Exosomes: Large-scale production, isolation, drug loading efficiency, and biodistribution and uptake

Exosomes from hypoxic urine-derived stem cells facilitate healing of diabetic wound by targeting SERPINE1 through miR-486-5p

Vascular pathologies and injuries are important factors for the delayed wound healing in diabetes. Previous studies have demonstrated that hypoxic environments could induce formation of new blood vessels by regulating intercellular communication and cellular behaviors. In this study, we have enhanced the angiogenic potential of exosomes by subjecting urine-derived stem cells (USCs) to hypoxic preconditioning. To prolong the retention of exosomes at the wound site, we have also engineered a novel dECM hydrogel termed SISMA, which was modified from porcine small intestinal submucosa (SIS). For its rapid and controllable gelation kinetics, excellent biocompatibility, and exosome release capability, the SISMA hydrogel has proven to be a reliable delivery vehicle for exosomes. The hypoxia-induced exosomes-loaded hydrogel has promoted endothelial cell proliferation, migration, and tube formation. More importantly, as evidenced by significant in vivo vascular regeneration in the early stages post-injury, it has facilitated tissue repair. This may because miR-486-5p in H-exo inhibit SERPINE1 activity in endothelial cell. Additionally, miRNA sequencing analysis suggested that the underlying mechanism for enhanced angiogenesis may be associated with the activation of classical HIF-1α signaling pathway. In summary, our study has presented a novel non-invasive, cell-free therapeutic approach for accelerating diabetes wound healing and development of a practical and efficient exosomes delivery platform.

Exosome may be the next generation of promising cell-free vaccines

Traditional vaccines have limits against some persistent infections and pathogens. The development of novel vaccine technologies is particularly critical for the future. Exosomes play an important role in physiological and pathological processes. Exosomes present many advantages, such as inherent capacity being biocompatible, non-toxic, which make them a more desirable candidate for vaccines. However, research on exosomes are in their infancy and the barriers of low yield, low purity, and weak targeting of exosomes limit their applications in vaccines. Accordingly, further exploration is necessary to improve these problems and subsequently facilitate the functional studies of exosomes. In this study, we reviewed the origin, classification, functions, modifications, separation and purification, and characterization methods of exosomes. Meanwhile, we focused on the role and mechanism of exosomes for cancer and COVID-19 vaccines.

Iron Knights with Nanosword Induced Ferroptosis in the Battle Against Oral Carcinoma

Oral squamous cell carcinoma (OSCC) is a tumor characterized by cellular redox imbalance, rendering it particularly sensitive to ferroptosis treatment. However, traditional ferroptosis inducers have a few drawbacks. In this study, ultrasmall AuMn nanoclusters (AMNCs) with a bovine serum albumin (BSA) ligand were synthesized and encapsulated in natural killer (NK) cell-derived exosomes to form an Exo-AMNCs composite for targeted ferroptosis therapy of OSCC. Unlike previously reported alloyed metal nanoclusters, not only do AMNCs react with intracellular H2O2 to produce reactive oxygen species (ROS) and induce ferroptosis but also the BSA ligand improves biocompatibility and water solubility. These properties render AMNCs ideal for fluorescence imaging in vivo. When combined with NK cell exosomes, the Exo-AMNCs composite exhibited strong targeted imaging and therapeutic effects on OSCC. Further investigation into the mechanistic details demonstrated that Exo-AMNCs downregulate the overexpression of fat mass and obesity-associated (FTO) in OSCC and regulate the key ferroptosis-related protein glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4).

Exosomes as a Therapeutic Strategy in Cancer: Potential Roles as Drug Carriers and Immune Modulators

Exosome-based cancer immunotherapy is advancing quickly on the concept of artificially activating the immune system to combat cancer. They can mechanistically change the tumor microenvironment, increase immune responses, and function as efficient drug delivery vehicles because of their inherent bioactivity, low toxicity, and immunogenicity. Accurate identification of the mechanisms of action of exosomes in tumor environments, along with optimization of their isolation, purification, and characterization methods, is necessary to increase clinical applications. Exosomes can be modified through cargo loading and surface modification to enhance their therapeutic applications, either before or after the donor cells' isolation. These engineered exosomes can directly target tumor cells at the tumor site or indirectly activate innate and adaptive immune responses in the tumor microenvironment. This approach is particularly effective when combined with traditional cancer immunotherapy techniques such as vaccines, immune checkpoints, and CAR-T cells. It can improve anti-tumor responses, induce long-term immunity, and address the limitations of traditional therapies, such as poor penetration in solid tumors and immunosuppressive environments. This review aims to provide a comprehensive and detailed overview of the direct role of engineered exosomes as drug delivery systems and their immunomodulatory effects on tumors as an indirect approach to fighting cancer. Additionally, it will discuss novel immunotherapy options.

Advances in nanotechnology-based approaches for the treatment of head and neck squamous cell carcinoma

Head and neck squamous cell carcinoma (HNSCC), one of the most common types of cancers occurring in the head and neck region, is often associated with high mortality rates due to its invasiveness and morbidity. The mainstream treatment methods in clinical settings, including surgery, chemotherapy, and radiotherapy, may cause poor overall survival rate and prognosis, with issues such as drug resistance, damage to adjacent healthy tissues, and potential recurrences. Other treatment approaches such as immunotherapy, photodynamic therapy (PDT), and photothermal therapy (PPT) also suffer from inefficient tumor targeting and suboptimal therapeutic outcomes. Early detection is vital for HNSCC patients, but it is always limited by insensitivity and confusing clinical manifestations. Hence, it is highly desirable to develop optimized therapeutic and diagnostic strategies. With the boom in nanomaterials, nanotechnology-conducted HNSCC therapy has attracted widespread attention. Nanoparticles (NPs) are distinguished by their unique morphology and superior physicochemical property, and some can exhibit direct antitumor activity, while others serve as promising candidates for drug delivery. In addition, NPs offer the potential for structural modification for drug delivery and tumor targeting, enabling specific delivery to tumor cells through conjugation with biomarker ligands and improving cargo biocompatibility. This work reviews current therapies and diagnosis methods for HNSCC, highlights the characteristics of the major NPs, surveys their uses and advantages in the treatment of HNSCC, and discusses the obstacles and prospects in clinical applications, aiming to enlighten future research directions for nanotechnology-based therapy for HNSCC.

Storage of plasma-derived exosomes: evaluation of anticoagulant use and preserving temperatures

Exosomes carry large cargo of proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids, serving as versatile biomarkers for disease diagnosis and vehicles for drug delivery. However, up to date, no well recognized standard procedures for exosome storage were available for clinical application. This study aimed to determine the optimal storage conditions and the anticoagulants for plasma-derived exosome isolation. Fresh whole blood samples were collected from healthy participants and preserved in four different anticoagulants including sodium citrate (SC1/4), sodium citrate (SC1/9), lithium heparin (LH), or Ethylenediamine tetraacetic acid (EDTA), respectively. Exosomes were extracted from the plasma by differential ultracentrifugation and stored at three different temperatures, 4°C, -20°C or - 80°C for a duration ranging from one week to six months. All plasma samples for storage conditions comparison were pretreated with LH anticoagulant. Exosome features including morphological characteristics, pariticles size diameter, and surface protein profiles (TSG101, CD63, CD81, CD9, CALNEXIN) were assessed by transmission electron microscopy, Nanoparticle Tracking Analysis, and Western Blotting, respectively. Exosomes preserved in LH and SC1/4 group tended to remain intact microstructure with highly abundant protein biomarkers. Exosomes stored at 4°C for short time were prone to be more stable compared to thos at -80°C. Exosomes stored in plasma were superior in terms of ultrastructure, size diameter and surface protein expression to those stored in PBS. In conclusion, plasma-dervied exosome characteristics strictly depend on the anticoagulants and storage temperature and duration.

Engineering exosomes from fibroblast growth factor 1 pre-conditioned adipose-derived stem cells promote ischemic skin flaps survival by activating autophagy

Background

The recovery of ischemic skin flaps is a major concern in clinical settings. The purpose of this study is to evaluate the effects of engineered exosomes derived from FGF1 pre-conditioned adipose-derived stem cells (FEXO) on ischemic skin flaps.

Method

6 patients who suffered from pressure ulcer at stage 4 and underwent skin flaps surgery were recruited in this study to screen the potential targets of ischemic skin flaps in FGF family. FGF1 was co-incubated with adipose stem cells, and ultracentrifugation was applied to extract FEXO. Transcriptome sequencing analysis was used to determine the most effective microRNA in FEXO. Animal skin flaps models were established in our study to verify the effects of FEXO. Immunofluorescence (IF), western blotting (WB) and other molecular strategy were used to evaluate the effects and mechanism of FEXO.

Results

FGF1 was expected to be the therapeutic and diagnostic target of ischemic skin flaps, but there is still some deficiency in rescuing skin flaps. FEXO significantly improved the viability of RPSFs and endothelial cells by inhibiting oxidative stress and alleviating apoptosis and pyroptosis through augmenting autophagy flux. In addition, FEXO inhibited the over-activated inflammation responses. Transcriptome sequencing analysis showed that miR-183-5p was significantly elevated in FEXO, and inhibiting miR-183-5p resulted in impaired protective effects of autophagy in skin flaps. The exosomal miR-183-5p markedly enhanced cell viability, inhibited oxidative stress and alleviated apoptosis and pyroptosis in endothelial cells by targeting GPR137 through Pi3k/Akt/mTOR pathway, indicating that GPR137 could also be a therapeutic target of ischemic skin flap. It was also notabale that FGF1 increased the number of exosomes by upregulating VAMP3, which may be a promising strategy for clinical translation.

Conclusion

FEXO markedly improved the survivial rate of ischemic skin flaps through miR-183-5p/GPR137/Pi3k/Akt/mTOR axis, which would be a promising strategy to rescue ischemic skin flaps.

Efficient, High-Quality Engineering of Therapeutic Extracellular Vesicles on an Integrated Nanoplatform

Engineered extracellular vesicles (EVs) have been recognized as important therapeutics for gene and cell therapy. To achieve clinically desired therapy, technologies for EV engineering have high demands on the efficacy in producing EVs and their qualities, which, however, remain challenging to conventional routes due to their limited control on therapeutic payload delivery, EV secretion, and extracellular microenvironments. Here, we report a nanoplatform (denoted as PURE) that enables efficient electro-transfection while stimulating cells to produce high-quality EVs carrying functional RNAs. PURE further employs an ammonium removal zone to maintain the physiological conditions of the extracellular microenvironment and an EV uptake zone that efficiently (87.1%) captures EVs in situ with porous hydrogels. The platform achieved about a 12-fold higher yield of engineered EVs and a 146-fold abundance of desired therapeutics compared to those naturally secreted from cells. The PURE-engineered miR-130a-EVs were validated for effectively upregulating the mTOR signaling pathway in both in vitro and in vivo. Their therapeutic capability was then verified by enhancing the in vitro activation of primordial follicles. In vivo applications further highlighted the therapeutic effects of miR-130a-EVs in restoring ovary function in aged mice. The PURE platform represents a strategy for the clinical translation of EV-mediated therapy.

Mechanical Extrusion of the Plasma Membrane to Generate Ectosome-Mimetic Nanovesicles for Lung Targeting

Extracellular vehicles (EVs) are naturally occurring nanocarriers that participate in the transportation of biologics between cells. Despite their potential in drug delivery, their optimal use in therapy remains a challenge, which comes from the difficulty in preparation scale-up and cargo loading efficiency. As a membrane-enclosed nanoscale system, EVs are reluctant to be transfected with cargos and purified by conventional methods. In the present study, we proposed an EV-mimetic nanovesicle system to overcome the challenges. Using the easy-culture mammalian cells as raw materials, we isolated the plasma membrane sheets and vesiculated them into membrane-enclosed nanovesicles as an EV mimic by the mechanical extrusion through porous membranes. In order to controllably load the cargos in the lumen of vesicles, the endogenous actin filament was chosen as an anchor to capture the cargos (fused with an anti-actin nanobody) in the inner leaflet of plasma membrane sheets and vesiculated inside after extrusion. By loading the bioluminescent tracer nano-luciferase (Nluc) and tracking biodistribution in mice, we unclosed the lung-tropic nature of these nanovesicles. Furthermore, we demonstrated that nanovesicles can be genetically engineered with chimeric antigen receptors to achieve the active targeting of lung cancer cells. In conclusion, our study indicated that plasma membrane extrusion might be an applicable approach to generate EV mimics for drug delivery, especially to the lung tissue.

Extracellular Vesicles in Idiopathic Pulmonary Fibrosis: Pathogenesis, Biomarkers and Innovative Therapeutic Strategies

Idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis (IPF) is a chronic, progressive, and irreversible interstitial lung disease caused by aberrant deposition of extracellular matrix in the lungs with significant morbidity and mortality. The therapeutic choices for IPF remain limited. Extracellular vesicles (EVs), as messengers for intercellular communication, are cell-secreted lipid bilayer nanoscale particles found in body fluids, and regulate the epithelial phenotype and profibrotic signaling pathways by transporting bioactive cargo to recipients in the pathogenesis of IPF. Furthermore, an increasing number of studies suggests that EVs derived from stem cells can be employed as a cell-free therapeutic approach for IPF, given their intrinsic tissue-homing capabilities and regeneration characteristics. This review highlights new sights of EVs in the pathogenesis of IPF, their potential as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers, and prospects as novel drug delivery systems and next-generation therapeutics against IPF. Notably, bringing engineering strategies to EVs holds great promise for enhancing the therapeutic effect of anti-pulmonary fibrosis and promoting clinical transformation.

Mesenchymal stem cells and their exosomes mitigate osteoarthritis by restoring the balance between proinflammatory Teffs and Tregs

Osteoarthritis (OA) is a degenerative joint disease caused by chronic inflammation that damages articular cartilage. In addition to the wear and tear of joints, aberrant remodelling driven by a significant presence of inflammatory mediators within the joint is one of the key mechanisms in the pathogenesis of OA. Among these factors, hyperactivation of Teffs subsets plays a crucial role in promoting this pathological process. The immune imbalance between proinflammatory CD4+ effector T cells (proinflammatory Teffs) and Tregs could be a crucial factor in the pathogenesis of OA. Therefore, correcting the imbalance of Tregs/proinflammatory Teffs may slow or inhibit the occurrence and development of OA, which could be a potential target for the treatment of OA. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) possess anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory properties, regulating both adaptive and innate immunity through mechanisms involving soluble factors such as IDO, PGE2, and TGF-β, as well as cell-to-cell contact and exosomes. Correcting the imbalance between Tregs and proinflammatory Teffs may be one of the mechanisms of MSCs in the treatment of OA. Therefore, this review aims to summarize the relationship between OA and the immune imbalance between Tregs and proinflammatory Teffs, the immunoregulatory role of Tregs in OA, and the role of MSCs and their exosomes in correcting the imbalance between Tregs and proinflammatory Teffs.

Exosomes to exosome-functionalized scaffolds: a novel approach to stimulate bone regeneration

Bone regeneration is a complex biological process that relies on the orchestrated interplay of various cellular and molecular events. Bone tissue engineering is currently the most promising method for treating bone regeneration. However, the immunogenicity, stable and cell quantity of seed cells limited their application. Recently, exosomes, which are small extracellular vesicles released by cells, have been found to effectively address these problems and better induce bone regeneration. Meanwhile, a growing line of research has shown the cargos of exosomes may provide effective therapeutic and biomarker tools for bone repair, including miRNA, lncRNA, and proteins. Moreover, engineered scaffolds loaded with exosomes can offer a cell-free bone repair strategy, addressing immunogenicity concerns and providing a more stable functional performance. Herein, we provide a comprehensive summary of the role played by scaffolds loaded with exosomes in bone regeneration, drawing on a systematic analysis of relevant literature available on PubMed, Scopus, and Google Scholar database.

Organoids and organoid extracellular vesicles-based disease treatment strategies

Organoids are "mini-organs" that self-organize and differentiate from stem cells under in vitro 3D culture conditions, mimicking the spatial structure and function of tissues in vivo. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale phospholipid bilayer vesicles secreted by living cells, rich in bioactive molecules, with excellent biocompatibility and low immunogenicity. Compared to EVs, organoid-derived EVs (OEVs) exhibit higher yield and enhanced biological functions. Organoids possess stem cell characteristics, and OEVs are capable of delivering active substances, making both highly promising for medical applications. In this review, we provide an overview of the fundamental biological principles of organoids and OEVs, and discuss their current applications in disease treatment. We then focus on the differences between OEVs and traditional EVs. Subsequently, we present methods for the engineering modification of OEVs. Finally, we critically summarize the advantages and challenges of organoids and OEVs. In conclusion, we believe that a deeper understanding of organoids and OEVs will provide innovative solutions to complex diseases.

Dexmedetomidine regulates exosomal miR-29b-3p from macrophages and alleviates septic myocardial injury by promoting autophagy in cardiomyocytes via targeting glycogen synthase kinase 3β

Background

Our previous research suggested that dexmedetomidine (Dex) promotes autophagy in cardiomyocytes, thus safeguarding them against apoptosis during sepsis. However, the underlying mechanisms of Dex-regulated autophagy have remained elusive. This study aimed to explore the role of exosomes and how they participate in Dex-induced cardioprotection in sepsis. The underlying microRNA (miRNA) mechanisms and possible therapeutic targets for septic myocardial injury were identified.

Methods

We first collected plasma exosomes from rats with sepsis induced by caecal ligation and puncture (CLP) with or without Dex treatment, and then incubated them with H9c2 cells to observe the effect on cardiomyocytes. Subsequently, the differential expression of miRNAs in plasma exosomes from each group of rats was identified through miRNA sequencing. miR-29b-3p expression in circulating exosomes of septic or non-septic patients, as well as in lipopolysaccharide-induced macrophages after Dex treatment, was analysed by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The autophagy level of cardiomyocytes after macrophage-derived exosome treatment was assessed by an exosome tracing assay, western blotting, and an autophagic flux assay. Specific miRNA mimics and inhibitors or small interfering RNAs were used to predict and evaluate the function of candidate miRNA and its target genes by qRT-PCR, annexin V/propyl iodide staining, autophagy flux analysis, and western blotting.

Results

We found that plasma-derived exosomes from Dex-treated rats promoted cardiomyocyte autophagy and exerted antiapoptotic effects. Additionally, they exhibited a high expression of miRNA, including miR-29b-3p. Conversely, a significant decrease in miR-29b-3p was observed in circulating exosomes from CLP rats, as well as in plasma exosomes from sepsis patients. Furthermore, Dex upregulated the lipopolysaccharide-induced decrease in miR-29b-3p expression in macrophage-derived exosomes. Exosomal miR-29b-3p from macrophages is thought to be transferred to cardiomyocytes, thus leading to the promotion of autophagy in cardiomyocytes. Database predictions, luciferase reporter assays, and small interfering RNA intervention confirmed that glycogen synthase kinase 3β (GSK-3β) is a target of miR-29b-3p. miR-29b-3p promotes cardiomyocyte autophagy by inhibiting GSK-3β expression and activation.

Conclusions

These findings demonstrate that Dex attenuates sepsis-associated myocardial injury by modulating exosome-mediated macrophage-cardiomyocyte crosstalk and that the miR-29b-3p/GSK-3β signaling pathway represents a hopeful target for the treatment of septic myocardial injury.

Engineered melatonin-pretreated plasma exosomes repair traumatic spinal cord injury by regulating miR-138-5p/SOX4 axis mediated microglia polarization

Background

Neuroinflammation plays a crucial role in the repair of spinal cord injury (SCI), with microglia, pivotal in neuroinflammation, driving either degeneration or recovery in this pathological process. Recently, plasma-derived exosomes (denoted Exos) have presented a high capacity for promoting functional recovery of SCI through the anti-inflammatory effects, and pretreated exosomes are associated with better outcomes. Thus, we aimed to explore whether melatonin-pretreated plasma-derived exosomes (denoted MExo) could exert superior effects on SCI, and attempted to elucidate the potential mechanisms.

Methods

Electron microscopy, nanoparticle tracking analysis, and western blot were applied to delineate the distinctions between Exos and MExos. To assess their therapeutic potentials, we established a contusion SCI rat model, complemented by a battery of in vitro experiments comparing both groups. Subsequently, a miRNA microarray analysis was conducted, followed by a series of rescue experiments to elucidate the specific role of miRNAs in MExos. To further delve into the molecular mechanisms involved, we employed western blot analysis and the luciferase reporter gene assay.

Results

Melatonin promoted the release of exosome from plasma, concurrently amplifying their anti-inflammatory properties. Furthermore, it was discerned that MExos facilitated a transition in microglia polarization from M1 to M2 phenotype, a phenomenon more pronounced than that observed with Exos. In an endeavor to elucidate this variance, we scrutinized miRNAs exhibiting elevated expression levels in MExos, pinpointing miR-138-5p as a pivotal element in this dynamic. Following this, an in-depth investigation into the role of miR-138-5p was undertaken, which uncovered its efficacy in driving phenotypic alterations within microglia. The analysis of downstream genes targeted by miR-138-5p revealed that it exerted a negative regulatory influence on SOX4, which was found to obstruct the generation of M2-type microglia and the secretion of anti-inflammatory cytokines, thereby partially elucidating the mechanism behind miR-138-5p's regulation of microglia polarization.

Conclusions

We innovatively observed that melatonin enhanced the anti-inflammatory function of Exos, which further decreased the expression of SOX4 by delivering miR-138-5p. This inhibition promoted the conversion of M1 microglia to M2 microglia, thus offering a viable option for the treatment of SCI.

The translational potential of this article

This study highlights that melatonin enhances the anti-inflammatory function of Exos through delivery of miR-138-5p. Activation of miR-138-5p/SOX4 axis by engineered melatonin-pretreated plasma exosomes may be a potential target for SCI treatment.

Engineered nanovesicles mediated cardiomyocyte survival and neovascularization for the therapy of myocardial infarction

Myocardial infarction (MI) leads to substantial cellular necrosis as a consequence of reduced blood flow and oxygen deprivation. Stimulating cardiomyocyte proliferation and angiogenesis can promote functional recovery after cardiac events. In this study, we explored a novel therapeutic strategy for MI by synthesizing a biomimetic nanovesicle (NV). This biomimetic NVs are composed of exosomes sourced from umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells, which have been loaded with placental growth factors (PLGF) and surface-engineered with a cardiac-targeting peptide (CHP) through covalent bonding, termed Exo-P-C NVs. With the help of the myocardial targeting effect of homing peptides, NVs can be enriched in the MI site, thus improve cardiac regeneration, reduce fibrosis, stimulate cardiomyocyte proliferation, and promote angiogenesis, ultimately resulted in improved cardiac functional recovery. It was demonstrated that Exo-P-C NVs have the potential to offer novel therapeutic strategies for the improvement of cardiac function and management of myocardial infarction.

Bioinspired nanovesicles derived from macrophage accelerate wound healing by promoting angiogenesis and collagen deposition

Macrophages play a crucial role in the process of wound healing. In order to effectively inhibit excessive inflammation and facilitate skin wound healing, it is necessary to transform overactive M1 macrophages in injured tissues into the M2 type. In this study, we have successfully generated bioinspired nanovesicles (referred to as M2BNVs) from M2 type macrophages. These nanovesicles not only possess physical and biological properties that closely resemble exosomes, but also offer a simpler preparation process and more abundant yield. Owing to their distinctive endogenous cargo, M2BNVs have the ability to re-educate M1 macrophages, shifting their phenotype towards the M2 type which is known to promote healing and possess anti-inflammatory properties. Consequently, M2BNVs effectively improve the prevailing pro-inflammatory microenvironment within the wound. Furthermore, M2BNVs also facilitate wound tissue regeneration and angiogenesis. Collectively, our findings demonstrate the potential of M2BNVs in promoting wound healing in mice.

Identification of exosomal ceRNA networks as prognostic markers in clear cell renal cell carcinoma

Aggressive clear cell renal cell carcinoma (ccRCC) has a bad prognosis. We seek new ccRCC biomarkers for diagnosis and treatment. We used exoRBase and The Cancer Genome Atlas Database to compare DEmRNAs, DEmiRNAs, DElncRNAs, and DEcircRNAs in ccRCC and normal renal tissues. CircRNAs and circRNAs targeting microRNAs (miRNAs) were anticipated and taken intersections, and several databases assessed the targeted link between common miRNAs and messenger RNAs (mRNAs). The Cancer Genome Atlas database was used to create a predictive mRNA signature that was validated in E-MTAB-1980. Finally, we examined competing endogenous RNA network miRNAs and long noncoding RNAs for ccRCC predictive biomarkers using overall survival analysis. We built the first competing endogenous RNA regulation network of circRNA-lncRNA-miRNA-mRNA and found that it substantially correlates with ccRCC prognosis. We unveiled ccRCC's posttranscriptional regulation mechanism in greater detail. Our findings identified novel biomarkers for ccRCC diagnosis, therapy, and prognosis.

Research Progress on Peptide Drugs for Type 2 Diabetes and the Possibility of Oral Administration

Diabetes is a global disease that can lead to a range of complications. Currently, the treatment of type 2 diabetes focuses on oral hypoglycemic drugs and insulin analogues. Studies have shown that drugs such as oral metformin are useful in the treatment of diabetes but can limit the liver's ability to release sugar. The development of glucose-lowering peptides has provided new options for the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Peptide drugs have low oral utilization due to their easy degradation, short half-life, and difficulty passing through the intestinal mucosa. Therefore, improving the oral utilization of peptide drugs remains an urgent problem. This paper reviews the research progress of peptide drugs in the treatment of diabetes mellitus and proposes that different types of nano-formulation carriers, such as liposomes, self-emulsifying drug delivery systems, and polymer particles, should be combined with peptide drugs for oral administration to improve their absorption in the gastrointestinal tract.

Serum extracellular vesicles 3'tRF-ThrCGTand 3'tRF-mtlleGAT combined with tumor markers can serve as minimally invasive diagnostic predictors for colorectal cancer

Background

Colorectal cancer (CRC) is a leading cause of morbidity and mortality, and timely diagnosis and intervention are crucial for cancer patients. Transfer RNA-derived fragments (tRFs) play a noncoding regulatory role in organisms. Serum EV(extracellular vesicles), as an integral mediator of intercellular transmission of genetic information vesicles in Transfer RNA-derived fragment (tRF RNA), are expected to be minimally invasive diagnostic and predictive biologic factors of CRC.

Methods

Collect serum samples from 205 CRC patients, and then isolate extracellular vesicles from the serum. Captured the physical morphology of EV through transmission electron microscopy. The particle size was detected by particle size assay, and protein expression on the surface of EV was verified by Western blot. Gene microarrays were screened for differentially expressed tRF-RNA. TRF RNAs were verified by qPCR for differential expression in 205 CRC patients and 201 healthy donors, assessing the CRC diagnostic efficiency by area under the curve (AUC).

Results

Compared with 201 healthy donors, CRC patients experienced significantly down-regulated serum EV 3'tRF-ThrCGT while significantly up-regulated 3'tRF-mtlleGAT. Serum EV 3'tRF-ThrCGT and 3'tRF-mtlleGAT predictive diagnostic efficiency: 0.669 and 0.656, and the combination of CEA and CA724 predictive diagnostic efficiency was 0.938.

Conclusion

The study data showed that 3'tRF-ThrCGT and 3'tRF-mtlelGAT can be minimally invasive diagnostic CRC indicators. The combination of tumor markers CEA and CA724 has important diagnostic significance.

Neoantigen sequestrated autophagosomes as therapeutic cancer vaccines

Neoantigens serve as ideal personalized cancer vaccines because of their high immunogenicity, ability to evade central thymic tolerance, and minimal risk of eliciting autoimmune responses. Herein, we describe a genetically engineered autophagosome-based neoantigen vaccine (APNV) in combination with an immune checkpoint inhibitor (anti-PD-1 antibody) for cancer immunotherapy. The APNV was derived from engineered NIH 3T3 cells, which co-express melanoma neoantigens and autophagosome maker microtubule-associated proteins 1 A/1B light chain 3B (LC3), from which the LC3-labeled neoantigen-autophagosomes were isolated. These purified autophagosomes, in conjunction with vaccine adjuvants high-mobility group box 1 (HMGB1) and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF), were integrated into a hydrogel to create an APNV. The APNV effectively activated dendritic cells both in vitro and in vivo. Moreover, APNV, in combination with checkpoint blockade therapy, significantly hampered post-surgical tumor recurrence in a subcutaneous melanoma tumor model and effectively impeded metastatic progression in a melanoma lung metastasis model. This APNV may be conducive to making personalized therapeutic neoantigen vaccines for cancer immunotherapy.

Hypoxic glioma-derived exosomal miR-25-3p promotes macrophage M2 polarization by activating the PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway

BACKGROUND

Exosomes (EXO) play crucial roles in intercellular communication and glioma microenvironment modulation. Tumor-associated macrophages are more likely to become M2-like type macrophages in the immunosuppressive microenvironment. Here, we aimed to investigate the effects and molecular mechanisms of hypoxic glioma-derived exosomes mediated M2-like macrophage polarization.

METHODS

Highly expressed miRNAs in exosomes derived from glioma cells cultured under hypoxia condition compared to normoxic condition were identified through microRNA sequencing. The polarization status of macrophages was determined using qRT-PCR, Western blotting, flow cytometry, and immunohistochemistry. By using RNA-seq, we aimed to identify the downstream target genes regulated by miR-25-3p in macrophages and investigate the mechanistic pathways through which it exerts its effects. The proliferation and migration capabilities of glioma cells were assessed through EdU, Transwell assays, and in vivo experiments.

RESULTS

We found that miR-25-3p was upregulated in the exosomes derived from hypoxic glioma cells and can be transferred to the macrophage. In macrophages, miR-25-3p downregulates the expression of PHLPP2, thereby activating the PI3K-AKT-mTOR signaling pathway, ultimately leading to macrophage M2 polarization. As part of a feedback loop, M2-polarized macrophages can, in turn, promote malignant glioma progression.

CONCLUSION

Our study reveals that miR-25-3p from hypoxic glioma cells is delivered to macrophages via exosomes as a mediator, promoting M2 polarization of macrophages through the miR-25-3p/PHLPP2/PI3K-AKT signaling pathway. This study suggests that targeted interventions to modulate miR-25-3p expression, transmission, or inhibition of PI3K-AKT pathway activation can disrupt the immune-suppressive microenvironment, providing a novel approach for immunotherapy in gliomas.

Exosomal PDL1 Suppresses the Anticancer Activity of CD8+ T Cells in Hepatocellular Carcinoma

Tumor microenvironment (TME) is essential for the development and progression of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). Exosomes participate in constructing TME by passing biological information, but the regulatory effect of PDL1 in exosomes on anticancer activity of CD8+ T cells in HCC still needs to be further explored. In this study, high level of PDL1 was found in plasma exosomes of HCC patients, which turned out to be significantly associated with the increased number of tumor nodules, the upregulated level of serum AFP, the raised tendency of TNM stage, and the poor prognosis of HCC. The expression of CD8 may be inhibited in HCC that is characterized with high level of PDL1, and the protein level of exosomal PDL1 was determined by intracellular PDL1 abundance. High level of exosomal PDL1 inhibited the proliferation and activation of CD8+ T cells, but exhibited limited effect on the proliferation of hepatic cancer cells. Moreover, the growth of tumors formed by hepatic cancer cells Hepa1-6 in C57L mice was significantly promoted by the exosomal PDL1, which might be caused by the inhibitory effect of exosomal PDL1 on CD8+ T cells. Thus, exosomal PDL1 promotes the development and progression of HCC through inhibiting the anticancer activity of CD8+ T cells. This study provides sights for understanding the oncogenic role of PDL1 and a reasonable explanation for the low efficacy of anti-PD1/PDL1 immunotherapies in HCC.

Exosomes derived from mesenchymal stem cells containing berberine for ulcerative colitis therapy

Berberine (Ber), an isoquinoline alkaloid, is a potential drug therapy for ulcerative colitis (UC) because of its anti-inflammatory activity, high biological safety, and few side effects. Nevertheless, its clinical application is hindered by its limited water solubility and low bioavailability. Currently, compared to synthetic nanocarriers, exosomes as carriers possess advantages such as low toxicity, high stability, and high specificity. Human placental mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes (HplMSC-Exos) have emerged as a promising drug delivery system, offering intrinsic anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities. Therefore, we engineered MSC-Exos loaded with Ber (Exos-Ber) to enhance the solubility and bioavailability of Ber and for colon targeting, revealing a novel approach for treating UC with natural compounds. Structurally and functionally, Exos-Ber closely resembled unmodified Exos. Both in vitro and in vivo investigations confirmed the antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties of Exos-Ber. Notably, Exos-Ber exhibited reparative effects on injured epithelial cells and reduced cellular apoptosis. Furthermore, Exos-Ber concurrently demonstrated anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activities, contributing to the mitigation of UC, possibly through its modulation of the MAPK signaling pathway. Overall, our findings demonstrate the potential of Exos-Ber as a promising therapeutic option for alleviating UC, highlighting its capacity to enhance the clinical applicability of Ber.

The potential of exosomes as a new therapeutic strategy for glioblastoma

Glioblastoma (GBM) stands for the most common and aggressive type of brain tumour in adults. It is highly invasive, which explains its short rate of survival. Little is known about its risk factors, and current therapy is still ineffective. Hence, efforts are underway to develop novel and effective treatment approaches against this type of cancer. Exosomes are being explored as a promising strategy for conveying and delivering therapeutic cargo to GBM cells. They can fuse with the GBM cell membrane and, consequently, serve as delivery systems in this context. Due to their nanoscale size, exosomes can cross the blood-brain barrier (BBB), which constitutes a significant hurdle to most chemotherapeutic drugs used against GBM. They can subsequently inhibit oncogenes, activate tumour suppressor genes, induce immune responses, and control cell growth. However, despite representing a promising tool for the treatment of GBM, further research and clinical studies regarding exosome biology, engineering, and clinical applications still need to be completed. Here, we sought to review the application of exosomes in the treatment of GBM through an in-depth analysis of the scientific and clinical studies on the entire process, from the isolation and purification of exosomes to their design and transformation into anti-oncogenic drug delivery systems. Surface modification of exosomes to enhance BBB penetration and GBM-cell targeting is also a topic of discussion.

Exosomes derived from periodontitis induce hepatic steatosis through the SCD-1/AMPK signaling pathway

AIM

To investigate the impact of exosomes released by Porphyromonas gingivalis-Lipopolysaccharide activated THP-1 macrophages and human periodontal ligament fibroblasts on hepatocyte fat metabolism.

RESULTS

The liver of rats with experimental periodontitis showed obvious steatosis and inflammation compared with control rats. The culture supernatant of macrophages and human periodontal ligament fibroblasts (hPDLFs), when stimulated with Pg-LPS, induced lipogenesis in HepG2 cells. Furthermore, the lipid-promoting effect was effectively inhibited by the addition of the exosome inhibitor GW4869. Subsequently, we isolated exosomes from cells associated with periodontitis. Exosomes released by Pg-LPS-stimulated macrophages and hPDLFs are taken up by hepatocytes, causing mRNA expression related to fat synthesis, promoting triglyceride synthesis, and aggravating NAFLD progression. Finally, two sets of exosomes were injected into mice through the tail vein. In vivo experiments have also demonstrated that periodontitis-associated exosomes promote the development of hepatic injury and steatosis, upregulate SCD-1 expression and inhibit the AMPK signaling pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

In conclusion, we found that exosomes associated with periodontitis promote hepatocyte adipogenesis by increasing the expression of SCD-1 and suppressing the AMPK pathway, which indicates that close monitoring of the progression of stomatopathy associated extra-oral disorders is important and establishes a theoretical foundation for the prevention and management of fatty liver disease linked to periodontitis.

Basic Guide for Approaching Drug Delivery with Extracellular Vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are natural carriers of biomolecules that play a crucial role in cell-to-cell communication and tissue homeostasis under normal and pathological conditions, including inflammatory diseases and cancer. Since the discovery of the pro-regenerative and immune-modulating properties of EVs, EV-based therapeutics have entered clinical trials for conditions such as myocardial infarction and autoimmune diseases, among others. Due to their unique advantages-such as superior bioavailability, substantial packaging capacity, and the ability to traverse biological barriers-EVs are regarded as a promising platform for targeted drug delivery. However, achieving a sufficient accumulation of therapeutic agents at the target site necessitates a larger quantity of EVs per dose compared to using EVs as standalone drugs. This challenge can be addressed by administering larger doses of EVs, increasing the drug dosage per administration, or enhancing the selective accumulation of EVs at target cells. In this review, we will discuss methods to improve the isolation and purification of EVs, approaches to enhance cargo packaging-including proteins, RNAs, and small-molecule drugs-and technologies for displaying targeting ligands on the surface of EVs to facilitate improved targeting. Ultimately, this guide can be applied to the development of novel classes of EV-based therapeutics and to overcoming existing technological challenges.

Extracellular Vesicles Comprising Carborane Prepared by a Host Exchanging Reaction as a Boron Carrier for Boron Neutron Capture Therapy

With their low immunogenicity and excellent deliverability, extracellular vesicles (EVs) are promising platforms for drug delivery systems. In this study, hydrophobic molecule loading techniques were developed via an exchange reaction based on supramolecular chemistry without using organic solvents that can induce EV disruption and harmful side effects. To demonstrate the availability of an exchanging reaction to prepare drug-loading EVs, hydrophobic boron cluster carborane (CB) was introduced to EVs (CB@EVs), which is expected as a boron agent for boron neutron capture therapy (BNCT). The exchange reaction enabled the encapsulation of CB to EVs without disrupting their structure and forming aggregates. Single-particle analysis revealed that an exchanging reaction can uniformly introduce cargo molecules to EVs, which is advantageous in formulating pharmaceuticals. The performance of CB@EVs as boron agents for BNCT was demonstrated in vitro and in vivo. Compared to L-BPA, a clinically available boron agent, and CB delivered with liposomes, CB@EV systems exhibited the highest BNCT activity in vitro due to their excellent deliverability of cargo molecules via an endocytosis-independent pathway. The system can deeply penetrate 3D cultured spheroids even in the presence of extracellular matrices. The EV-based system could efficiently accumulate in tumor tissues in tumor xenograft model mice with high selectivity, mainly via the enhanced permeation and retention effect, and the deliverability of cargo molecules to tumor tissues in vivo enhanced the therapeutic benefits of BNCT compared to the L-BPA/fructose complex. All of the features of EVs are also advantageous in establishing anticancer agent delivery platforms.

Exosomes: Key Factors in Ovarian Cancer Peritoneal Metastasis and Drug Resistance

Ovarian cancer remains a leading cause of death among gynecological cancers, largely due to its propensity for peritoneal metastasis and the development of drug resistance. This review concentrates on the molecular underpinnings of these two critical challenges. We delve into the role of exosomes, the nano-sized vesicles integral to cellular communication, in orchestrating the complex interactions within the tumor microenvironment that facilitate metastatic spread and thwart therapeutic efforts. Specifically, we explore how exosomes drive peritoneal metastasis by promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition in peritoneal mesothelial cells, altering the extracellular matrix, and supporting angiogenesis, which collectively enable the dissemination of cancer cells across the peritoneal cavity. Furthermore, we dissect the mechanisms by which exosomes contribute to the emergence of drug resistance, including the sequestration and expulsion of chemotherapeutic agents, the horizontal transfer of drug resistance genes, and the modulation of critical DNA repair and apoptotic pathways. By shedding light on these exosome-mediated processes, we underscore the potential of exosomal pathways as novel therapeutic targets, offering hope for more effective interventions against ovarian cancer's relentless progression.

Microchip Based Isolation and Drug Delivery of Patient-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Against Their Homologous Tumor

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have demonstrated significant potential in drug delivery and anti-tumor therapy. Despite this promising strategy, challenges such as specific targeting, EVs purification persist. In this study, a personalized nanodrug delivery platform using patient-derived tumor EVs (PT-EVs) based on a microchip is presented. The microchip integrates multiple functions, including capture, enrichment, drug loading, and elution of PT-EVs. The isolation and drug-carrying procedures are completed within a 12 h timeframe, achieving a recovery rate of 65%, significantly surpassing the conventional ultracentrifuge (UC) method. Furthermore, PT-EVs derived from patient tumor models are first utilized as natural drug carriers, capitalizing on their inherent homing ability to precisely target homologous tumors. Lenvatinib and doxorubicin (DOX), two commonly utilized drugs in the clinical treatment of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC), are loaded into PT-EVs and delivered to a matched in vitro tumor model that recapitulates original tumors for drug susceptibility testing. As is proven, PT-EVs exhibit robust tumor cell targeting and efficient receptor-mediated cellular uptake, and the efficacy of chemotherapeutic drugs is improved significantly. These results suggest that this platform could be a valuable tool for efficient isolation of PT-EVs and personalized drug customization, particularly when working with limited clinical samples, thus supporting personalized and precision medicine.

Extracellular vesicles as carriers for mitochondria: Biological functions and clinical applications

In recent years, research has increasingly focused on the biogenesis of extracellular vesicles (EVs) and the sorting mechanisms for their contents. Mitochondria can be selectively loaded into EVs, serving as a way to maintain cellular mitochondrial homeostasis. EV-mediated mitochondrial transfer has also been shown to greatly impact the function of target cells. Based on the mechanism of EV-mediated mitochondrial transfer, therapies can be developed to treat human diseases. This review summarizes the recent advances in the biogenesis and molecular composition of EVs. It also highlights the sorting and trafficking mechanisms of mitochondrial components into EVs. Furthermore, it explores the current role of EV-mediated mitochondrial transfer in the development of human diseases, as well as its diagnostic and therapeutic applications.

M2 Microglia-derived Exosomes Promote Spinal Cord Injury Recovery in Mice by Alleviating A1 Astrocyte Activation

M2 microglia transplantation has previously demonstrated beneficial effects on spinal cord injury (SCI) by regulating neuroinflammation and enhancing neuronal survival. Exosomes (EXOs), secreted by almost all cell types, embody partial functions and properties of their parent cells. However, the effect of M2 microglia-derived EXOs (M2-EXOs) on SCI recovery and the underlying molecular mechanisms remain unclear. In this study, we isolated M2-EXOs and intravenously introduced them into mice with SCI. Considering the reciprocal communication between microglia and astroglia in both healthy and injured central nervous systems (CNSs), we subsequently focused on the influence of M2-EXOs on astrocyte phenotype regulation. Our findings indicated that M2-EXOs promoted neuron survival and axon preservation, reduced the lesion area, inhibited A1 astrocyte activation, and improved motor function recovery in SCI mice. Moreover, they inhibited the nuclear translocation of p65 and the activation of the NF-κB signalling pathway in A1 astrocytes. Therefore, our research suggests that M2-EXOs mitigate the activation of neurotoxic A1 astrocytes by inhibiting the NF-κB signalling pathway, thereby improving spinal tissue preservation and motor function recovery following SCI. This positions M2-EXOs as a promising therapeutic strategy for SCI.

The Role of Extracellular Vesicles in the Treatment of Prostate Cancer

Prostate cancer (PCa) has become a public health concern in elderly men due to an ever-increasing number of estimated cases. Unfortunately, the available treatments are unsatisfactory because of a lack of a durable response, especially in advanced disease states. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are lipid-bilayer encircled nanoscale vesicles that carry numerous biomolecules (e.g., nucleic acids, proteins, and lipids), mediating the transfer of information. The past decade has witnessed a wide range of EV applications in both diagnostics and therapeutics. First, EV-based non-invasive liquid biopsies provide biomarkers in various clinical scenarios to guide treatment; EVs can facilitate the grading and staging of patients for appropriate treatment selection. Second, EVs play a pivotal role in pathophysiological processes via intercellular communication. Targeting key molecules involved in EV-mediated tumor progression (e.g., proliferation, angiogenesis, metastasis, immune escape, and drug resistance) is a potential approach for curbing PCa. Third, EVs are promising drug carriers. Naïve EVs from various sources and engineered EV-based drug delivery systems have paved the way for the development of new treatment modalities. This review discusses the recent advancements in the application of EV therapies and highlights EV-based functional materials as novel interventions for PCa.

Optimizing Conditions of Polyethylene Glycol Precipitation for Exosomes Isolation From MSCs Culture Media for Regenerative Treatment

Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived exosomes, as a cell-free alternative to MSCs, offer enhanced safety and significant potential in regenerative medicine. However, isolating these exosomes poses a challenge, complicating their broader application. Commonly used methods like ultracentrifugation (UC) and tangential flow filtration are often impractical due to the requirement for costly instruments and ultrafiltration membranes. Additionally, the high cost of commercial kits limits their use in processing large sample volumes. Polyethylene glycol (PEG) precipitation offers a more convenient and cost-effective alternative, but there is a critical need for optimized and standardized isolation protocols using PEG precipitation across different cell types and fluids to ensure consistent quality and yield. In this work, we optimized the PEG precipitation method for exosomes isolation and compared its effectiveness to two commonly used methods: UC and commercial exosome isolation kits (ExoQuick). The recovery rate of the optimized PEG method (about 61.74%) was comparable to that of the commercial ExoQuick kit (about 62.19%), which was significantly higher than UC (about 45.80%). Exosome cargo analysis validated no significant differences in miRNA and protein profiles associated with the proliferation and migration of exosomes isolated by UC and PEG precipitation, which was confirmed by gap closure and CCK8 assays. These findings suggest that PEG-based exosomes isolation could be a highly efficient and high-quality method and may facilitate the development of exosome-based therapies for regenerative medicine.

Current knowledge of hybrid nanoplatforms composed of exosomes and organic/inorganic nanoparticles for disease treatment and cell/tissue imaging

Exosome-nanoparticle hybrid nanoplatforms, can be prepared by combining exosomes with different types of nanoparticles. The main purpose of combining exosomes with nanoparticles is to overcome the limitations of using each of them as drug delivery systems. Using nanoparticles for drug delivery has some limitations, such as high immunogenicity, poor cellular uptake, low biocompatibility, cytotoxicity, low stability, and rapid clearance by immune cells. However, using exosomes as drug delivery systems also has its own drawbacks, such as poor encapsulation efficiency, low production yield, and the inability to load large molecules. These limitations can be addressed by utilizing hybrid nanoplatforms. Additionally, the use of exosomes allows for targeted delivery within the hybrid system. Exosome-inorganic/organic hybrid nanoparticles may be used for both therapy and diagnosis in the future. This may lead to the development of personalized medicine using hybrid nanoparticles. However, there are a few challenges associated with this. Surface modifications, adding functional groups, surface charge adjustments, and preparing nanoparticles with the desired size are crucial to the possibility of preparing exosome-nanoparticle hybrids. Additional challenges for the successful implementation of hybrid platforms in medical treatments and diagnostics include scaling up the manufacturing process and ensuring consistent quality and reproducibility across various batches. This review focuses on various types of exosome-nanoparticle hybrid systems and also discusses the preparation and loading methods for these hybrid nanoplatforms. Furthermore, the potential applications of these hybrid nanocarriers in drug/gene delivery, disease treatment and diagnosis, and cell/tissue imaging are explained.

Hybrid hair follicle stem cell extracellular vesicles co-delivering finasteride and gold nanoparticles for androgenetic alopecia treatment

Androgenetic alopecia (AGA) is a non-fatal disease prevalent worldwide. However, mixed efficacy has been observed among different therapies for hair regrowth in AGA patients. Thus, a nano-platform with synergistic treatments based on a hybrid extracellular vesicle encapsulating gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) and finasteride (Hybrid/Au@Fi) was constructed through membrane fusion between hair follicle stem cell (HFSC)-derived extracellular vesicles and liposomes. These hybrid vesicles (HVs) not only fuel hair regrowth by providing cellular signals in extracellular vesicles, but also improve storage stability, follicle retention, and drug encapsulation efficiency (EE%) for finasteride inhibiting 5α-reductase, and nano-size AuNPs that simulate low-level laser therapy (LLLT) with similar photothermal effects in vitro. The EE% of finasteride in these HVs reached 45.33%. The dual administration of these extracellular vesicles and finasteride showed a strong synergistic effect on HFSCs in vitro. In an AGA mouse model, once-daily topical Hybrid/Au@Fi (115.07 ± 0.32 nm, -7.50 ± 1.68 mV) gel led to a faster transition of hair follicles (HFs) from the catagen to the anagen, increased hair regrowth coverage, and higher quality of regrowth hair, compared to once-daily 5% minoxidil treatment. Compared to topical minoxidil, the multifaceted synergistic therapy of Hybrid/Au@Fi through topical administration offers a new option for intractable AGA patients with low side effects.

Delivery of neurotrophin-3 by RVG-Lamp2b-modified mesenchymal stem cell-derived exosomes alleviates facial nerve injury

We aim to investigate the effect of RVG-Lamp2b-modified exosomes (exos) loaded with neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) on facial nerve injury. Exos were collected from control cells (Ctrl Exo) or bone marrow mesenchymal stem cells co-transfected with RVG-Lamp2b and NT-3 plasmids (RVG-NT-3 Exo) by gradient centrifugation and identified by western blotting, transmission electron microscopy, and nanoparticle tracking analysis. Effect of RVG-NT-3 Exo on oxidative stress damage was determined by analysis of the morphology, viability, and ROS production of neurons. Effect of RVG-NT-3 Exo on facial nerve axotomy (FNA) was determined by detecting ROS production, neuroinflammatory reaction, microglia activation, facial motor neuron (FMN) death, and myelin sheath repair. Loading NT-3 and modifying with RVG-Lamp2b did not alter the properties of the exos. Moreover, RVG-NT-3 Exo could effectively target neurons to deliver NT-3. Treatment with RVG-NT-3 Exo lowered H2O2-induced oxidative stress damage in primary neurons and Nsc-34 cells. RVG-NT-3 Exo treatment significantly decreased ROS production, neuroinflammatory response, FMN death, and elevated microglia activation and myelin sheath repair in FNA rat models. Our findings suggested that RVG-NT-3 Exo-mediated delivery of NT-3 is effective for the treatment of facial nerve injury.

Hydrogel encapsulation of mesenchymal stem cells-derived extracellular vesicles as a novel therapeutic approach in cancer therapy

Cell therapy has emerged as one of the most promising approaches to treating disease in recent decades. The application of stem cells in anti-tumor therapy is determined by their varying capacity for proliferation, migration, and differentiation. These capacities are derived from different sources. The use of stem cell carriers in cancer treatment is justified by the following three reasons: (I) shield therapeutic agents from swift biological deterioration; (II) reduce systemic side effects; and (III) increase local therapeutic levels since stem cells have an innate ability to target tumors. The quantity of stem cells confined to the tumor microenvironment determines this system's anti-tumor activity. Nevertheless, there are limitations to the use of different types of stem cells. When immune cells are used in cell therapy, it may lead to cytokine storms and improper reactions to self-antigens. Furthermore, the use of stem cells may result in cancer. Additionally, after an intravenous injection, cells could not migrate to the injury location. Exosomes derived from different cells were thus proposed as possible therapeutic options. Exosomes are becoming more and more well-liked because of their small size, biocompatibility, and simplicity in storage and separation. A number of investigations have shown that adding various medications and microRNAs to exosomes may enhance their therapeutic effectiveness. Thus, it is essential to evaluate studies looking into the therapeutic effectiveness of encapsulated exosomes. In this review, we looked at studies on encapsulated exosomes' use in regenerative medicine and the treatment of cancer. The results imply that the therapeutic potential increases when encapsulated exosomes are used rather than intact exosomes. Therefore, in order to optimize the effectiveness of the treatment, it is advised to implement this technique in accordance with the kind of therapy.

Advances in Extracellular-Vesicles-Based Diagnostic and Therapeutic Approaches for Ocular Diseases

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are nanoscale membrane vesicles of various sizes that can be secreted by most cells. EVs contain a diverse array of cargo, including RNAs, lipids, proteins, and other molecules with functions of intercellular communication, immune modulation, and regulation of physiological and pathological processes. The biofluids in the eye, including tears, aqueous humor, and vitreous humor, are important sources for EV-based diagnosis of ocular disease. Because the molecular cargos may reflect the biology of their parental cells, EVs in these biofluids, as well as in the blood, have been recognized as promising candidates as biomarkers for early diagnosis of ocular disease. Moreover, EVs have also been used as therapeutics and targeted drug delivery nanocarriers in many ocular disorders because of their low immunogenicity and superior biocompatibility in nature. In this review, we provide an overview of the recent advances in the field of EV-based studies on the diagnosis and therapeutics of ocular disease. We summarized the origins of EVs applied in ocular disease, assessed different methods for EV isolation from ocular biofluid samples, highlighted bioengineering strategies of EVs as drug delivery systems, introduced the latest applications in the diagnosis and treatment of ocular disease, and presented their potential in the current clinical trials. Finally, we briefly discussed the challenges of EV-based studies in ocular disease and some issues of concern for better focusing on clinical translational studies of EVs in the future.

Nanomedicine in Neuroprotection, Neuroregeneration, and Blood-Brain Barrier Modulation: A Narrative Review

Nanomedicine is a newer, promising approach to promote neuroprotection, neuroregeneration, and modulation of the blood-brain barrier. This review includes the integration of various nanomaterials in neurological disorders. In addition, gelatin-based hydrogels, which have huge potential due to biocompatibility, maintenance of porosity, and enhanced neural process outgrowth, are reviewed. Chemical modification of these hydrogels, especially with guanidine moieties, has shown improved neuron viability and underscores tailored biomaterial design in neural applications. This review further discusses strategies to modulate the blood-brain barrier-a factor critically associated with the effective delivery of drugs to the central nervous system. These advances bring supportive solutions to the solving of neurological conditions and innovative therapies for their treatment. Nanomedicine, as applied to neuroscience, presents a significant leap forward in new therapeutic strategies that might help raise the treatment and management of neurological disorders to much better levels. Our aim was to summarize the current state-of-knowledge in this field.

Signaling pathways activated and regulated by stem cell-derived exosome therapy

Stem cell-derived exosomes exert comparable therapeutic effects to those of their parental stem cells without causing immunogenic, tumorigenic, and ethical disadvantages. Their therapeutic advantages are manifested in the management of a broad spectrum of diseases, and their dosing versatility are exemplified by systemic administration and local delivery. Furthermore, the activation and regulation of various signaling cascades have provided foundation for the claimed curative effects of exosomal therapy. Unlike other relevant reviews focusing on the upstream aspects (e.g., yield, isolation, modification), and downstream aspects (e.g. phenotypic changes, tissue response, cellular behavior) of stem cell-derived exosome therapy, this unique review endeavors to focus on various affected signaling pathways. After meticulous dissection of relevant literature from the past five years, we present this comprehensive, up-to-date, disease-specific, and pathway-oriented review. Exosomes sourced from various types of stem cells can regulate major signaling pathways (e.g., the PTEN/PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NF-κB, TGF-β, HIF-1α, Wnt, MAPK, JAK-STAT, Hippo, and Notch signaling cascades) and minor pathways during the treatment of numerous diseases encountered in orthopedic surgery, neurosurgery, cardiothoracic surgery, plastic surgery, general surgery, and other specialties. We provide a novel perspective in future exosome research through bridging the gap between signaling pathways and surgical indications when designing further preclinical studies and clinical trials.

Strategies for Targeting Peptide-Modified Exosomes and Their Applications in the Lungs

Exosomes belong to a subgroup of extracellular vesicles secreted by various cells and are involved in intercellular communication and material transfer. In recent years, exosomes have been used as drug delivery carriers because of their natural origin, high stability, low immunogenicity and high engineering ability. However, achieving targeted drug delivery with exosomes remains challenging. In this paper, a phage display technology was used to screen targeted peptides, and different surface modification strategies of targeted peptide exosomes were reviewed. In addition, the application of peptide-targeted exosomes in pulmonary diseases was also summarised.

Quercetin-loaded Human Umbilical cord Mesenchymal Stem Cell-derived sEVs for Spinal Cord Injury Recovery

Following spinal cord injury, the inflammatory environment at the injury site causes local microglia and astrocytes to activate, which worsens the nerve damage in the affected area. Quercetin, an anti-inflammatory agent, has been limited in spinal cord injury due to its poor water solubility and easy degradation. Stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles can go through the blood-brain barrier and are an ideal drug delivery system. In this study, umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cell-derived extracellular vesicles were used to load quercetin to prevent its degradation and allow it to accumulate at the site of spinal cord injury. Our results showed that quercetin-loaded extracellular vesicles could inhibit the activation of microglia to M1 phenotype through the TLR4/NF-κB pathway, and the activation of astrocytes to A1 phenotype through the JAK2/STAT3 pathway. This reduced the production of inflammatory factors, mitigated neuronal damage, and inhibited the growth of astroglial scar, but promoted the recovery of motor function in rats with spinal cord injury.

Milk Exosome-Liposome Hybrid Vesicles with Self-Adapting Surface Properties Overcome the Sequential Absorption Barriers for Oral Delivery of Peptides

Milk exosomes (mExos) have demonstrated significant promise as vehicles for the oral administration of protein and peptide drugs owing to their superior capacity to traverse epithelial barriers. Nevertheless, certain challenges persist due to their intrinsic characteristics, including suboptimal drug loading efficiency, inadequate mucus penetration capability, and susceptibility to membrane protein loss. Herein, a hybrid vesicle with self-adaptive surface properties (mExos@DSPE-Hyd-PMPC) was designed by fusing functionalized liposomes with natural mExos, aiming to overcome the limitations associated with mExos and unlock their full potential in oral peptide delivery. The surface property transformation of mExos@DSPE-Hyd-PMPC was achieved by introducing a pH-sensitive hydrazone bond between the highly hydrophilic zwitterionic polymer and the phospholipids, utilizing the pH microenvironment on the jejunum surface. In comparison to natural mExos, hybrid vesicles exhibited a 2.4-fold enhancement in the encapsulation efficiency of the semaglutide (SET). The hydrophilic and neutrally charged surfaces of mExos@DSPE-Hyd-PMPC in the jejunal lumen exhibited improved preservation of membrane proteins and efficient traversal of the mucus barrier. Upon reaching the surface of jejunal epithelial cells, the highly retained membrane proteins and positively charged surfaces of the hybrid vesicle efficiently overcame the apical barrier, the intracellular transport barrier, and the basolateral exocytosis barrier. The self-adaptive surface properties of the hybrid vesicle resulted in an oral bioavailability of 8.7% and notably enhanced the pharmacological therapeutic effects. This study successfully addresses some limitations of natural mExos and holds promise for overcoming the sequential absorption barriers associated with the oral delivery of peptides.

Hydrogel-exosome system in tissue engineering: A promising therapeutic strategy

Characterized by their pivotal roles in cell-to-cell communication, cell proliferation, and immune regulation during tissue repair, exosomes have emerged as a promising avenue for "cell-free therapy" in clinical applications. Hydrogels, possessing commendable biocompatibility, degradability, adjustability, and physical properties akin to biological tissues, have also found extensive utility in tissue engineering and regenerative repair. The synergistic combination of exosomes and hydrogels holds the potential not only to enhance the efficiency of exosomes but also to collaboratively advance the tissue repair process. This review has summarized the advancements made over the past decade in the research of hydrogel-exosome systems for regenerating various tissues including skin, bone, cartilage, nerves and tendons, with a focus on the methods for encapsulating and releasing exosomes within the hydrogels. It has also critically examined the gaps and limitations in current research, whilst proposed future directions and potential applications of this innovative approach.

MSC-Derived Extracellular Vesicles Alleviate NLRP3/GSDMD-Mediated Neuroinflammation in Mouse Model of Sporadic Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common neurodegenerative disease, with sporadic form being the predominant type. Neuroinflammation plays a critical role in accelerating pathogenic processes in AD. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC)-derived small extracellular vesicles (MSC-sEVs) regulate inflammatory responses and show great promise for treating AD. Induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC)-derived MSCs are similar to MSCs and exhibit low immunogenicity and heterogeneity, making them promising cell sources for clinical applications. This study examined the anti-inflammatory effects of MSC-sEVs in a streptozotocin-induced sporadic mouse model of AD (sAD). The intracisternal administration of iPSC-MSC-sEVs alleviated NLRP3/GSDMD-mediated neuroinflammation, decreased amyloid deposition and neuronal apoptosis, and mitigated cognitive dysfunction. Furthermore, it explored the role of miR-223-3p in the iPSC-MSC-sEVs-mediated anti-inflammatory effects in vitro. miR-223-3p directly targeted NLRP3, whereas inhibiting miR-223-3p almost completely reversed the suppression of NLRP3 by MSC-sEVs, suggesting that miR-223-3p may, at least partially, account for MSC-sEVs-mediated anti-inflammation. Results obtained suggest that intracisternal administration of iPSC-MSC-sEVs can reduce cognitive impairment by inhibiting NLRP3/GSDMD neuroinflammation in a sAD mouse model. Therefore, the present study provides a proof-of-principle for applying iPSC-MSC-sEVs to target neuroinflammation in sAD.

Extracellular Vesicle Preparation and Analysis: A State-of-the-Art Review

In recent decades, research on Extracellular Vesicles (EVs) has gained prominence in the life sciences due to their critical roles in both health and disease states, offering promising applications in disease diagnosis, drug delivery, and therapy. However, their inherent heterogeneity and complex origins pose significant challenges to their preparation, analysis, and subsequent clinical application. This review is structured to provide an overview of the biogenesis, composition, and various sources of EVs, thereby laying the groundwork for a detailed discussion of contemporary techniques for their preparation and analysis. Particular focus is given to state-of-the-art technologies that employ both microfluidic and non-microfluidic platforms for EV processing. Furthermore, this discourse extends into innovative approaches that incorporate artificial intelligence and cutting-edge electrochemical sensors, with a particular emphasis on single EV analysis. This review proposes current challenges and outlines prospective avenues for future research. The objective is to motivate researchers to innovate and expand methods for the preparation and analysis of EVs, fully unlocking their biomedical potential.

Propelling Minimally Invasive Tissue Regeneration With Next-Era Injectable Pre-Formed Scaffolds

The growing aging population, with its associated chronic diseases, underscores the urgency for effective tissue regeneration strategies. Biomaterials play a pivotal role in the realm of tissue reconstruction and regeneration, with a distinct shift toward minimally invasive (MI) treatments. This transition, fueled by engineered biomaterials, steers away from invasive surgical procedures to embrace approaches offering reduced trauma, accelerated recovery, and cost-effectiveness. In the realm of MI tissue repair and cargo delivery, various techniques are explored. While in situ polymerization is prominent, it is not without its challenges. This narrative review explores diverse biomaterials, fabrication methods, and biofunctionalization for injectable pre-formed scaffolds, focusing on their unique advantages. The injectable pre-formed scaffolds, exhibiting compressibility, controlled injection, and maintained mechanical integrity, emerge as promising alternative solutions to in situ polymerization challenges. The conclusion of this review emphasizes the importance of interdisciplinary design facilitated by synergizing fields of materials science, advanced 3D biomanufacturing, mechanobiological studies, and innovative approaches for effective MI tissue regeneration.

Post-Translational Modification of PTEN Protein: Quantity and Activity

Post-translational modifications play crucial roles in regulating protein functions and stabilities. PTEN is a critical tumor suppressor involved in regulating cellular proliferation, survival, and migration processes. However, dysregulation of PTEN is common in various human cancers. PTEN stability and activation/suppression have been extensively studied in the context of tumorigenesis through inhibition of the PI3K/AKT signaling pathway. PTEN undergoes various post-translational modifications, primarily including phosphorylation, acetylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, neddylation, and oxidation, which finely tune its activity and stability. Generally, phosphorylation modulates PTEN activity through its lipid phosphatase function, leading to altered power of the signaling pathways. Acetylation influences PTEN protein stability and degradation rate. SUMOylation has been implicated in PTEN localization and interactions with other proteins, affecting its overall function. Neddylation, as a novel modification of PTEN, is a key regulatory mechanism in the loss of tumor suppressor function of PTEN. Although current therapeutic approaches focus primarily on inhibiting PI3 kinase, understanding the post-translational modifications of PTEN could help provide new therapeutic strategies that can restore PTEN's role in PIP3-dependent tumors. The present review summarizes the major recent developments in the regulation of PTEN protein level and activity. We expect that these insights will contribute to better understanding of this critical tumor suppressor and its potential implications for cancer therapy in the future.

Therapeutic effect of small extracellular vesicles from cytokine-induced memory-like natural killer cells on solid tumors

Small extracellular vesicles (sEV) derived from diverse natural killer (NK) cell lines have proven their exceptional antitumor activities. However, sEV from human primary NK cells, especially memory-like NK cells, are rarely utilized for cancer treatment. In this study, we obtained sEV from IL-12, IL-15 and IL-18 cultured human memory-like NK cells (mNK-sEV) that showed strong cytokine-secretory ability. It was uncovered that mNK-sEV entered cancer cells via macropinocytosis and induced cell apoptosis via caspase-dependent pathway. Compared to sEV from conventionally cultured NK cells (conNK-sEV), mNK-sEV inhibited tumor growth to a greater extent. Concomitantly, pharmacokinetics and biodistribution results validated a higher accumulation of mNK-sEV than conNK-sEV in tumors of xenografted murine models. Notably, elevated containment of granulysin (GNLY) within mNK-sEV, at least in part, may contribute to the enhanced therapeutic effect. Herein our results present that mNK-sEV can be a novel class of therapeutic reagent for effective cancer treatment.