Cognitive flexibility in young children: General or task-specific capacity?

The impact of cognitive flexibility on prospective EFL teachers' critical thinking disposition: the mediating role of self-efficacy

Critical thinking as one of the key skills for success in the 21st-century has been considered by many scholars in teacher education. This study tries to examine the interaction of critical thinking disposition with two other key characteristics of successful teachers: cognitive flexibility and self-efficacy. To this end, a sample of pre-service English as a Foreign Language (EFL) teachers was selected for this study. Based on the findings, a positive and strong relationship between cognitive flexibility and critical thinking disposition, and a positive and robust correlation between self-efficacy and critical thinking disposition were observed. Hence, it can be suggested that teacher-educationists can use this link for designing teacher-training courses with tailored tasks for both in and pre-service teachers. The main contribution of the findings might be beneficial for homogenizing teacher-training courses around the globe with the 21st-century trends. In addition, this line of research can be followed by empirical studies for checking the effectiveness of tailored tasks for provoking teachers' critical thinking dispositions, cognitive flexibility, and self-efficacy in teaching activities.

A follow up investigation of placental pathology, responsive parenting, and preschool children's executive functioning and language development

Despite documented effects linking underlying placental diseases and neurological impairments in children, little is known about the long-term effects of placental pathology on children's neurocognitive outcomes. In addition, maternal responsivity, known to positively influence early postnatal cognitive development, may act to protect children from putative adverse effects of placental pathology. The current study is a follow up of medically healthy, term born, preschool age children, born with placental pathology. A sample of 118 children (45 comparison children with normal placental findings, 73 born with placental pathology) were followed when children were 3-4 years old. In comparison to children born to mothers with normal placentas, placental pathology was associated with poorer performance in the executive function involving cognitive flexibility, but not inhibitory control or receptive language. Maternal responsivity was observed to be marginally protective on the impact of placental pathology risk on cognitive flexibility, but this was not seen for either inhibitory control or receptive language.

The influence of bootleg innovation on individual innovation performance: The mediating effect of cognitive flexibility and the moderating effect of leadership's emotional intelligence

Based Correctly handling the creativity of employees who have not been adopted is not only conducive to continuously stimulating employees' creativity and improving individual innovation performance, but also conducive to making the best use of organizational resources. This study integrates conservation of resource theory (COR) and social information processing theory to explore the influence of bootleg innovation behavior in organizations on individual innovation performance, as well as the mediating role of cognitive flexibility and the moderating role of leadership emotional intelligence. A three-stage time-lagged research design is used to obtain a valid sample of 327 employees from China. The PROCESS macro for SPSS was applied to test the hypothesized relationships. Findings demonstrated that bootleg innovation is positively related to individual innovation performance; cognitive flexibility mediates the relationship between bootleg innovation and individual innovation performance. Moreover, leadership emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between bootleg innovation and individual innovation performance and between bootleg innovation and cognitive flexibility and between cognitive flexibility and individual innovation performance respectively. The conclusion of the study not only provides a theoretical basis for individuals and leaders to deal with employees' creative abortion, but also provides a new thinking mode for how to maximize the effectiveness of unaccepted ideas and promote individual innovation performance.

Holding multiple category representations: The role of age, theory of mind, and rule switching in children's developing cross-classification abilities

Cross-classification, the ability to categorize multifaceted entities in many ways, is a remarkable cognitive milestone for children. Past work has focused primarily on documenting the timeline for when children reach cross-classification competence. However, it is not well understood what cognitive factors underpin children's improvements. The current study aimed to examine the contributions of age, theory of mind, and rule switching to children's cross-classification development. We tested 3- to 5-year-old children (N = 75) using a cross-classification task, the Theory of Mind Task Battery, and the Three-Dimensional Change Card Sort test. The results revealed that age and theory of mind predict children's cross-classification over and above the effects of rule switching. The results also revealed that advanced-level theory of mind reasoning is a particularly strong predictor of cross-classification development. These findings increase understanding of cross-classification within children's broader cognitive development.

Different cognitive mechanisms used for solving open and closed math problems

Problem-solving skills are very important in our daily life. Almost all problem-solving studies have addressed the cognitive correlates of solving closed problems, but only limited studies have investigated the cognitive mechanisms of solving open problems. The current study aimed to systematically examine differences between the cognitive mechanisms used for solving open and closed problems. In total, the abilities of 142 high school students to solve open and closed problems were assessed, as were a series of general cognitive abilities as controlled variates. Analogical reasoning uniquely contributed to solving both open and closed math problems, after controlling for age, gender, and inductive reasoning. Reactive cognitive flexibility (measured using the Wisconsin card sorting test) and spatial working memory uniquely correlated only with solving open and closed math problems, respectively. These findings suggest that the cognitive processes used to solve open and closed math problems differ. Open and closed math problems appear to require more reactive cognitive flexibility for generation and more memory for retrieval, respectively.

The Development of Flexible Problem Solving: An Integrative Approach

Flexible problem solving, the ability to deal with currently goal-irrelevant information that may have been goal-relevant in previous, similar situations, plays a prominent role in cognitive development and has been repeatedly investigated in developmental research. However, this research, spanning from infancy to the school years, lacks a unifying framework, obscuring the developmental timing of flexible problem solving. Therefore, in this review paper, previous findings are gathered, organized, and integrated under a common framework to unveil how and when flexible problem solving develops. It is showed that the development of flexible problem solving coincides with increases in executive functions, that is, inhibition, working memory and task switching. The analysis of previous findings shows that dealing with goal-irrelevant, non-salient information received far more attention than generalizing in the presence of goal-irrelevant, salient information. The developmental timing of the latter can only be inferred from few transfer studies, as well as executive functions, planning and theory of mind research, to highlight gaps in knowledge and sketch out future research directions. Understanding how transfer in the presence of seemingly relevant but truly irrelevant information develops has implications for well-balanced participation in information societies, early and lifespan education, and investigating the evolutionary trajectory of flexible problem solving.

Reallocation of time between preschoolers' 24-h movement behaviours and executive functions: A compositional data analysis

The objectives of the survey were to explored the associations of the 24-h movement behaviours (MB) with executive functions (EFs) and quantified the predicted changes in EFs following allocation of time among behaviours. In the cross-sectional survey, 135 preschoolers (3 ~ 5 years) were enrolled. Physical activity (PA) and sedentary (SED) time were objectively measured employing an ActiGraph GT9X. Sleep time was reported by parents. EFs were assessed using the iPad-based Early Years Toolbox which is a collection of computerized tasks consisting of brief tasks assessed from games administered and scored according to protocol. To explore the associations of the 24-h MB with EFs, compositional multiple linear regression was employed. To quantify the predicted changes in EFs following allocation of time among behaviours, compositional isotemporal substitution was used. Moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) was positively related to cognitive flexibility. Replacing sleep or SED with MVPA was associated with positive changes in cognitive flexibility. When MVPA was replaced with sleep or SED, the predicted detriments to cognitive flexibility were larger than predicted benefits of replacing sleep or SED with MVPA. The findings highlight the key role of intensity of PA for preschoolers' EFs and the importance of meeting recommended levels of MVPA.

How do 3-year-olds do on the NIH Toolbox Cognitive Battery?

The NIH Toolbox includes a cognitive battery that provides an Early Childhood Composite score for children age 3-7. However, very few studies have evaluated feasibility when it is used in the youngest segment of this age range-3-year-olds. The current study evaluated performance on the four cognitive subtests composing the early childhood composite, two of which assess executive function, in a large sample of 3-year-olds enrolled in a Vanguard pilot of the National Children's Study. Results found that in a cohort of 609 3-year-olds (mean age = 39.6 months, SD = 1.6, 53% male, 64% White, 87% Non-Hispanic) who were administered four subtests included in the Early Childhood Composite, up to approximately 30% were unable to pass practice items on the Flanker, Dimensional Change Card Sort, and Picture Sequence Memory, whereas only approximately 3% were unable to pass practice items on the Picture Vocabulary Test. Furthermore, of those that did pass practice and achieve scores on the subtests, approximately 70% and 80% performed at or below chance level on the executive function tasks (Flanker and Dimensional Change Card Sort) and Picture Sequence Memory, respectively. Ultimately, the average 3-year-old has difficulty with three of the four NIH Toolbox tasks composing the Early Childhood Composite and may not yet have developed the requisite skills. These findings indicate that changes compatible with the developmental level of preschoolers are recommended to increase the feasibility and effectiveness of the NIH Toolbox in measuring individual cognition differences in 3-year-old children.

Cognitive flexibility assessment in youth with Down syndrome: Reliability, practice effects, and validity

BACKGROUND

Cognitive flexibility refers to the ability to switch between different mental sets, tasks, or strategies and is challenging for some individuals with Down syndrome (DS). The lack of reliable and valid cognitive flexibility measures for individuals with DS is a major barrier to clinical trials and intervention studies designed to address cognitive challenges specific to DS. To avoid measurement limitations that could confound interpretations of performance in clinical trials in children with DS, it is critical to use phenotype-sensitive and psychometrically sound measures of cognitive flexibility.

AIM

This study aimed to evaluate the psychometric properties of three measures of cognitive flexibility including Rule-Shift, Weigl Sorting, and KiTAP Flexibility in a sample of 97 youth with DS aged 6-17 years old.

METHOD

Data were collected at two time points with a two-week interval. Parents also completed adaptive behavior and cognitive flexibility questionnaires. Child cognitive and language abilities were also assessed.

RESULTS

The Weigl Sorting met the most psychometric criteria, with adequate feasibility (≥ 80 %) and significant correlations with most of the broader developmental domains; however, the levels of test-retest reliability, practice effects, and convergent validity did not meet a priori criteria. Rule-Shift and KiTAP Flexibility measures did not have acceptable feasibility; although sensitivity and specificity analyses revealed that Rule-Shift may be appropriate for a subgroup of the participants.

CONCLUSION

No evaluated measures met all psychometric study criteria and, therefore, additional evaluation of cognitive flexibility measures is needed for use among individuals with DS.

Child Cognitive Flexibility and Maternal Control: A First Step toward Untangling Genetic and Environmental Contributions

Executive functions (EF) play an essential role in many spheres of child development. Therefore, it is crucial to get a better understanding of their etiology. Using a genetic design that involved 934 twins (400 monozygotic), this study examined the etiology of cognitive flexibility, a component of EF, at 5 years of age and its phenotypic and etiological associations with maternal control. Cognitive flexibility was measured in a laboratory setting at 5 years of age using a well-known EF-task, i.e. the Dimensional Change Card Sort (DCCS). Maternal control was measured using a self-report questionnaire. The univariate genetic model demonstrated that environmental factors mainly explained individual differences in preschoolers' performance on the DCCS task. A bivariate genetic model demonstrated that non-shared environmental mechanisms mainly explained the association (r = .-13) between maternal control and children's performance on the DCCS task. This study represents a preliminary step toward a better understanding of the genetic and environmental contributions underlying the relation between parenting behaviors and children's EF.

Cognitive flexibility supports the development of cumulative cultural learning in children

The scale of cumulative cultural evolution (CCE) is a defining characteristic of humans. Despite marked scientific interest in CCE, the cognitive underpinnings supporting its development remain understudied. We examined the role cognitive flexibility plays in CCE by studying U.S. children's (N = 167, 3-5-year-olds) propensity to relinquish an inefficient solution to a problem in favor of a more efficient alternative, and whether they would resist reverting to earlier versions. In contrast to previous work with chimpanzees, most children who first learned to solve a puzzlebox in an inefficient way switched to an observed, more efficient alternative. However, over multiple task interactions, 85% of children who switched reverted to the inefficient method. Moreover, almost all children in a control condition (who first learned the efficient method) switched to the inefficient method. Thus, children were keen to explore an alternative solution but, like chimpanzees, are overall conservative in reverting to their first-learned one.

Electrophysiological correlates of the effect of set size on object switching in working memory

Previous studies have revealed the effect of set size (the number of activated items) on object switching in working memory, but the underlying neural mechanism remains unclear. In this study, participants were asked to first remember two (small size) or three (large size) two-digit numbers and the corresponding geometrical figures as different references for numerical comparison and then compare a series of numbers (10-99) to the reference numbers cued by different geometrical figures. The cue repeated or switched across trials. Behavioral results revealed that the switch cost was greater in the large-size condition than in the small-size condition. Event-related potential results showed that in the N2 component, an interaction was observed between set size and transition, with a significant transition effect (switch minus repeat) in the large-size condition and a non-significant transition effect in the small-size condition. The same interaction was observed in the P3 component, with a larger amplitude difference (switch minus repeat) in the large-size condition than in the small-size condition. These results suggested that when set size is increased, the effort to inhibit the irrelevant items increases, resulting in large cost of object switching in working memory.

Processing Speed Predicts Mean Performance in Task-Switching but Not Task-Switching Cost

In several studies, it has been suggested that task-switching performance is linked to processing speed. Here we argue that the relation between processing speed and high-level cognitive ability found in previous studies may be due to confounded measurements of processing speed and task-switching ability. In the present study we required participants to complete an inspection time (IT) task to probe their processing speed. We employed conventional task-switching paradigms but applied a linear integrated speed-accuracy score (LISAS) which combines latency and accuracy scores to express task-switching ability. The results of regression analyses show that IT predicted average performance in task-switching paradigms. However, IT did not relate to any specific effects common in the task-switching task, which contradicts previous results. Our results suggest independent mechanisms of processing speed and tasks that require a high level of cognitive flexibility and control.

Contextual features in the developing hippocampus: A representational similarity analysis

Functional divisions of labor in support of memory have been reported along the anterior-posterior axis of the hippocampus. However, little is known about how the developing hippocampus represents associative memories along this axis. The present research employed representational similarity analysis to ask whether developmental differences exist in the extent to which the anterior versus the posterior hippocampus represent features of the context and associative memories. Functional magnetic resonance imaging data were collected during the retrieval phase of an associative recognition task from 8-year-olds, 10-year-olds, and adults (N = 58). Participants were asked to retrieve pairs of items, which were presented either in the same location as during encoding or in a flipped location. In the anterior hippocampus and only for adults, pattern similarity between the two studied pair conditions was greater than pattern similarity between studied pairs presented in the same location and novel pairs. In contrast, this difference was not significant in the posterior hippocampus. Older, but not younger, children showed a similar, albeit attenuated, similarity pattern to that of adults, but measures of patterns similarity predicted associative recognition across ages. In addition, exploratory analyses showed that similarity patterns in the adult posterior, but not anterior, hippocampus tracked the order of the runs. Overall, the results suggest functional and developmental dissociations in processing different contextual features, with the anterior hippocampus responding to salient and rapid-changing features and the posterior hippocampus responding to slower-changing features of the context.

Bilingualism Effects on the Cognitive Flexibility of Autistic Children: Evidence From Verbal Dual-Task Paradigms

The deficit in cognitive flexibility (i.e., the ability to adapt cognitive behavior to changing contexts) is one of the most prominent characteristics of autistic individuals. Inflexibility may manifest in restricted interests and increased susceptibility to the effects of misinformation either through inefficient inhibition of non-target information or deficient recall of correct information. Bilingualism has been shown to enhance executive functions in both typically developing children and autistic children; yet, the effect of bilingualism on cognitive flexibility in autism remains underexplored. In this study, we used verbal dual-tasks to compare cognitive flexibility across 50 monolingual autistic and 50 bilingual autistic children, and 50 monolingual and 50 bilingual typically developing children. The children were also administered language ability tests and a nonverbal global-local cognitive flexibility task, in order to investigate whether performance in the dual-tasks would be modulated by the children's language and executive function skills. The bilingual autistic children outperformed their monolingual autistic peers in the dual-tasks. The strength of the bilingualism effect, however, was modulated by the type of language processing that interfered with the target information in each dual-task, which suggests that the bilingual autistic children calibrated their processing resources and efficiently adapted them to the changing demands of the dual-task only to the extent that the task did not exceed their language abilities. Bilingual autistic children relied on their executive functions rather than on their language abilities while performing in the dual-tasks. The overall results show that bilingualism compensates for the reduced cognitive flexibility in autism.

The roles of different executive functioning skills in young children's mental computation and applied mathematical problem-solving

This study investigated the relationships of four executive functioning skills (including verbal working memory, spatial working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility) with young children's mental computation and applied mathematical problem-solving. Two hundred and twenty-five Chinese kindergarteners were tested with a battery of general cognitive, executive functioning and mathematics skills. Results showed that when children's age, gender, non-verbal intelligence, and listening comprehension skills were controlled, verbal working memory and cognitive flexibility were significant correlates of mental computation, whereas verbal working memory, spatial working memory, and cognitive flexibility were significant correlates of applied mathematical problem-solving. Inhibitory control was not significantly associated with the two domains of mathematics under investigation. The findings highlight the differential roles of different executive functioning skills in early mathematical skills and offer practical implication for helping young children in learning complex mathematical skills.

Looking beyond person-specific cues indicative of credibility: Reward rules and executive function predict preschoolers' acceptance of (un)reliable assertions

We tested whether 3- and 4-year-olds (N = 88) can deduce individuals' credibility exclusively from situational cues such as game rules that reward competitive or cooperative behavior-and whether children's inferences are predicted by their executive function (EF) and theory of mind (ToM) skills. When presented with the game rules, children endorsed a partner's claims more often if the rules incentivized cooperation between participants and partners (e.g., by giving them prizes when trusting each other) versus when the rules incentivized deception (e.g., by giving prizes to partners who tricked the children). Notably, children's appropriate responses to partners' claims increased as their EF skills improved regardless of whether the rules supported trust or skepticism. ToM was not related to children's rule-based selectivity. Preschoolers' ability to make inferences based on cooperative versus competitive reward rules to determine whether the children's partner can be trusted is key to learning from individuals whose reputation or past behavior is completely unknown. In addition, findings of associations between EF and vigilance about others' claims contribute to the epistemological debate of whether people start in life as credulous learners.

Gamma-Range Auditory Steady-State Responses and Cognitive Performance: A Systematic Review

The auditory steady-state response (ASSR) is a result of entrainment of the brain's oscillatory activity to the frequency and phase of temporally modulated stimuli. Gamma-range ASSRs are utilized to observe the dysfunctions of brain-synchronization abilities in neuropsychiatric and developmental disorders with cognitive symptoms. However, the link between gamma-range ASSRs and cognitive functioning is not clear. We systematically reviewed existing findings on the associations between gamma-range ASSRs and cognitive functions in patients with neuropsychiatric or developmental disorders and healthy subjects. The literature search yielded 1597 articles. After excluding duplicates and assessing eligibility, 22 articles were included. In healthy participants, the gamma-range ASSR was related to cognitive flexibility and reasoning as measured by complex tasks and behavioral indicators of processing speed. In patients with schizophrenia, the studies that reported correlations found a higher ASSR to be accompanied by better performance on short-term memory tasks, long-term/semantic memory, and simple speeded tasks. The main findings indicate that individual differences in the gamma-range ASSR reflect the level of attentional control and the ability to temporary store and manipulate the information, which are necessary for a wide range of complex cognitive activities, including language, in both healthy and impaired populations.

More change in task repetition, less cost in task switching: Behavioral and event-related potential evidence

Previous studies have shown that the probability of task switching can vary the level of cognitive control and modulate the size of switch costs. However, it is unclear whether switch costs would be affected by a task-repetition context formed by varying the degree of response (and task-relevant stimulus property) change within the task repetition sequences while the probability of task switching remains constant. In the present study, participants were presented with a string of digits (e.g., ②②②). Basing on stimulus color, they were required to indicate either the presented digit, or the number of presented digits. Before task switching, stimulus and response in consecutive task-repeat trials varied more or less frequently. Behavioral results showed that the frequent-change context elicited smaller switch costs than the rare-change context. Event-related potential (ERP) results indicated that: (1) the frequent-change context evoked greater fronto-central N2 amplitudes for both task-repeat and task-switch trials, implying that cognitive control increased due to the variation of stimulus and response associations; (2) for the task switch trials, smaller P300 amplitudes were evoked in the frequent-change context than the rare-change context, reflecting the promoted task-set reconfiguration. These findings suggest that, the more change in stimulus and response during task repetition, the higher the overall level of cognitive control and the higher efficiency of task-switching.

The continuous impact of cognitive flexibility on the development of emotion understanding in children aged 4 and 5 years: A longitudinal study

The current study investigated the impact of cognitive flexibility on the development of emotion understanding using a longitudinal tracking study. A total of 98 children aged 4 and 5 years were tested for cognitive flexibility, emotion understanding, and verbal ability across three time points within a year. The cross-lagged analyses indicated that early cognitive flexibility played a predictive role in the development of emotion understanding. More precisely, cognitive flexibility at Time 1 predicted emotion understanding at Time 2 and Time 3, and cognitive flexibility at Time 2 predicted emotion understanding at Time 3. Furthermore, mediation analysis showed that verbal ability mediated the impact of cognitive flexibility on emotion understanding. Early cognitive flexibility contributed to later emotion understanding by improving children's verbal ability. These findings suggest that there is a verbal ability-mediated pathway from cognitive flexibility to emotion understanding that provides a new perspective for the development mechanism of children's emotion understanding.

Toddlers, Tools, and Tech: The Cognitive Ontogenesis of Innovation

The development of tool innovation presents a paradox. How do humans have such diverse and complex technology, ranging from smartphones to aircraft, and yet young children find even simple tool innovation challenges, such as fashioning a hook to retrieve a basket from a tube, remarkably difficult? We propose that the solution to this paradox is the cognitive ontogenesis of tool innovation. Using a common measure of children's tool innovation, we describe how multiple cognitive mechanisms work in concert at each step of its process: recognizing the problem, generating appropriate solutions, and the social transmission of innovations. We discuss what the ontogeny of this skill tells us about cognitive and cultural evolution and provide recommendations for future research.

Development of Conceptual Flexibility in Intuitive Biology: Effects of Environment and Experience

Living things can be classified in many ways, such as taxonomic similarity (lions and lynx), or shared ecological habitat (ducks and turtles). The present studies used card-sorting and triad tasks to explore developmental and experiential changes in conceptual flexibility-the ability to switch between taxonomic and ecological construals of living things-as well as two processes underlying conceptual flexibility: salience (i.e., the ease with which relations come to mind outside of contextual influences) and availability (i.e., the presence of relations in one's mental space) of taxonomic and ecological relations. We were also interested in the extent to which salience and availability of taxonomic and ecological relations predicted inductive inferences. Participants were 452 six to ten-year-olds from urban, suburban, and rural communities in New England. Across two studies, taxonomic relations were overwhelmingly more salient than ecological relations, although salience of ecological relations was higher among children from rural environments (Study 1) and those who engaged in unstructured exploration of nature (Study 2). Availability of ecological relations, as well as conceptual flexibility, increased with age, and was higher among children living in more rural environments. Notably, salience, but not availability, of ecological relations predicted ecological inferences. These findings suggest that taxonomic categories (i.e., groups that share both perceptual similarities and rich underlying structure) are a salient way to organize intuitive biological knowledge and that, critically, environmental richness and relevant experience contribute to the salience and availability of ecological knowledge, and thereby, conceptual flexibility in biological thinking. More generally, they highlight important linkages between domain-specific knowledge and domain-general cognitive abilities.

Where innovations flourish: an ethnographic and archaeological overview of hunter-gatherer learning contexts

Research in developmental psychology suggests that children are poor tool innovators. However, such research often overlooks the ways in which children's social and physical environments may lead to cross-cultural variation in their opportunities and proclivity to innovate. In this paper, we examine contemporary hunter-gatherer child and adolescent contributions to tool innovation. We posit that the cultural and subsistence context of many hunter-gatherer societies fosters behavioural flexibility, including innovative capabilities. Using the ethnographic and developmental literature, we suggest that socialisation practices emphasised in hunter-gatherer societies, including learning through autonomous exploration, adult and peer teaching, play and innovation seeking may bolster children's ability to innovate. We also discuss whether similar socialisation practices can be interpreted from the archaeological record. We end by pointing to areas of future study for understanding the role of children and adolescents in the development of tool innovations across cultures in the past and present.

Skill Acquisition Methods Fostering Physical Literacy in Early-Physical Education (SAMPLE-PE): Rationale and Study Protocol for a Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial in 5-6-Year-Old Children From Deprived Areas of North West England

BACKGROUND

There is a need for interdisciplinary research to better understand how pedagogical approaches in primary physical education (PE) can support the linked development of physical, cognitive and affective aspects of physical literacy and physical activity behaviors in young children living in deprived areas. The Skill Acquisition Methods fostering Physical Literacy in Early-Physical Education (SAMPLE-PE) study aims to examine the efficacy of two different pedagogies for PE, underpinned by theories of motor learning, to foster physical literacy.

METHODS

SAMPLE-PE will be evaluated through a cluster-randomized controlled trial targeting 5-6 year old children from schools located in areas of high deprivation in Merseyside, North-West England. Schools will be randomly allocated to one of three conditions: Linear Pedagogy, Non-linear Pedagogy, or Control. Non-linear and Linear Pedagogy intervention primary schools will receive a PE curriculum delivered by trained coaches over 15 weeks, while control schools will follow their usual practice. Data will be collected at baseline (T0), immediately post-intervention (T1), and 6 months after the intervention has finished (T2). Children's movement competence is the primary outcome in this trial. Secondary outcomes include physical activity, perceived competence, motivation, executive functions, and self-regulation. An extensive process evaluation will also examine implementation factors such as intervention context, reach, dose, fidelity and acceptability.

DISCUSSION

The SAMPLE-PE project will enable better understanding surrounding how to operationalise physical literacy through enrichment of PE practices in early PE. The study will provide robust scientific evidence regarding the efficacy of underpinning PE pedagogy with theories of motor learning to promote the development of physical literacy.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Retrospectively registered on 5th September 2018 at ClinicalTrials.gov, a resource provided by the U.S. National Library of Medicine (Identifier: NCT03551366).

Executive functions predict literacy and mathematics achievements: The unique contribution of cognitive flexibility in grades 2, 4, and 6

Research has shown that cognitive flexibility plays a critical role in students' learning and academic achievement. However, the unique contribution of cognitive flexibility to academic achievement across schooling is not fully understood. Thus, this study tested whether cognitive flexibility explained a significant amount of variance in academic achievement (i.e., literacy and mathematics outcomes) across Grades 2, 4, and 6, above and beyond fluid intelligence, inhibitory control, working memory, attention, and planning. The sample included 243 second graders, 284 fourth graders, and 203 sixth graders. For Grades 4 and 6, we found that better performance on the flexibility score was associated with better academic outcomes after controlling for fluid intelligence, attention, inhibitory control, working memory, and planning. This effect was not observed for Grade 2. Our findings showed that cognitive flexibility is a key component for school achievement, particularly for older students.

Schoolchildren's Compensatory Strategies and Skills in Relation to Attention and Executive Function App Training

BACKGROUND

Given the importance of attention and executive functions (EF) in children's behavior, programs aimed at improving these processes are of special interest. Nexxo-training combines the use of the Nexxo touchscreen application (inhibition and vigilance tasks) with procedural metacognitive strategies (imparted by an instructor) for all the individuals using the app, regardless of their level of ability, plus compensatory strategies based on individual child performance. This study presents an analysis of the compensatory strategies that schoolchildren (aged 6-8 years old) receive when experiencing difficulties with EF tasks, in addition to an analysis of the developmental factors and cognitive skills that may modulate EF task performance.

METHODS

For this study, we use data from a previous randomized active-controlled study (under review), in which forty-six typically developing children aged between 6 and 8 years old (24 girls/22 boys) were enrolled in the training group. The selected children were in the 1st grade (n = 28, x ¯ = 78.32 ± 4.037 months) and 3rd grade of primary education (n = 18, x ¯ = 102.11 ± 3.445). We collected data on EF training performance, compensatory strategies needed and neuropsychological assessments.

RESULTS

A total of 80.43% participants required some form of compensatory strategy during training. Regarding required compensatory strategies, those who had lower scores in EF training needed more compensatory strategies, in particular, instructional comprehension (r = -0.561, p < 0.001 for inhibition-tasks; r = -0.342, p < 0.001 for vigilance-tasks). Concerning developmental factors, age significantly predicted better performance in both EF tasks (β = 0.613, p < 0.001 for inhibition; β = 0.706, p < 0.001 for attention). As regards task performance, those with better performance in inhibition tasks also had better performance in vigilance tasks (r = 0.72, p < 0.001). Finally, regarding cognitive skills, participants with higher performance in fluid intelligence (Q1, n = 12) had higher scores (U = 14.5, p < 0.05) than the group with the lowest performance (Q4, n = 11) in vigilance.

CONCLUSION

As previous literature suggests, inhibition is one of the core processes of EF. Therefore, we should focus training on the core EF processes. Inhibition and vigilance are closely related processes. In terms of the use of compensatory strategies, these are more needed for participants with lower levels of performance in inhibition or vigilance. Regarding strategy analysis, instructional comprehension and self-instruction (goal setting and planning) seem to be the most useful strategies for those with difficulties in inhibitory and vigilance task performance. Regarding development, as expected, age moderates task performance in inhibition and attention. Finally, cognitive skills, such as fluid intelligence and cognitive flexibility, predicted better results in attention. EF training using not only an app, but also compensatory strategies based on user performance, is a new research direction offering more opportunities to generalize EF training in everyday life.

Actions speak louder than words: Differences in memory flexibility between monolingual and bilingual 18-month-olds

Bilingual infants from 6- to 24-months of age are more likely to generalize, flexibly reproducing actions on novel objects significantly more often than age-matched monolingual infants are. In the current study, we examine whether the addition of novel verbal labels enhances memory generalization in a perceptually complex imitation task. We hypothesized that labels would provide an additional retrieval cue and aid memory generalization for bilingual infants. Specifically, we hypothesized that bilinguals might be more likely than monolinguals to map multiple perceptual features onto a novel label and therefore show enhanced generalization. Eighty-seven 18-month-old monolingual and bilingual infants were randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions or a baseline control condition. In the experimental conditions, either no label or a novel label was added during demonstration and again at the beginning of the test session. After a 24-hr delay, infants were tested with the same stimulus set to test cued recall and with a perceptually different but functionally equivalent stimulus set to test memory generalization. Bilinguals performed significantly above baseline on both cued recall and memory generalization in both experimental conditions, whereas monolinguals performed significantly above baseline only on cued recall in both experimental conditions. These findings show a difference between monolinguals and bilinguals in memory generalization and suggest that generalization differences between groups may arise from visual perceptual processing rather than linguistic processing. A video abstract of this article can be viewed at https://youtu.be/yXB4pM3fF2k.

Which tasks measure what? Reflections on executive function development and a commentary on Podjarny, Kamawar, and Andrews (2017)

This article provides a selective review of the literature on executive function development and related topics, focusing on the conceptual and terminological confusions that might hinder communication among researchers in the field. The distinctions between working memory and updating, and between shifting and flexibility, are discussed. Methodological problems, which have implications regarding whether a certain task can be considered a measure of a psychological construct, are also discussed. Research on preschoolers is examined with particular attention because it is a rapidly growing but controversial field that seems in particular need of greater conceptual clarity. As a specific touchstone case, we discuss whether the Multidimensional Card Selection Task (MCST) created by Podjarny, Kamawar, and Andrews (2017) should better be considered a measure of concurrent cognitive flexibility or working memory capacity. It is argued that connecting tasks to theoretical constructs is not warranted unless based on rigorous empirical testing of well-formulated models.

Cultural variation in cognitive flexibility reveals diversity in the development of executive functions

Cognitive flexibility, the adaptation of representations and responses to new task demands, improves dramatically in early childhood. It is unclear, however, whether flexibility is a coherent, unitary cognitive trait, or is an emergent dimension of task-specific performance that varies across populations with divergent experiences. Three- to 5-year-old English-speaking U.S. children and Tswana-speaking South African children completed two distinct language-processing cognitive flexibility tests: the FIM-Animates, a word-learning test, and the 3DCCS, a rule-switching test. U.S. and South African children did not differ in word-learning flexibility but showed similar age-related increases. In contrast, U.S. preschoolers showed an age-related increase in rule-switching flexibility but South African children did not. Verbal recall explained additional variance in both tests but did not modulate the interaction between population sample (i.e., country) and task. We hypothesize that rule-switching flexibility might be more dependent upon particular kinds of cultural experiences, whereas word-learning flexibility is less cross-culturally variable.

Two-year-olds' executive functioning: The influence of task-specific vocabulary knowledge

Although many executive function (EF) tasks require only nonverbal responses, the language used by experimenters to explain the task may be important for young children's EF task performance. This study investigated how the vocabulary used in explaining an EF task affects 2-year-olds' performance. Experiment 1 used the standard instructions for the Reverse Categorization Task, in which children are asked to sort different-sized blocks into different-sized buckets according to one rule and then switch to a new rule. In Experiment 2, the task remained the same, but different instructions requiring less knowledge of size words were used. Children's productive vocabulary was assessed in both experiments but was only correlated with task performance in Experiment 1. These results suggest that task-specific vocabulary knowledge may play a role in children's performance on tasks designed to measure nonverbal cognitive ability.

Hippocampal amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid GluA1 (AMPA GluA1) receptor subunit involves in learning and memory improvement following treatment with Centella asiatica extract in adolescent rats

INTRODUCTION

Centella asiatica is an herbal plant that contains phytochemicals that are widely believed to have positive effects on cognitive function. The adolescent stage is a critical development period for the maturation of brain processes that encompass changes in physical and psychological systems. However, the effect of C. asiatica has not been extensively studied in adolescents. The aim of this study was therefore to investigate the effects of a C. asiatica extract on the enhancement of learning and memory in adolescent rats.

METHODS

The locomotor activity, learning, and memory were assessed by using open field test and water T-maze test. This study also examined changes in neuronal cell morphology using cresyl violet and apoptosis staining. We also performed immunohistochemical study to analyse the expression of the glutamate AMPA receptor (α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid) GluA1 subunit and the GABA receptor (γ-Aminobutyric Acid) subtype GABA_A α1 subunit in the hippocampus of the same animals.

RESULTS

We found no significant changes in locomotor activity (p > 0.05). The water T-maze data showed that 30 mg/kg dose significantly (p < 0.05) improved learning, memory, and the memory consolidation phase but had no effect on reversal learning (p > 0.05). Histological data revealed no neuronal morphological changes. Immunohistochemical analysis revealed increased expression of the AMPA GluA1 receptor subunit but there was no effect on GABA_A receptor α1 subunit expression in the CA1 and CA2 subregions of the hippocampus.

CONCLUSIONS

The C. asiatica extract therefore improved hippocampus-dependent spatial learning and memory in a dose-dependent manner in rats through the GluA1-containing AMPA receptor in the CA1 and CA2 sub regions of the hippocampus.

The developmental trinity of mind: Cognizance, executive control, and reasoning

This paper summarizes research on how cognizance, that is, awareness of mental processes, interacts with executive control and reasoning from childhood to adolescence. Central positions are that (a) cognizance changes extensively with age; (b) it contributes to the formation of executive control, and (c) mediates between executive control and reasoning. Cognizance recycles with changes in executive and inferential possibilities in four developmental cycles: it registers their present state, yielding insight into their operation, allowing their better management; this catalyzes their transformation into the next level. Implications for theory of intellectual development and practical implications for education are discussed. This article is categorized under: Psychology > Development and Aging Neuroscience > Cognition Neuroscience > Development Philosophy > Consciousness.

A relative bilingual advantage in switching with preparation: Nuanced explorations of the proposed association between bilingualism and task switching

Bilingual language switching may increase general switching efficiency, but the evidence on this question is mixed. We hypothesized that group differences in switching might be stronger at a long cue-target interval (CTI), which may better tap general switching abilities (Yehene & Meiran, 2007). Eighty Spanish-English bilinguals and 80 monolinguals completed a color-shape switching task, and an analogous language-switching task, varying CTI (short vs. long) in both tasks. With longer preparation time (long CTI), bilinguals exhibited significantly smaller task-switching costs than monolinguals, but only in the first half of trials. Group differences diminished with practice, though practice benefitted RTs on short CTI trials more than long, and bilinguals committed fewer errors with practice especially at short CTI. Groups did not differ in mixing costs; however, across CTIs and tasks, bilinguals and monolinguals alike, exhibited robust correlations between mixing costs, but not between switching costs. These results confirm an association between bilingualism and switching efficiency that may be magnified with manipulations that target general switching ability (or could reflect better ability to take advantage of preparation time). However, practice effects observed within experimental paradigms, and between task correlations in costs, may reflect cognitive mechanisms specific to laboratory tasks much more than associations with general switching ability and executive control mechanisms-for which more reliable and valid measures can hopefully be developed in future work. (PsycINFO Database Record

Positive Emotion Facilitates Cognitive Flexibility: An fMRI Study

Cognitive flexibility is the ability to switch rapidly between multiple goals. By using a task-switching paradigm, the present study investigated how positive emotion affected cognitive flexibility and the underlying neural mechanisms. After viewing pictures of different emotional valence (positive, negative, or neutral), participants discriminated whether a target digit in a specific color was odd or even. After a series of trials, the color of target stimuli was changed, i.e., the switch condition. Switch costs were measured by the increase of reaction times (RTs) in the switch trials compared to those in the repeat trials. Behavior results indicated that switch costs significantly decreased in the positive emotional condition, and increased in the negative emotional condition, compared with those in the neutral condition. Imaging data revealed enhanced activation in the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex (dACC) in switch trials than those in repeat trials. Moreover, the interaction between emotion (positive, negative, neutral) and trial type (repeat vs. switch) was significant. For switch trials, the activation of dACC decreased significantly in the positive condition, while increased significantly in the negative condition compared to neutral condition. By contrast, for repeat trials, no significant difference was observed for the activation of dACC among three emotional conditions. Our results showed that positive emotions could increase the cognitive flexibility and reduce the conflict by decreasing the activation of dACC.

Moral Reasoning in Children with Focal Brain Insults to Frontotemporal Regions

Neuroscientific evidence indicates that human social functioning is supported by a distributed network of frontal and temporal brain regions that undergoes significant development during childhood and adolescence. Clinical studies of individuals with early brain insults (EBI) to frontotemporal regions suggest that such lesions may interfere with the maturation of sociocognitive skills and lead to increased sociobehavioural problems. However, little attention has focussed on the direct assessment of sociocognitive skills, such as moral reasoning, following focal EBI. In the present study, the performance of 15 patients with focal EBI (8–16 years) was compared to that of 15 demographically matched controls on basic neuropsychological measures (IQ and executive functions), sociocognitive tasks (moral reasoning, moral decision-making and empathy) and parent reports of sociobehavioural problems and social adaptive skills. Patients with focal EBI had significantly lower levels of moral reasoning maturity, moral decision-making, and empathy than their matched controls, but did not differ on more general measures of cognition. Their parents also reported increased sociobehavioural problems. These findings suggest that focal EBI to frontotemporal regions can result in reduced sociocognitive capacities, more specifically moral reasoning, and increased vulnerability to sociobehavioural problems.