal enterocytic membrane was found via clathrin and caveolae-mediated endocytic pathways. From the in vivo studies, the microemulsion facilitated the infiltration of CD8+ T lymphocytes in tumors, with increased interferon-γ (IFN-γ) secretion. Thus, it manifested a promising immune anti-tumor effect and significantly inhibited the growth of murine colonic carcinoma (CT26). Furthermore, it was found that the fish oil could induce ferroptosis in tumor cells and exhibited synergistic effect with OPBP-1 for cancer immunotherapy. In conclusion, this fish oil-based formulation demonstrated great potential for oral delivery of peptides with its natural property in reactive oxygen species (ROS)-related ferroptosis of tumor cells, which provides a great platform for functional green oral delivery system in cancer immunotherapy.

Triterpenes Drug Delivery Systems, a Modern Approach for Arthritis Targeted Therapy

Arthritis is a major cause of disability. Currently available anti-arthritic drugs, such as disease-modifying anti-rheumatic drugs (DMARDs), have serious side-effects associated with long-term use. Triterpenoids are natural products with known anti-inflammatory properties, and many have revealed efficiency against arthritis both in vitro and in vivo in several animal models, with negligible cytotoxicity. However, poor bioavailability due to low water solubility and extensive metabolism upon oral administration hinder the therapeutic use of anti-arthritic triterpenoids. Therefore, drug delivery systems (DDSs) able to improve the pharmacokinetic profile of triterpenoids and achieve sustained drug release are useful alternatives for targeted delivery in arthritis treatment. Several DDSs have been described in the literature for triterpenoid delivery, including microparticulate and nanoparticulate DDSs, such as polymeric micro and nanoparticles (NPs), polymeric micelles, liposomes, micro and nanoemulsions, and hydrogels. These systems have shown superior therapeutic effects in arthritis compared to the free drugs and are similar to currently available anti-arthritic drugs without significant side-effects. This review focuses on nanocarriers for triterpenoid delivery in arthritis therapy, including osteoarthritis (OA), rheumatoid arthritis (RA) and gout that appeared in the literature in the last ten years.

Impact of carrier hydrophilicity on solid self nano-emulsifying drug delivery system and self nano-emulsifying granule system

The purpose of this study was to investigate the impact of carrier hydrophilicity on solid self nano-emulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) and self nano-emulsifying granule system (SEGS). The mesoporous calcium silicate (Ca-silicate) and hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) were utilised as hydrophobic carrier and hydrophilic carrier, respectively. The liquid SNEDDS formulation, composed of Tween80/Kollipohr EL/corn oil (35/50/15%) with 31% (w/w) dexibuprofen, was spray-dried and fluid-bed granulated together with Avicel using Ca-silicate or HP- β-CD as a solid carrier, producing four different solid SNEDDS and SEGS formulations. Unlike the Ca-silicate-based systems, spherical shape and aggregated particles were shown in HP-β-CD-based solid SNEDDS and SEGS, respectively. Molecular interaction was detected between Ca-silicate and the drug; though, none was shown between HP-β-CD and the drug. Each system prepared with either carrier gave no significant differences in micromeritic properties, crystallinity, droplet morphology, size, dissolution and oral bioavailability in rats. However, the HP-β-CD-based system more significantly improved the drug solubility than did the Ca-silicate-based system. Therefore, both carriers hardly affected the properties of both solid SNEDDS and SEGS; though, there were differences in the aspect of appearance, molecular interaction and solubility.

Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) disrupt the gut microbiota and trigger an intestinal inflammatory response in rats

Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (i.e. SEDDS, SMEDDS and SNEDDS) are widely employed as solubility and bioavailability enhancing formulation strategies for poorly water-soluble drugs. Despite the capacity for SEDDS to effectively facilitate oral drug absorption, tolerability concerns exist due to the capacity for high concentrations of surfactants (typically present within SEDDS) to induce gastrointestinal toxicity and mucosal irritation. With new knowledge surrounding the role of the gut microbiota in modulating intestinal inflammation and mucosal injury, there is a clear need to determine the impact of SEDDS on the gut microbiota. The current study is the first of its kind to demonstrate the detrimental impact of SEDDS on the gut microbiota of Sprague-Dawley rats, following daily oral administration (100 mg/kg) for 21 days. SEDDS comprising a lipid phase (i.e. Type I, II and III formulations according to the Lipid Formulation Classification Scheme) induced significant changes to the composition and diversity of the gut microbiota, evidenced through a reduction in operational taxonomic units (OTUs) and alpha diversity (Shannon's index), along with statistically significant shifts in beta diversity (according to PERMANOVA of multi-dimensional Bray-Curtis plots). Key signatures of gut microbiota dysbiosis correlated with the increased expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines within the jejunum, while mucosal injury was characterised by significant reductions in plasma citrulline levels, a validated biomarker of enterocyte mass and mucosal barrier integrity. These findings have potential clinical ramifications for chronically administered drugs that are formulated with SEDDS and stresses the need for further studies that investigate dose-dependent effects of SEDDS on the gastrointestinal microenvironment in a clinical setting.

Supersaturable Solid Self-microemulsifying Delivery Systems of Astaxanthin via Spray Drying: Effects of Polymers and Solid Carriers

This study aimed to develop the solid astaxanthin-encapsulated self-microemulsifying delivery system (S-AST SMEDS) spray-dried particles and investigate the effect of materials in formulations on product characteristics. The optimized liquid AST SMEDS incorporated with a polymeric precipitation inhibitor (PI) was solidified with a solid carrier by spray drying. Physicochemical properties of S-AST SMEDS spray-dried powders including morphology, particle size and distribution, flowability, solid-state characters, moisture content, yield, loading capacity of AST, and reconstitution properties were examined. Polymeric PIs seemed to have an impact on particles' size, surface smoothness, and flowability while solid carriers had an effect on the particles' moisture content and droplet size of microemulsions obtained after reconstitution. The amount of AST encapsulated in S-SMEDS powder was influenced by both polymer and solid carriers. Dissolution and short-term stability of S-AST SMEDS were also studied. Our developed spray-dried solid SMEDS particles helped enhance AST dissolution rate.

Strategies to Enhance the Solubility and Bioavailability of Tocotrienols Using Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System

Tocotrienols have higher medicinal value, with multiple sources of evidence showing their biological properties as antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and osteoprotective compounds. However, tocotrienol bioavailability presents an ongoing challenge in its translation into viable products. This is because tocotrienol oil is known to be a poorly water-soluble compound, making it difficult to be absorbed into the body and resulting in less effectiveness. With the potential and benefits of tocotrienol, new strategies to increase the bioavailability and efficacy of poorly absorbed tocotrienol are required when administered orally. One of the proposed formulation techniques was self-emulsification, which has proven its capacity to improve oral drug delivery of poorly water-soluble drugs by advancing the solubility and bioavailability of these active compounds. This review discusses the updated evidence on the bioavailability of tocotrienols formulated with self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDSs) from in vivo and human studies. In short, SEDDSs formulation enhances the solubility and passive permeability of tocotrienol, thus improving its oral bioavailability and biological actions. This increases its medicinal and commercial value. Furthermore, the self-emulsifying formulation presents a useful dosage form that is absorbed in vivo independent of dietary fats with consistent and enhanced levels of tocotrienol isomers. Therefore, a lipid-based formulation technique can provide an additional detailed understanding of the oral bioavailability of tocotrienols.

Self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (SNEDDS) of docetaxel and carvacrol synergizes the anticancer activity and enables safer toxicity profile: optimization, and in-vitro, ex-vivo and in-vivo pharmacokinetic evaluation

Docetaxel (DTX) is a first-line chemotherapeutic molecule with a broad-spectrum anticancer activity. On the other hand, carvacrol (CV) has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, cytotoxic, and hepatoprotective properties that could reduce undue toxicity caused by DTX chemotherapy. Thus, in order to overcome the challenges posed by DTX's poor aqueous solubility, low permeability, hepatic first pass, and systemic toxicities, we have developed a novel solid self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery system (S-SNEDDS) co-loaded with DTX and CV. In the present investigation, liquid-SNEDDS (L-SNEDDS) were fabricated using Nigella sativa oil, Cremophor RH 40, and Ethanol which was converted into solid by lyophilization using Aerosil 200. The reconstituted CV-DTX-S-SNEDDS showed an average globule size of < 200 nm with promising flow properties (angle of repose θ: 33.22 ± 0.06). Additionally, 2.3-fold higher dissolution of DTX was observed from CV-DTX-S-SNEDDS after 6 h as compared to free DTX. Similar trend was followed in dialysis release experiments with 1.5-fold higher release within 24 h. Ex vivo permeation studies demonstrated significantly increased permeation of 1077.02 ± 12.72 μg/cm2 of CV-DTX-S-SNEDDS after 12 h. In vitro cell cytotoxicity studies revealed 5.2-fold reduction in IC50 as compared to free DTX in MDA-MB-231 cells. Formulation was able to induce higher apoptosis in cells treated with CV-DTX-S-SNEDDS as compared to free DTX and CV. It was evident from toxicity studies that CV-DTX-S-SNEDDS was well tolerated at higher dose where CV was able to manage the toxic effects of free DTX. In vivo pharmacokinetic study showed 3.4-fold increased Cmax and improved oral bioavailability as compared to free DTX. Thus, CV-DTX-S-SNEDDS could be an encouraging option for facilitating DTX oral therapy.

Twin Screw Melt Granulation: A Single Step Approach for Developing Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System for Lipophilic Drugs

The current research aims to improve the solubility of the poorly soluble drug, i.e., ibuprofen, by developing self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) utilizing a twin screw melt granulation (TSMG) approach. Gelucire® 44/14, Gelucire® 48/16, and Transcutol® HP were screened as suitable excipients for developing the SEDDS formulations. Initially, liquid SEDDS (L-SEDDS) were developed with oil concentrations between 20-50% w/w and surfactant to co-surfactant ratios of 2:1, 4:1, 6:1. The stable formulations of L-SEDDS were transformed into solid SEDDS (S-SEDDS) using a suitable adsorbent carrier and compressed into tablets (T-SEDDS). The S-SEDDS has improved flow, drug release profiles, and permeability compared to pure drugs. The existence of the drug in an amorphous state was confirmed by differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and powder X-ray diffraction analysis (PXRD). The formulations with 20% w/w and 30% w/w of oil concentration and a 4:1 ratio of surfactant to co-surfactant have resulted in a stable homogeneous emulsion with a globule size of 14.67 ± 0.23 nm and 18.54 ± 0.55 nm. The compressed tablets were found stable after six months of storage at accelerated and long-term conditions. This shows the suitability of the TSMG approach as a single-step continuous manufacturing process for developing S-SEDDS formulations.

Formulation and Evaluation of a Self-Microemulsifying Drug Delivery System of Raloxifene with Improved Solubility and Oral Bioavailability

Poor aqueous solubility and dissolution limit the oral bioavailability of Biopharmaceutics Classification System (BCS) class II drugs. In this study, we aimed to improve the aqueous solubility and oral bioavailability of raloxifene hydrochloride (RLX), a BCS class II drug, using a self-microemulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS). Based on the solubilities of RLX, Capryol 90, Tween 80/Labrasol ALF, and polyethylene glycol 400 (PEG-400) were selected as the oil, surfactant mixture, and cosurfactant, respectively. Pseudo-ternary phase diagrams were constructed to determine the optimal composition (Capryol 90/Tween 80/Labrasol ALF/PEG-400 in 150/478.1/159.4/212.5 volume ratio) for RLX-SMEDDS with a small droplet size (147.1 nm) and stable microemulsification (PDI: 0.227). Differential scanning calorimetry and powder X-ray diffraction of lyophilized RLX-SMEDDS revealed the loss of crystallinity, suggesting a molecularly dissolved or amorphous state of RLX in the SMEDDS formulation. Moreover, RLX-SMEDDS exhibited significantly higher saturation solubility and dissolution rate in water, simulated gastric fluid (pH 1.2), and simulated intestinal fluid (pH 6.8) than RLX powder. Additionally, oral administration of RLX-SMEDDS to female rats resulted in 1.94- and 1.80-fold higher area under the curve and maximum plasma concentration, respectively, than the RLX dispersion. Collectively, our findings suggest SMEDDS is a promising oral formulation to enhance the therapeutic efficacy of RLX.

Nanomedicine in therapeutic warfront against estrogen receptor-positive breast cancer

Breast cancer (BC) is the most frequently diagnosed malignancy in women worldwide. Almost 70-80% of cases of BC are curable at the early non-metastatic stage. BC is a heterogeneous disease with different molecular subtypes. Around 70% of breast tumors exhibit estrogen-receptor (ER) expression and endocrine therapy is used for the treatment of these patients. However, there are high chances of recurrence in the endocrine therapy regimen. Though chemotherapy and radiation therapy have substantially improved survival rates and treatment outcomes in BC patients, there is an increased possibility of the development of resistance and dose-limiting toxicities. Conventional treatment approaches often suffer from low bioavailability, adverse effects due to the non-specific action of chemotherapeutics, and low antitumor efficacy. Nanomedicine has emerged as a conspicuous strategy for delivering anticancer therapeutics in BC management. It has revolutionized the area of cancer therapy by increasing the bioavailability of the therapeutics and improving their anticancer efficacy with reduced toxicities on healthy tissues. In this article, we have highlighted various mechanisms and pathways involved in the progression of ER-positive BC. Further, different nanocarriers delivering drugs, genes, and natural therapeutic agents for surmounting BC are the spotlights of this article.

Concurrent oral delivery of non-oncology drugs through solid self-emulsifying system for repurposing in hepatocellular carcinoma

OBJECTIVE

Present study aimed to identify a safe and effective non-oncology drug cocktail as an alternative to toxic chemotherapeutics for hepatocellular carcinoma treatment. The assessment of cytotoxicity of cocktail (as co-adjuvant) in combination with chemotherapeutic docetaxel (DTX) is also aimed. Further, we aimed to develop an oral solid self-emulsifying drug delivery system (S-SEDDS) for the simultaneous delivery of identified drugs.

SIGNIFICANCE

The identified non-oncology drug cocktail could overcome the shortage of anticancer therapeutics and help to reduce cancer-related mortality. Moreover, the developed S-SEDDS could be an ideal system for concurrent oral delivery of non-oncology drug combinations.

METHODS

The non-oncology drugs (alone and in combinations) were screened in vitro for anticancer effect (against HepG2 cells) using (3-(4, 5-dimethylthiazolyl-2)-2, 5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide; MTT) dye assay, and cell cycle arresting and apoptotic behaviors using the fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) technique. The S-SEDDS is composed of drugs such as Ketoconazole (KCZ), Disulfiram (DSR), Tadalafil (TLF), and excipients like span-80, tween-80, soybean oil, Leciva S-95, Poloxamer F108 (PF-108), and Neusilin® US2 (adsorbent carrier) was developed and characterized.

RESULTS

The cocktail composed of KCZ, DSR, and TLF has showed substantial cytotoxicity (at the lowest concentration of 3.3 picomoles), HepG2 cell arrest at G0/G1 and S phases, and substantial cell death via apoptosis. The Docetaxel (DTX) inclusion into this cocktail has further resulted in increased cytotoxicity, cell arrest at the G2/M phase, and cell necrosis. The optimized blank liquid SEDDS that remains transparent without phase separation for more than 6 months is used for the preparation of drug-loaded liquid SEDDS (DL-SEDDS). The optimized DL-SEDDS with low viscosity, good dispersibility, considerable drug retention upon dilution, and smaller particle size is further converted into drug-loaded solid SEDDS (DS-SEDDS). The final DS-SEDDS demonstrated acceptable flowability and compression characteristics, significant drug retention (more than 93%), particle size in nano range (less than 500 nm) and nearly spherical morphology following dilutions. The DS-SEDDS showed substantially increased cytotoxicity and Caco-2 cell permeability than plain drugs. Furthermore, DS-SEDDS containing only non-oncology drugs caused lower in vivo toxicity (only 6% body weight loss) than DS-SEDDS containing non-oncology drugs with DTX (about 10% weight loss).

CONCLUSION

The current study revealed a non-oncology drug combination effective against hepatocellular carcinoma. Further, it is concluded that the developed S-SEDDS containing non-oncology drug combination alone and in combination with DTX could be a promising alternative to toxic chemotherapeutics for the effective oral treatment of hepatic cancer.

3D-Printed Gastroretentive Tablets Loaded with Niclosamide Nanocrystals by the Melting Solidification Printing Process (MESO-PP)

Niclosamide (NICLO) is a recognized antiparasitic drug being repositioned for Helicobacter pylori. The present work aimed to formulate NICLO nanocrystals (NICLO-NCRs) to produce a higher dissolution rate of the active ingredient and to incorporate these nanosystems into a floating solid dosage form to release them into the stomach slowly. For this purpose, NICLO-NCRs were produced by wet-milling and included in a floating Gelucire l3D printed tablet by semi-solid extrusion, applying the Melting solidification printing process (MESO-PP) methodology. The results obtained in TGA, DSC, XRD and FT-IR analysis showed no physicochemical interactions or modifications in the crystallinity of NICLO-NCR after inclusion in Gelucire 50/13 ink. This method allowed the incorporation of NICLO-NCRs in a concentration of up to 25% w/w. It achieved a controlled release of NCRs in a simulated gastric medium. Moreover, the presence of NICLO-NCRs after redispersion of the printlets was observed by STEM. Additionally, no effects on the cell viability of the NCRs were demonstrated in the GES-1 cell line. Finally, gastroretention was demonstrated for 180 min in dogs. These findings show the potential of the MESO-PP technique in obtaining slow-release gastro-retentive oral solid dosage forms loaded with nanocrystals of a poorly soluble drug, an ideal system for treating gastric pathologies such as H. pylori.

Design, Evaluation and Comparison of Nanostructured Lipid Carriers and Chitosan Nanoparticles as Carriers of Poorly Soluble Drugs to Develop Oral Liquid Formulations Suitable for Pediatric Use

There is a serious need of pediatric drug formulations, whose lack causes the frequent use of extemporaneous preparations obtained from adult dosage forms, with consequent safety and quality risks. Oral solutions are the best choice for pediatric patients, due to administration ease and dosage-adaptability, but their development is challenging, particularly for poorly soluble drugs. In this work, chitosan nanoparticles (CSNPs) and nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) were developed and evaluated as potential nanocarriers for preparing oral pediatric solutions of cefixime (poorly soluble model drug). The selected CSNPs and NLCs showed a size around 390 nm, Zeta-potential > 30 mV, and comparable entrapment efficiency (31-36%), but CSNPs had higher loading efficiency (5.2 vs. 1.4%). CSNPs maintained an almost unchanged size, homogeneity, and Zeta-potential during storage, while NLCs exhibited a marked progressive Zeta-potential decrease. Drug release from CSNPs formulations (differently from NLCs) was poorly affected by gastric pH variations, and gave rise to a more reproducible and controlled profile. This was related to their behavior in simulated gastric conditions, where CSNPs were stable, while NLCs suffered a rapid size increase, up to micrometric dimensions. Cytotoxicity studies confirmed CSNPs as the best nanocarrier, proving their complete biocompatibility, while NLCs formulations needed 1:1 dilution to obtain acceptable cell viability values.

Inotodiol, an antiasthmatic agent with efficacy and safety, preferentially impairs membrane-proximal signaling for mast cell activation

While inhaled corticosteroids (ICSs) are the mainstay of asthma treatment, due to compliance, drug safety, and resistance issues, new medications to replace ICSs are in high demand. Inotodiol, a fungal triterpenoid, showed a unique immunosuppressive property with a preference for mast cells. It exerted a mast cell-stabilizing activity equally potent to dexamethasone in mouse anaphylaxis models when orally administered in a lipid-based formulation, upgrading bioavailability. However, it was four to over ten times less effective in suppressing other immune cell subsets, depending on the subsets, than dexamethasone showing invariably potent inhibition. Accordingly, inotodiol affected the membrane-proximal signaling for activating mast cell functions more profoundly than other subsets. Inotodiol also effectively prevented asthma exacerbation. Importantly, considering the no-observed-adverse-effect level of inotodiol was over 15 times higher than dexamethasone, its therapeutic index would be at least eight times better,implying that inotodiol is a viable option for replacing CSs in treating asthma.

Preparation, Drug Distribution, and In Vivo Evaluation of the Safety of Protein Corona Liposomes for Liraglutide Delivery

The development of oral drug delivery systems is challenging, and issues related to the mucus layer and low intestinal epithelial permeability have not yet been surmounted. The purpose of this study was to develop a promising formulation that is more adapted to in vivo absorption and to facilitate the administration of oral liraglutide. Cationic liposomes (CLs) linked to AT-1002 were prepared using a double-emulsion method, and BSA was adsorbed on the surface of the AT-CLs, resulting in protein corona cationic liposomes with AT-1002 (Pc-AT-CLs). The preparation method was determined by investigating various process parameters. The particle size, potential, and encapsulation efficiency (EE%) of the Pc-AT-CLs were 202.9 ± 12.4 nm, 1.76 ± 4.87 mV, and 84.63 ± 5.05%, respectively. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM) imaging revealed a nearly spherical structure of the Pc-AT-CLs, with a recognizable coating. The circular dichroism experiments confirmed that the complex preparation process did not affect the secondary structure of liraglutide. With the addition of BSA and AT-1002, the mucosal accumulation of the Pc-AT-CLs was nearly two times lower than that of the AT-CLs, and the degree of enteric metaplasia was 1.35 times higher than that of the PcCLs. The duration of the intestinal absorption of the Pc-AT-CLs was longer, offering remarkable biological safety.

Core-Shell Type Lipidic and Polymeric Nanocapsules: the Transformative Multifaceted Delivery Systems

Amongst the several nano-drug delivery systems, lipid or polymer-based core-shell nanocapsules (NCs) have garnered much attention of researchers owing to its multidisciplinary properties and wide application. NCs are structured core-shell systems in which the core is an aqueous or oily phase protecting the encapsulated drug from environmental conditions, whereas the shell can be lipidic or polymeric. The core is stabilized by surfactant/lipids/polymers, which control the release of the drug. The presence of a plethora of biocompatible lipids and polymers with the provision of amicable surface modifications makes NCs an ideal choice for precise drug delivery. In the present article, multiple lipidic and polymeric NC (LNCs and PNCs) systems are described with an emphasis on fabrication methods and characterization techniques. Far-reaching applications as a carrier or delivery system are demonstrated for oral, parenteral, nasal, and transdermal routes of administration to enhance the bioavailability of hard-to-formulate drugs and to achieve sustained and targeted delivery. This review provide in depth understanding on core-shell NC's mechanism of absorption, surface modification, size tuning, and toxicity moderation which overshadows the drawbacks of conventional approaches. Additionally, the review shines a spotlight on the current challenges associated with core-shell NCs and applications in the foreseeable future.

The Influence of Blonanserin Supersaturation in Liquid and Silica Stabilised Self-Nanoemulsifying Drug Delivery Systems on In Vitro Solubilisation

Reformulating poorly water-soluble drugs as supersaturated lipid-based formulations achieves higher drug loading and potentially improves solubilisation and bioavailability. However, for the weak base blonanserin, silica solidified supersaturated lipid-based formulations have demonstrated reduced in vitro solubilisation compared to their liquid-state counterparts. Therefore, this study aimed to understand the influence of supersaturated drug load on blonanserin solubilisation from liquid and silica solidified supersaturated self-nanoemulsifying drug delivery systems (super-SNEDDS) during in vitro lipolysis. Stable liquid super-SNEDDS with varying drug loads (90-300% of the equilibrium solubility) were solidified by imbibition into porous silica microparticles (1:1 lipid: silica ratio). In vitro lipolysis revealed greater blonanserin solubilisation from liquid super-SNEDDS compared to solid at equivalent drug saturation levels, owing to strong silica-BLON/lipid interactions, evidenced by a significant decrease in blonanserin solubilisation upon addition of silica to a digesting liquid super-SNEDDS. An increase in solid super-SNEDDS drug loading led to increased solubilisation, owing to the increased drug:silica and drug:lipid ratios. Solidifying SNEDDS with silica enables the fabrication of powdered formulations with higher blonanserin loading and greater stability than liquid super-SNEDDS, however at the expense of drug solubilisation. These competing parameters need careful consideration in designing optimal super-SNEDDS for pre-clinical and clinical application.

Recent Advances in Targeted Nanocarriers for the Management of Triple Negative Breast Cancer

Triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) is a life-threatening form of breast cancer which has been found to account for 15% of all the subtypes of breast cancer. Currently available treatments are significantly less effective in TNBC management because of several factors such as poor bioavailability, low specificity, multidrug resistance, poor cellular uptake, and unwanted side effects being the major ones. As a rapidly growing field, nano-therapeutics offers promising alternatives for breast cancer treatment. This platform provides a suitable pathway for crossing biological barriers and allowing sustained systemic circulation time and an improved pharmacokinetic profile of the drug. Apart from this, it also provides an optimized target-specific drug delivery system and improves drug accumulation in tumor cells. This review provides insights into the molecular mechanisms associated with the pathogenesis of TNBC, along with summarizing the conventional therapy and recent advances of different nano-carriers for the management of TNBC.

SEDEX-Self-Emulsifying Delivery Via Hot Melt Extrusion: A Continuous Pilot-Scale Feasibility Study

The aim of this study was to develop a continuous pilot-scale solidification and characterization of self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDSs) via hot melt extrusion (HME) using Soluplus^® and Kollidon^® VA-64. First, an oil-binding capacity study was performed to estimate the maximal amount of SEDDSs that the polymers could bind. Then, HME was conducted using a Coperion 18 mm ZSK18 pilot plant-scale extruder with split-feeding of polymer and SEDDS in 10, 20, and 30% w/w SEDDSs was conducted. The prepared extrudates were characterized depending on appearance, differential scanning calorimetry, wide-angle X-ray scattering, emulsification time, droplet size, polydispersity index, and cloud point. The oil-binding studies showed that the polymers were able to bind up to 50% w/w of liquid SEDDSs. The polymers were processed via HME in a temperature range between 110 and 160 °C, where a plasticizing effect of the SEDDSs was observed. The extrudates were found to be stable in the amorphous state and self-emulsified in demineralized water at 37 °C with mean droplet sizes between 50 and 300 nm. A cloud point and phase inversion were evident in the Soluplus^® samples. In conclusion, processing SEDDSs with HME could be considered a promising alternative to the established solidification techniques as well as classic amorphous solid dispersions for drug delivery.

A Comprehensive Review on Nutraceuticals: Therapy Support and Formulation Challenges

Nutraceuticals are the nourishing components (hybrid of nutrition and pharmaceuticals) that are biologically active and possess capability for maintaining optimal health and benefits. These products play a significant role in human health care and its endurance, most importantly for the future therapeutic development. Nutraceuticals have received recognition due to their nutritional benefits along with therapeutic effects and safety profile. Nutraceuticals are globally growing in the field of services such as health care promotion, disease reduction, etc. Various drug nutraceutical interactions have also been elaborated with various examples in this review. Several patents on nutraceuticals in agricultural applications and in various diseases have been stated in the last section of review, which confirms the exponential growth of nutraceuticals' market value. Nutraceuticals have been used not only for nutrition but also as a support therapy for the prevention and treatment of various diseases, such as to reduce side effects of cancer chemotherapy and radiotherapy. Diverse novel nanoformulation approaches tend to overcome challenges involved in formulation development of nutraceuticals. Prior information on various interactions with drugs may help in preventing any deleterious effects of nutraceuticals products. Nanotechnology also leads to the generation of micronized dietary products and other nutraceutical supplements with improved health benefits. In this review article, the latest key findings (clinical studies) on nutraceuticals that show the therapeutic action of nutraceutical's bioactive molecules on various diseases have also been discussed.

Review of Novel Oral Amphotericin B Formulations for the Treatment of Parasitic Infections

Amphotericin B (AmpB) is a polyene macrolide antibiotic used in the treatment of blood-borne parasitic and fungal infections. However, its use, particularly in the developing world, has been limited by dose-dependent kidney toxicity, other systemic-related toxicity issues following injection, the inconvenience of parenteral administration, and accessibility. Oral formulation approaches have focused on the dual problem of solubility and permeability of AmpB, which is poorly water soluble, amphoteric and has extremely low oral bioavailability. Therefore, to enhance oral absorption, researchers have employed micellar formulations, polymeric nanoparticles, cochleates, pro-drugs, and self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS). This paper will highlight current uses of AmpB against parasitic infections such as leishmaniasis, preclinical and clinical formulation strategies, applications in veterinary medicine and the importance of developing a cost-effective and safe oral AmpB formulation.

Lipid-based solubilization technology via hot melt extrusion: promises and challenges

INTRODUCTION

Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) are a promising strategy to improve the oral bioavailability of poorly water-soluble drugs (PWSD). The excipients of SEDDS enable permeation through the mucus and gastro-intestinal barrier, inhibiting efflux transporters (e.g. P-glycoprotein) of drugs. Poor drug loading capacity and formulation instability are the main setbacks of traditional SEDDS. The use of polymeric precipitation inhibitors was shown to create supersaturable SEDDS with increased drug payload, and their solidification can help to overcome the instability challenge. As an alternative to several existing SEDDS solidification technologies, hot melt extrusion (HME) holds the potential for lean and continuous manufacturing of supersaturable solid-SEDDS. Despite being ubiquitously applied in solid lipid and polymeric processing, HME has not yet been widely considered for the preparation of SEDDS.

AREAS COVERED

The review begins with the rationale why SEDDS as the preferred lipid-based delivery systems (LBDS) is suitable for the oral delivery of PWSD and discusses the common barriers to oral administration. The potential of LBDS to surmount them is discussed. SEDDS as the flagship of LBDS for PWSD is proposed with a special emphasis on solid-SEDDS. Finally, the opportunities and challenges of HME from the lipid-based excipient (LBE) processing and product performance standpoint are highlighted.

EXPERT OPINION

HME can be a continuous, solvent-free, cost-effective, and scalable technology for manufacturing solid supersaturable SEDDS. Several critical formulations and process parameters in successfully preparing SEDDS via HME are identified.

Nano-EMB-SP improves the solubility, foliar affinity, photostability and bioactivity of emamectin benzoate

BACKGROUND

Emamectin benzoate (EMB), a frequently used biopesticide, is poorly soluble in water, making it difficult to wet the leaf surface, is prone to degrade in sunlight and readily loses its bioactivity. Traditional methods such as organic solvent application, pH adjustment and addition of photoprotectants either increase the economic and environmental costs or barely achieve the desired goal. We hypothesized that nanotechnology could improve the solubility, foliar affinity, photostability and bioactivity of EMB. This research set out to prepare a nano-EMB solid powder (nano-EMB-SP) and test this hypothesis.

RESULTS

Nano-EMB-SP was prepared using a self-emulsifying method combined with carrier solidification. The mean particle size and Polydispersity index (PDI) of nano-EMB-SP were 14.64 nm and 0.24, respectively. A scanning electron microscopy image showed that EMB nanoparticles were mainly spherical or ellipsoidal in shape. Without organic solvent, the aqueous solubility of EMB in nano-EMB-SP was 4500 mg L^-1 , at least 14-fold that of the EMB soluble granule (EMB-SG), which is solubilized by pH adjustment. Excellent foliar affinity of EMB was achieved by nano-EMB-SP, which completely wet and penetrated the superhydrophobic surface of cabbage (Brassica oleracea L.) leaf. Without photoprotectants, up to 82% of EMB content can be protected from ultraviolet (UV) damage in nano-EMB-SP. The combined effects of excellent photostability and foliar affinity of nano-EMB-SP led to the bioactivity of EMB being almost unchanged before and after UV radiation.

CONCLUSION

Nano-EMB-SP is an eco-friendly and efficient way to improve the solubility, foliar affinity, photostability and bioactivity of EMB. This research provides a good approach to improving the efficacy of poorly soluble and UV-sensitive pesticides. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery Systems: An Alternative Approach to Improve Brain Bioavailability of Poorly Water-Soluble Drugs through Intranasal Administration

Efforts in discovering new and effective neurotherapeutics are made daily, although most fail to reach clinical trials. The main reason is their poor bioavailability, related to poor aqueous solubility, limited permeability through biological membranes, and the hepatic first-pass metabolism. Nevertheless, crossing the blood–brain barrier is the major drawback associated with brain drug delivery. To overcome it, intranasal administration has become more attractive, in some cases even surpassing the oral route. The unique anatomical features of the nasal cavity allow partial direct drug delivery to the brain, circumventing the blood–brain barrier. Systemic absorption through the nasal cavity also avoids the hepatic first-pass metabolism, increasing the systemic bioavailability of highly metabolized entities. Nevertheless, most neurotherapeutics present physicochemical characteristics that require them to be formulated in lipidic nanosystems as self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS). These are isotropic mixtures of oils, surfactants, and co-surfactants that, after aqueous dilution, generate micro or nanoemulsions loading high concentrations of lipophilic drugs. SEDDS should overcome drug precipitation in absorption sites, increase their permeation through absorptive membranes, and enhance the stability of labile drugs against enzymatic activity. Thus, combining the advantages of SEDDS and those of the intranasal route for brain delivery, an increase in drugs’ brain targeting and bioavailability could be expected. This review deeply characterizes SEDDS as a lipidic nanosystem, gathering important information regarding the mechanisms associated with the intranasal delivery of drugs loaded in SEDDS. In the end, in vivo results after SEDDS intranasal or oral administration are discussed, globally revealing their efficacy in comparison with common solutions or suspensions.

Gastroretentive Sustained-Release Tablets Combined with a Solid Self-Micro-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System Adsorbed onto Fujicalin®

Gastroretentive drug delivery systems (GRDDS) get retained in the stomach for a long time, thus facilitating the absorption of drugs in the upper gastrointestinal tract. However, drugs that are difficult to dissolve or unstable in an acidic environment are not suitable for GRDDS. The current study designs GRDDS combined with a self-micro-emulsifying drug delivery system (SMEDDS) for drugs with solubility or stability problems in the stomach. The model drug fenofibrate was formulated into the optimized liquid SMEDDS composed of 50 w/w% Capryol^® PGMC, 40 w/w% Kolliphor^® RH40, and 10 w/w% Transcutol^® HP and solidified through adsorption on several porous adsorbents. In a dissolution medium at pH 1.2, the powdered SMEDDS using Fujicalin^® dissolved quickly and achieved higher drug dissolution than other adsorbents. Based on these results, a gastroretentive bilayer tablet consisting of a drug release layer and a swelling layer was designed. The drug release layer was formulated with the powdered SMEDDS and hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) as a release modifier. HPMC was also added to the swelling layer as a water-swellable polymer. The dissolution rate depended on the viscosity of the HPMC in the drug release layer. The time for 90% drug release was extended from 3.7 to 12.0 h by increasing the viscosity grade of HPMC from 0.1 to 100 K. Moreover, the tablet swelled and maintained a size comparable to a human pylorus diameter or more for at least 24 h. This GRDDS could apply to a broader range of drug candidates.

Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems: a novel approach to deliver drugs

Self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) are a proven method for poorly soluble substances works by increasing the solubility and bioavailability. SEDDS and isotropic mixtures, are composed of oils, surfactants, and occasionally cosolvents. The ability of these formulations and methods to produce microemulsions or fine oil-in-water (o/w) emulsions after moderate stirring and dilution by water phase along the GI tract might be a promising technique for lipophilic agents with dissolution rate-limited absorption. This review provides an outline of SEDDS's numerous advances and biopharmaceutical elements, types, manufacturing, characterization, limitations, and future prospects. The evaluation of SEDDS and its applications are also discussed, focusing on the advances of SEDDS's solid self-emulsifying delivery mechanism and dosage form. By integrating suitable polymer into the formulation, SEDDS may be studied for the creation of a formulation with sustained drug release. This technology's improvement might lead to a new application in the field of medicine delivery. SEDDS has been demonstrated to be quite efficient in increasing oral bioavailability of lipophilic products. SEDDS is one of the promising methods for controlling the characteristics of medications that are not great choices for oral delivery. It is also worth mentioning that SEDDS may be made in variety of solid dosage forms that are acceptable for both oral and parenteral administration.

Self-Emulsifying Systems for Delivery of Bioactive Compounds from Natural Origin

Nature has been used as therapeutic resources in the treatment of diseases for many years. However, some natural compounds have poor water solubility. Therefore, physicochemical strategies and technologies are necessary for development of systems for carrying these substances. The self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS) have been used as carriers of hydrophobic compounds in order to increase the solubility and absorption, improving their bioavailability. SEDDS are constituted with a mixture of oils and surfactants which, when come into contact with an aqueous medium under mild agitation, can form emulsions. In the last years, a wide variety of self-emulsifying formulations containing bioactive compounds from natural origin has been developed. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the main excipients and natural bioactive compounds composing SEDDS. In addition, applications, new technologies and innovation are reviewed as well. Examples of self-emulsifying formulations administered in different sites are also considered for a better understanding of the use of this strategy to modify the delivery of compounds from natural origin.

Enhanced Oral Bioavailability of β-Caryophyllene in Healthy Subjects Using the VESIsorb® Formulation Technology, a Novel Self-Emulsifying Drug Delivery System (SEDDS)

β-Caryophyllene (BCP), a common constituent of many spice and food plants, is gaining increased attention due to recent research identifying numerous potential health benefits. Due to limited oral bioavailability observed in preclinical models, the described benefits of BCP may be maximized by using a suitable delivery system. Additionally, human pharmacokinetics (PK) remain unknown. This study evaluates the relative oral bioavailability of BCP formulated in a self-emulsifying drug delivery system (SEDDS) based on VESIsorb® formulation technology (BCP-SEDDS) compared to BCP neat oil. Hence, a randomized, double-blind, cross-over design, single oral dose study (100 mg BCP) in 24 healthy subjects (12 men/12 women) was performed under fasting conditions. Pharmacokinetic parameters were analyzed from individual concentration-time curves. The data show that BCP-SEDDS resulted in a 2.2/2.0-fold increase in AUC0–12h/AUC0–24h and a 3.6-fold increase in Cmax compared to BCP neat oil. Moreover, BCP was absorbed faster from BCP-SEDDS (Tmax: 1.43 h) compared to BCP neat oil (Tmax: 3.07 h). Gender analysis revealed that there is no significant difference between men and women for both the investigated formulations and all investigated PK endpoints. In conclusion, BCP-SEDDS offers a well-tolerated and effective oral delivery system to significantly enhance the oral bioavailability of BCP in humans.

Oral delivery of therapeutic peptides and proteins: Technology landscape of lipid-based nanocarriers

The oral administration of therapeutic peptides and proteins is favoured from a patient and commercial point of view. In order to reach the systemic circulation after oral administration, these drugs have to overcome numerous barriers including the enzymatic, sulfhydryl, mucus and epithelial barrier. The development of oral formulations for therapeutic peptides and proteins is therefore necessary. Among the most promising formulation approaches are lipid-based nanocarriers such as oil-in-water nanoemulsions, self-emulsifying drug delivery systems (SEDDS), solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN), nanostructured lipid carriers (NLC), liposomes and micelles. As the lipophilic character of therapeutic peptides and proteins can be tremendously increased such as by the formation of hydrophobic ion pairs (HIP) with hydrophobic counter ions, they can be incorporated in the lipophilic phase of these carriers. Since gastrointestinal (GI) peptidases as well as sulfhydryl compounds such as glutathione and dietary proteins are too hydrophilic to enter the lipophilic phase of these carriers, the incorporated therapeutic peptide or protein is protected towards enzymatic degradation as well as unintended thiol/disulfide exchange reactions. Stability of lipid-based nanocarriers towards lipases can be provided by the use to excipients that are not or just poorly degraded by these enzymes. Nanocarriers with a size <200 nm and a mucoinert surface such as PEG or zwitterionic surfaces exhibit high mucus permeating properties. Having reached the underlying absorption membrane, lipid-based nanocarriers enable paracellular and lymphatic drug uptake, induce endocytosis and transcytosis or simply fuse with the cell membrane releasing their payload into the systemic circulation. Numerous in vivo studies provide evidence for the potential of these delivery systems. Within this review we provide an overview about the different barriers for oral peptide and protein delivery, highlight the progress made on lipid-based nanocarriers in order to overcome them and discuss strengths and weaknesses of these delivery systems in comparison to other technologies.