Comparative review of multifunctionality and ecosystem services in sustainable agriculture

Multifunctionality and provision of ecosystem services by livestock species and breeds at global level

Beyond providing food, livestock species are linked to a wide range of uses and ecosystem services (ESs). Based on information reported by 41 countries on 3 361 national breed populations to the Domestic Animal Diversity Information System of the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, we investigated how factors such as species, region, breed adaptedness, or management system associate with the recognition of provision of a set of 52 ESs. Among species, a greater number of cultural ESs were reported for horses (2.47 for horses vs 0.75 on average across all species), while the major ruminant species (cattle, goats and sheep) were on average associated with more provisioning ESs (2.99 vs 2.39), and more regulating and maintenance ESs (1.86 vs 1.32). Compared to European breeds, African livestock contribute more provisioning ES (3.95 vs 1.88). Native breeds and, to a lesser extent, locally adapted breeds, were linked to more ESs than were exotic breeds (5.97 and 4.10 vs 2.90, respectively), regardless of the ES category considered. The total number of ES reported was greater for breeds primarily kept under Back Yard/Farm Yard and extensive management systems than in other production environments. Different "bundles" of ES were identified in relation to the interdependence among themselves, or according to species or regional specificities. Overall, our results highlight that native and locally adapted breeds, which tend to be raised in less specialized production systems than exotic breeds, are reported to play multiple roles contributing to rural community livelihoods and environmental sustainability of food systems.

Spatial effects of the agricultural ecosystem services based on environmental kuznets curve in Mengyin county, China

Worldwide most agroecosystems effort to increase production and yields and leads to damages of a series of non-provisioning ecosystem services (ESs). To fill in the knowledge gaps pertaining to the understanding of complex relationship between agricultural harvests and other ESs, therefore this study aims to estimate the existence of Environmental Kuznets Curve (EKC) for agricultural ESs by incorporating the spatial factors. Based on the test of the spatial autocorrelation of agricultural ESs, the estimation results of spatial model are compared with general regression to explain the spatial effect of agricultural ESs. The results show that (1) contrary to expectation, the curve of the nonlinear relationship between agricultural ESs and annual household income is an inverted U-shape, and not an upright U-shape; (2) compared to non-spatial model, the turning point of the inverted U-shaped curve for agricultural ESs under the direct effect would happen earlier and happen later under the indirect effect; (3) years of formal education, vegetation coverage of field margin and cultivated land area have significantly impact on local agricultural ESs, and local perennial crops has significantly impact on agricultural ESs of neighboring villages. Results of this study have a promising application prospect to promote sustainable development of agriculture.

Environmental management on agricultural land: Cost benefit analysis of an integrated cropping system for provision of environmental public goods

Agricultural land covers a significant portion of the earths land surface. Although the predominant function of agricultural land is food production, environmental public goods, such as biodiversity or soil maintenance, are also essential for long-term sustainability. In arable farms the type of cropping system used has a major impact on delivery of these environmental goods. Low input, integrated and regenerative cropping systems aim to improve environmental outcomes of arable farming, with the goal of reducing external inputs by supporting internal regulation of system processes. However, the production of environmental goods does not have an immediate market value to the farmer, and often comes at a cost, particularly in the early stages of transition to a more sustainable system. We estimate the on-farm costs and benefits of an integrated cropping system during the first six years of transition from intensive conventional management at the Centre for Sustainable Cropping in north east Scotland. Although integrated cropping had better environmental outcomes, all crops had higher financial margins in the conventional system compared to the integrated system, which suffered a loss of over £500 per ha per year across the full rotation. This indicates that financial incentives are likely to be important to allow farmers to transition towards a more environmentally friendly cropping system.

Soil nematode abundances drive agroecosystem multifunctionality under short-term elevated CO2 and O3

The response of soil biotas to climate change has the potential to regulate multiple ecosystem functions. However, it is still challenging to accurately predict how multiple climate change factors will affect multiple ecosystem functions. Here, we assessed the short-term responses of agroecosystem multifunctionality to a factorial combination of elevated CO₂ (+200 ppm) and O₃ (+40 ppb) and identified the key soil biotas (i.e., bacteria, fungi, protists, and nematodes) concerning the changes in the multiple ecosystem functions for two rice varieties (Japonica, Nanjing 5055 vs. Wuyujing 3). We provided strong evidence that combined treatment rather than individual treatments of short-term elevated CO₂ and O₃ significantly increased the agroecosystem multifunctionality index by 32.3% in the Wuyujing 3 variety, but not in the Nanjing 5055 variety. Soil biotas exhibited an important role in regulating multifunctionality under short-term elevated CO₂ and O₃ , with soil nematode abundances better explaining the changes in ecosystem multifunctionality than soil biota diversity. Furthermore, the higher trophic groups of nematodes, omnivores-predators served as the principal predictor of agroecosystem multifunctionality. These results provide unprecedented new evidence that short-term elevated CO₂ and O₃ can potentially affect agroecosystem multifunctionality through soil nematode abundances, especially omnivores-predators. Our study demonstrates that high trophic groups were specifically beneficial for regulating multiple ecosystem functions and highlights the importance of soil nematode communities for the maintenance of agroecosystem functions and health under climate change in the future.

Spatial Characteristics of Land Use Multifunctionality and Their Trade-Off/Synergy in Urumqi, China: Implication for Land Space Zoning Management

Identifying and exploring the spatial characteristics of land use multifunctionality (LUMF) and their trade-off/synergy are the basis for promoting the coordinated development of LUMF, and have significant implications for land space zoning management. In this study, we integrated multi-source data to construct a multi-functional identification system of land use, and quantitatively identified agricultural production function (APF), urban life function (ULF), and ecological function (EF) from grid units. We used the mechanical equilibrium model and Spearman correlation variable analysis to explore the trade-off/synergy between the primary and secondary function of land use. The results show that LUMF has obvious spatial differentiation characteristics and significant composite characteristics. Functionality interweaves and overlaps spatially, creating trade-off/synergy between LUMF. Urumqi as a whole was at a coordinated level (73%). High urban life–low agricultural production and high ecology–low agricultural production were the main types of trade-off/synergy. APF and EF were dominant functions, and there was a significant synergistic relationship. APF and urban life-bearing function had a trade-off relationship. Based on the research results, zoning attempts were made as a reference. Finally, under the framework of regional function theory, we considered the sequential selection process and competition process of LUMF, and put forward proposals for land space zoning management.

Harnessing the Potential of Wheat-Pea Species Mixtures: Evaluation of Multifunctional Performance and Wheat Diversity

Species mixtures and heterogeneous crop populations are two promising approaches for diversified ecological cropping systems with increased resilience and reduced dependency on external inputs. Inter- and intraspecific diversity were evaluated in combination using 15 wheat (Triticum aestivum) entries, including line cultivars and heterogeneous populations (HPs), from central Europe and Hungary and one winter pea cultivar under organic conditions. Monocultures and wheat mixtures were evaluated multi-functionally for yield, quality, land use efficiency, crop protection, and wheat entry traits. Mixtures increased cereal grain quality, weed suppression, resource use efficiency, yield gain, and reduced lodging. Effects were stronger in 2018/19, which were characterized by dry and nutrient-poor conditions than in 2019/20 when nutrient levels were higher. Wheat entries varied considerably in protein content and yield in both mixtures and monocultures. Under higher nutrient availability, entry-based variation was reduced in both systems, and peas were suppressed. Because of low disease pressure, the wheat entries varied little in terms of disease protection services, and mixture effects on the disease were low. The multi-criteria framework identified stability of yield, yield gains, and quality under high environmental variability of mixtures as clear agronomic advantages with HPs being considerably more stable than line cultivars. Some line cultivars outperformed the HPs in either protein content or yield across environments but not both simultaneously. Trait analysis revealed a possible link between harvest index and reduced competition in mixtures, which can increase yield performance in specific line cultivars. System cultivar interactions were generally very low and highly dependent on environmental conditions. We conclude that while cultivar breeding for mixtures can be successful in monocultures, high environmental variation highlights the necessity of evaluating cultivars in mixtures. In addition, use of intraspecific diversity within interspecific mixed cropping systems can be a valuable addition to further improve mixture performance and its stability under increasing environmental stresses due to climate change.

How much do we know about trade-offs in ecosystem services? A systematic review of empirical research observations

As an important domain of sustainability science, trade-offs in ecosystem services (ES) is crucial for spatial planning to sustainably manage natural resources while satisfying the needs of local and non-local beneficiaries. However, there is still a growing debate in understanding, characterization, and visualization of the trade-off relationships. This paper systematically reviews a total of 473 articles, published in the last 16 years (2005-2020) through 135 academic journals, based on empirical studies conducted in over 80 countries, and led by the researcher from over 50 countries. Trade-off relationships are often visualized as spatial associations of ES, but very few articles have characterized trade-offs as the causal interaction among ES. More than two-thirds of the studies were carried out in temperate and sub-tropical regions, but we depicted an under-representation of the critical ecosystems in tropics. About 90% of the articles were based on funded research but the involvement of government institutions was very low (<10%). Trade-off analysis was based only on biophysical constraints of the ecosystem, as observed in more than 80% of the selected articles, without due regards of the divergence in utility functions of different stakeholders and ecosystem beneficiaries. This study identifies a total of 198 pairs of conflicting ES, of which the trade-off between crop production and carbon/climate services has the highest records of observation (i.e., as identified by 20% of the total studies). Further, this study identifies the major drivers (i.e., ecological and social) and stakeholders (i.e., land users and government agencies) of trade-off in ES, and major gaps in the analytical approach to understand the trade-off relationships. Based on our findings, we have discussed and recommended a number of research trajectories, including trans-disciplinary research considering both biophysical constraints and utility functions, in order to guide the future direction of sustainability science through the creation of win-win scenarios.

Ultimately, What is Forest Landscape Restoration in Practice? Embodiments in Sub-Saharan Africa and Implications for Future Design

Forest landscape restoration (FLR) is gaining ground as a novel, holistic approach to sustainable environmental management across developing countries. In sub-Saharan Africa, 30 countries have joined the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative to advance FLR goals. Although conceptually compelling, and despite efforts articulating initial implementation guidelines, divergent discourses and interpretations confound FLR translation into practice. We propose a characterization of FLR in practice using insights from political ecology; principles of ecological restoration and landscape sustainability science; and the philosophy, principles, and objectives of the FLR paradigm. Our qualitative analysis further draws on secondary data and insights from participant observation during FLR-related workshops. We build and organize the FLR characterization around answers to ten questions: why restoration; what purpose; for what desired outcomes; where (location and land uses); what spatial extent and scale(s); who; which techniques; how (approach/strategy); when and how long; and how much to achieve. We then assess early FLR strategic priorities for interventions across nine African countries and analyze five selected actual projects to illustrate use of the proposed FLR characterization framework. The illustrative characterization of both planned interventions and actual projects does not reflect all the proposed characteristics of FLR in practice. Missing features include the initial biophysical condition, the desired target ecosystem state, and evaluation dimensions, and ill-articulated aspects include cross-sectoral integrations. We contend that any significant differences between FLR conceptualization, including its principles, and the practical manifestations can undermine coherence, the value that the FLR approach adds, and its wider adoption. The proposed characterization of FLR in practice contributes to scholarly attempts to realign FLR conceptual philosophy, principles, and rhetoric to its practical manifestations in different contexts, and can inform future design of FLR undertakings for more inclusive landscape governance.

Capacity and flow of selected cultural ecosystem services: Case study of microregion Terchovská valley

Cultural ecosystem services (ESs) are assessed less often than other ES; however, their importance for human well-being is crucial. In this article, we focused on an assessment of capacity and flow of three selected cultural ES – Recreation and tourism, Natural and cultural heritage and Aesthetics and landscape character. The capacity in terms of cultural ES focuses on the potential of landscape features to provide cultural ES, while flow provides us with data about areas where these cultural ES are consumed by people. We can assume that in areas with higher capacity to provide cultural ES, there is also a higher flow of these services. The areas with the highest capacity to provide selected cultural ES are natural areas, such as natural and semi-natural meadows, pastures, alpine areas and wetlands, and cultural-historical sites. Such areas in our study area are the Malá Fatra National Park and areas with dispersed settlement, which we rank as the most valuable parts of the microregion Terchovská Valley. There are also areas with the highest flow of cultural ES. To know the relationship between the capacity of the landscape to provide cultural ES and the flow of cultural ES in this study area could be useful in terms of landscape protection and management.

Reducing herbicide use and leaching in agronomically performant maize-based cropping systems: An 8-year study

Irrigated maize-based Cropping Systems (CS) are questioned because of the high risk of herbicide transfer to water. An 8-year systemic experiment was conducted to i) compute a multi-performance comparison between a Conventional Maize Monoculture (MM_Conv) and four CS that aimed to reduce irrigation and herbicide leaching: MM_LI, a low-input MM using cover crop and Integrated Weed Management (IWM) techniques; MM_Still, a Strip-tillage MM using cover crop; MM_CT, a Conservation Tillage MM with cover crop; Maize-MSW, an IWM Maize rotated with Soybean and Wheat and ii) determine the main drivers and evaluate the influence of CS on herbicide leaching in maize. Drainage water was collected through 1-m depth lysimeter plates and analysed for 6 herbicide molecules and 1 degradation metabolite. MM_LI yielded 10.7 t ha^-1 close to MM_Conv (11.5 t ha^-1) despite a lower herbicide use (-57%) and irrigation (-21%). MM_LI and Maize-MSW had less drainage events compared to MM_Conv. MM_CT and MM_Still both yielded less (respectively 7.6 t ha^-1 and 6.2 t ha^-1) while their herbicide use increased (both +24%). Mean annual herbicide losses were 0.5 ± 1.0 g ha^-1 for MM_LI, 0.7 ± 1.2 g ha^-1 for Maize-MSW, 1.3 ± 2.1 g ha^-1 for MM_Still, 2.0 ± 4.8 g ha^-1 MM_Conv and 3.0 ± 9.6 g ha^-1 for MM_CT. Herbicide leaching remained variable but was consistently and mostly influenced by drainage volume. According to the CS, only 1.5 to 6.0 drainage events were responsible for 90% of the herbicide losses. High leaching peaks were identified for mesotrione and glyphosate and may indicate that preferential flows occurred, especially under MM_CT. Quantity applied had limited influence on herbicide leaching. To reduce the herbicide leaching risk, CS must concomitantly manage water quality and quantity through a combination of agroecological practices, as in MM_LI, a CS able to reach other technical objectives. Present study recommends assessing CS through a diversity of performance indicators.

Promoting Urban Agriculture and Its Opportunities and Challenges—A Global Review

Multifunctionality of urban agriculture can support the resolve of many urban challenges. Therefore, it is vital to understand the contribution of academic studies on urban agriculture practices as scientific information. The present study followed a systematic literature review based on the PRISMA method. Finally, 54 identified articles were analyzed. The review study mainly examined the contribution of academic literature on urban agriculture under four dimensions: the socio-economic context of the country, type of agriculture model, opportunities, and challenges. The results revealed the focus of academic literature on urban agriculture to show favoritism toward developed countries’ community gardens. Moreover, the leading academic focus on this discipline identifies multifunctionality. People’s motivations in developed countries tend to favor social, health-related, and educational benefits of urban agriculture; however, in developing countries, urban agriculture is more related to economic and ecological needs. Challenges for urban agriculture are also different among developed and developing countries. Nevertheless, existing academic studies have given comparatively less attention to identifying challenges, benefit groups of urban agriculture, and government support. Since urban agriculture is highly reliant on local factors, studying more about opportunities and challenges for urban agriculture under different socio-economic contexts and different agriculture models could be more beneficial to connect farming practices in cities with urban planning. Therefore, to make an adequate academic contribution to urban sustainability, future urban agriculture studies need to be more holistic.

Identification and Optimization of Production-Living-Ecological Space in an Ecological Foundation Area in the Upper Reaches of the Yangtze River: A Case Study of Jiangjin District of Chongqing, China

The identification of regional production-living-ecological space (PLES) is the basic work for the optimization of territorial space, which can point to the direction for the protection, utilization and restoration of regional territorial space. Identification and optimization of PLES in an ecological foundation area in the upper reaches of the Yangtze River is of great significance for ensuring national ecological security and promoting sustainable social development. In this study, Jiangjin District, located at the tail of the Three Gorges Reservoir area, was selected as a case study. Moreover, based on the land use data of the study area in 2018, the coordination among production, living and ecological functions are analyzed, and the PLES is identified by using the evaluation method of land production-living-ecological function (PLEF) and the coupling coordination degree model. Then, we formulated an optimized zoning scheme of the PLES according to the principles of ecological priority, area advantage and coordinated development. The results show that (1) The living function and production function presented obvious spatial consistency in the study area, while the spatial distribution of ecological function and production function presented significant spatial complementarity. (2) Four categories of spatial combinations can be identified in the study area. Overall, the study area presented a national spatial pattern with production-living-ecological balanced space (PLEBS) and ecological space (ES) as the main body. (3) The PLES in the study area can be divided into four categories. The ecological function should be determined by the ecological conservation area as the primary responsibility, and the comprehensive improvement zone should further improve the coupling and coordination relationship among the PLEF. Moreover, the main production-living and ecological improvement zone and the main production-ecological and living improvement zone should realize the coordinated development of the PLES on the basis of strengthening the leading function.

Evaluation and Classification of Rural Multifunction at a Grid Scale: A Case Study of Miyun District, Beijing

Rural areas are a natural, economic and social complex with multiple functions. Identifying rural multifunction scientifically is the basis for promoting efficient rural spatial planning and sustainable development strategy. In this paper, we calculated and characterized the rural production-living-ecological (PLE) functions at a grid scale of 300 × 300 m in Miyun District by establishing an evaluation index system. Several types of rural functional area were identified with the help of an ISO cluster unsupervised classification tool. Three main results were found as follows. (1) The values of the production, living, ecological functions and multifunction ranged from 0–0.101, 0–0.204, 0.009–0.241 and 0.009–0.302, respectively. Ecological function was dominant in this area. (2) The overall spatial patterns of production and living functions showed the characteristic of being “high in the south and low in the north”, and areas with high values were almost distributed around urban areas and the Miyun Reservoir. While for the ecological function and multifunction, they possessed the opposite characteristics to production and living functions, with high values concentrated in the mountainous areas in the northwest, northeast, east and south of Miyun District. (3) According to the clustering results, rural multifunction of Miyun District was divided into four types: ecological conservation, employment and residence, recreation and potential development, with the area proportions of 44.22%, 17.92%, 20.73% and 17.13%, respectively. Each functional type showed a characteristic of agglomeration. In the future, the study of rural multifunction at micro scales should be paid more attention to better understand the functional differences within the country. This research can provide a decision-making reference for demarcation of rural production-living-ecological space and compilation of spatial planning.

Towards an enhanced indication of provisioning ecosystem services in agro-ecosystems

Provisioning ecosystem services play a vital role in sustaining human well-being. Agro-ecosystems contribute a significant share of these services, besides food and fodder and also fuel and fibre as well as regulating and cultural ecosystem services. Until now, the indication of provisioning ecosystem services of agro-ecosystems has been based almost only on yield numbers of agricultural products. Such an indication is problematic due to several reasons which include a disregard of the role of significant anthropogenic contributions to ecosystem service co-generation, external environmental effects and strong dependence on site conditions. We argue for an enhanced indication of provisioning ecosystem services that considers multiple aspects of their delivery. The conceptual base for such an indication has been made by prior publications which have been reviewed. Relevant points were taken up in this article and condensed into a conceptual model in order to develop a more holistic and expanded set of indictors, which was then exemplarily applied and tested in three case studies in Germany. The case studies represent different natural conditions, and the indicator set application showed that ecosystem services (ES) flow-in terms of output alone-does not characterise agro-ecosystems sufficiently. The proposed aspects of provisioning ecosystem services can give a fuller picture, for example, by input-output relationships, as it is possible by just using single indicators. Uncertainties as well as pros and cons of such an approach are elaborated. Finally, recommendations for an enhanced indication of provisioning ecosystem services in agro-ecosystems that can help to integrate agricultural principles with ideas of sustainability and site-specific land use are derived.

A comprehensive approach for agroecosystem services and disservices valuation

The use of the ecosystem services approach for ecosystem management, including the valuation of ecosystem services, has grown in recent decades. Although a common framework is used, each ecosystem has its own characteristics. The agroecosystem, for example, is an anthropised ecosystem where ecosystem service flows are highly interrelated with the environment, positively or negatively. Therefore, agroecosystem services are usually accompanied by disservices. The valuation of agroecosystem services and disservices requires adaptation of existing ecosystem services paradigms to accommodate the innate agroecosystem idiosyncrasies. To this end, in this study, a comprehensive approach for valuation of agroecosystem services and disservices was proposed and validated in a semi-arid western Mediterranean agricultural area through stakeholder assessment, using a choice experiment. The results suggest that all categories of services (provisioning, regulating, and cultural) should be taken into account when valuing agroecosystem services and disservices. In particular, food provision (a provisioning service), water (a provisioning disservice), local climate regulation and biodiversity (regulating services), waste treatment and water purification (regulating disservices), and recreation and tourism (cultural services) are relevant for this purpose. Their relative importance in agroecosystems valuation reached 70% for agroecosystem services and 30% for disservices. Specifically, biodiversity (38%) emerged as the most relevant agroecosystem service to be valued, followed by recreation and tourism (20%), local climate regulation (7%), and food provision (5%). Among the agroecosystem disservices, water and waste treatment (15%), and water purification (15%) together contributed to 30% of the total importance. Agroecosystems should be valued considering their multifunctional character and the integration of agroecosystem services and disservices.

An integrated approach of Ecological Footprint (EF) and Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP) in human ecology: A base for planning toward sustainability

Environmental challenges to natural resources have been attributed to human behavior and traditional agricultural production techniques. Natural resource degradation in agriculture has always been a prime concern in agro ecological research and sustainability analysis. There are many techniques for assessing environmental performance; one of which, ecological footprint (EF), assesses human pressure on the environment and natural resources. The main purpose of this study was calculation of ecological indices including biocapacity (BC) and EF of rural areas of Fars province of Iran. The study was accomplished using survey and structured interviews consisting of three main questionnaires in two different steps. Different agricultural stakeholders, including farmers (for the first step) as well as the policymakers, extension managers and authorities (for the second step) were interviewed. Based on multi-stage stratified random sampling, 50 villages and 423 farmers were selected. Face validity and reliability of the questionnaires were assessed by a panel of specialists as well as conducting a pilot study, respectively. The paradigmatic perspectives of agricultural policy makers and managers (22 individuals) were also analyzed using another specific questionnaire by Analytical Hierarchy Process (AHP). Findings revealed that most of the studied villages faced a critical environmental condition due to the results of ecological indicator which was calculated in the study. According to the four main components of human ecology (POET model) including Population, Organization, Environment and Technology, village groups that differed in terms of sustainability level also showed significantly differences due to population, social participation, use of green technologies and attitude towards diverse environmental management paradigms. The causal model also revealed that population, green technology, social participation and attitude toward frontier economics, which were in accordance with the elements of human ecology model, were the main factors affecting the ecological index. Finally, AHP results determined the dominant economic perspectives of agricultural authorities. A paradigm shift toward the comprehensive paradigm of eco-development plus consideration of the results of the ecological indicator calculation as the base of agricultural planning at the local level were recommended.

Multispecies for multifunctions: combining four complementary species enhances multifunctionality of sown grassland

Assessing the overall performance of ecosystems requires a quantitative evaluation of multifunctionality. We investigated plant species diversity effects on individual functions and overall multifunctionality in a grassland experiment with sown monocultures and mixtures comprising four key grass and legume species. Nitrogen fertilisation rates were 50, 150, and 450 kg N ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹ (N50, N150, N450). Ten functions were measured representing forage production, N cycling, and forage quality, all being related to either productivity or environmental footprint. Multifunctionality was analysed by a novel approach using the mean log response ratio across functions. Over three experimental years, mixture effects benefited all forage production and N cycling functions, while sustaining high forage quality. Thus, mixture effects did not provoke any trade-off among the analysed functions. High N fertilisation rates generally diminished mixture benefits. Multifunctionality of four-species mixtures was considerably enhanced, and mixture overall performance was up to 1.9 (N50), 1.8 (N150), and 1.6 times (N450) higher than in averaged monocultures. Multifunctionality of four-species mixtures at N50 was at least as high as in grass monocultures at N450. Sown grass–legume mixtures combining few complementary species at low to moderate N fertilisation sustain high multifunctionality and are a ‘ready-to-use’ option for the sustainable intensification of agriculture.

Landscape service flow dynamics in the metropolitan area of Córdoba (Argentina)

Human decisions, policies, and management strategies play an important role in structuring landscape patterns in a metropolitan area. Land-use/land-cover (LULC) changes can be considered probably the most important factor affecting the environment and the maintenance of landscape service flow. In particular, processes such as agricultural intensification, deforestation, urbanization and industrialization affect landscape heterogeneity in terms of composition and configuration. However, the multifunctional aspect of LULC as well as traditional agricultural practices can contribute to the maintenance of landscape service flow. This research aims to analyze and assess: (1) LULC dynamics and change from 1988 to 2019 within the metropolitan area of Córdoba (Argentina); (2) the effect of this change on landscape composition and configuration; (3) the flow of landscape services from 1988 to 2019, with the identification of hot-spots of landscape service provision. To analyze LULC dynamics and change within the study area, three Landsat images were utilized, while change detection analysis has been performed to identify the areas most affected by changes, the spatial distribution of change and the change trajectories of LULC classes in terms of landscape composition and configuration. Finally, the valuation of landscape service flow has been carried out by placing an economic value on the LULC classes, through the use of proxies. LULC pattern change has resulted in the expansion of extensive agriculture. The total variation from 1988 to 2019 has highlighted a significant reduction of Horticulture, Forests, and Grasslands, which have been converted into other classes (Urban and Extensive Agriculture). This conversion of LULC classes has had profound effects on landscape service flow, which guarantees the well-being of local communities. This research has contributed to the knowledge of where the hot-spots of landscape service' provision are located by helping landscape managers to identify suitable local policies able to preserve them, thus avoiding their loss, and enhancing landscape integrity, functionality, and resilience.

Quantifying and optimizing agroecosystem services in China's Taihu Lake Basin

This study examines rice-wheat agroecosystems in the Taihu Lake Basin: one of China's largest commercial grain-farming areas and a region that has faced severe deterioration in water quality. Spatiotemporal changes over the period 1986-2015 in four key ecosystem services (ESs) - grain yield, nitrogen loss, N₂O emission, and soil organic carbon (SOC) accumulation - were examined by applying the Agricultural Production Systems Simulator (APSIM) across the basin at county level. Two straw return modes (namely, full straw return versus no return) and three fertilizer-use reduction modes (-5%, -10%, and -20%) were set up to generate six combined scenarios, to propose pathways that reduce the variability of grain production and improve water quality by reducing loss of nitrogen (N loss) - in consideration of the Basin's vital role in agricultural production and the need to protect water quality. Results show that annual grain yield and net five-year difference in SOC accumulation exhibited an overall downward trend from 1986 to 2015, while N₂O emission and N loss increased. Two pairs of ESs showed desirable synergies (increasing grain yield and increasing SOC accumulation; decreasing N₂O emission and decreasing N loss), encompassing 45.8% and 2.4% of total cultivated land area respectively. Another two pairs exhibited desirable trade-offs (increasing SOC accumulation and decreasing N loss; increasing SOC accumulation and decreasing N₂O emission), accounting for 19.0%, and 2.4% of total cultivated land area respectively. There was considerable overlap within counties, which showed high values of grain yield, N₂O emission, nitrogen loss, and SOC accumulation in the Basin; but values were relatively high in the east and relatively low in the west. Fertilizer use has significant positive correlations with grain yield and SOC accumulation, and it reduces N loss and N₂O emission. Straw return was predicted to raise grain yields and net five-year difference in SOC accumulation and to reduce N loss, but also to increase N₂O emissions. Recommended strategies to reduce N loss and stabilize grain supply in the study area are 1) reducing fertilizer use by 20% in areas where N application was above 490 kg N/ha, and 2) implementing straw return and reducing fertilizer use by 5% for areas where N application ranged between 380 and 490 kg N/ha.

Knowledge Structures and Components of Rural Resilience in the 2010s: Conceptual Development and Implications

Resilience is being widely adopted as a comprehensive analytical framework for understanding sustainability dynamics, despite the conceptual challenges in developing proxies and indicators for researchers and policy makers. In our study, we observed how the concept of resilience undergoes continued extension within the rural resilience literature. We comprehensively reviewed rural resilience literature using keyword co-occurrence network (KCN) analysis and a systematic review of shortlisted papers. We conducted the KCN analysis for 1186 papers to characterize the state of the rural resilience literature, and systematically reviewed 36 shortlisted papers to further examine how rural resilience analysis and its assessment tools are helping understand the complexity and interdependence of rural social-ecological systems, over three three-year periods from 2010 to 2018. The results show that the knowledge structure built by the high frequency of co-occurrence keywords remains similar over the three-year periods, including climate change, resilience, vulnerability, adaptation, and management, whereas the components of knowledge have greatly expanded, indicating an increased understanding of rural system dynamics. Through the systematic review, we found that developing resilience assessment tools is often designed as a process to strengthen adaptive capacity at the household or community level in response to global processes of climate change and economic globalization. Furthermore, community resilience is found to be an interesting knowledge component that has characterized rural resilience literature in the 2010s. Based on our study, we summarized conceptual characteristics of rural resilience and discussed the challenges and implications for researchers and policy makers.

Measuring Multifunctional Agricultural Landscapes

Multifunctional agriculture (MFA) has attracted increased attention from academics and policymakers in recent years. Academic researchers have utilised various approaches to assess and measure the multifunctionality of agriculture and rural landscapes. This paper outlines the nature of MFA and key supporting policies, before reviewing the applied research approaches, drawing primarily from the European Union and China where specific policies on MFA have been implemented to support rural development and promote sustainable rural communities. Four distinct types of valuation of modern MFA are recognised: economic, biophysical, socio-cultural, and holistic. Following a search of both the recent and older MFA literature, evaluations of the strengths and weaknesses of quantitative, qualitative, and mixed methods applications are provided using examples from a range of recent studies. The review illustrates the diversity of approaches to measure MFA. While noting that many studies operate at a landscape scale, the challenge remains that the lack of commonality in the research approaches applied means it is difficult to provide effective comparisons between studies or to compare findings. A future research agenda will need to emphasise the need for more consideration of the roles of MFA research to support decision-makers, especially policy makers, but also farmers who largely make decisions for individual farms but, if considered collectively, can transform production systems at a landscape scale.

Developing a Landscape Design Approach for the Sustainable Land Management of Hill Country Farms in New Zealand

Landscape modification associated with agricultural intensification has brought considerable challenges for the sustainable development of New Zealand hill country farms. Addressing these challenges requires an appropriate approach to support farmers and design a better landscape that can have beneficial environmental outcomes whilst ensuring continued profitability. In this paper we suggest using geodesign and theories drawn from landscape ecology to plan and design multifunctional landscapes that offer improved sustainability for hill country farm systems and landscapes in New Zealand. This approach suggests that better decisions can be made by considering the major landscape services that are, and could be, provided by the landscapes in which these farm systems are situated. These important services should be included in future landscape design of hill country by creating a patterning and configuration of landscape features that actively maintains or restores important landscape functioning. This will help to improve landscape health and promote landscape resilience in the face of climate change. Through illustrating the potential of this type of approach for wider adoption we believe that the proposed conceptual framework offers a valuable reference for sustainable farm system design that can make an important contribution to advancing environmental management globally as well as in New Zealand.

Soil and farm management effects on yield and nutrient concentrations of food crops in East Africa

Crops that grow on soils with higher fertility often have higher yields and higher tissue nutrient concentrations. Whether this is the case for all crops, and which soil and management factors, or combinations mostly affect yields and food nutrient concentrations however, is poorly understood. Here, the main aim was to evaluate effects of soil and management factors on crop yields and food nutrient concentrations in (i) grain, fruit and tuber crops, and (ii) between high and low soil fertility areas. Total elemental concentrations of Mg, P, S, K, Ca, Fe, Zn, Mn and Cu were measured using a portable X-Ray Fluorescence Spectrometer (pXRF) in maize grain (Zea mays; Teso South, Kenya: n = 31; Kapchorwa, Uganda n = 30), cassava tuber (Manihot esculenta; Teso South: n = 27), and matooke fruit (Musa acuminata; Kapchorwa, n = 54). Soil properties measured were eCEC, total N and C, pH, texture, and total elemental content. Farm management variables (fertilisation, distance to household, and crop diversity) were collected. Canonical Correspondence Analyses (CCA) with permutation rank tests identified driving factors of alterations in nutrient concentrations. Maize grain had higher correlations with soil factors (CCA > 80%), than cassava tuber (76%) or matooke fruit (39%). In contrast, corresponding correlations to management factors were much lower (8-39%). The main soil properties affecting food nutrients were organic matter and texture. Surprisingly, pH did not play an important role. A positive association of crop diversity with nutrient concentration and yield in lower fertility areas was observed. Considering, food nutrient composition, apart from yield, as response variables in agronomic trials (e.g. fertilisation or soil improvement strategies), would contribute towards discounting the notion that crops growing on fertile soils always produce healthy and high quality foods.

Sustainable Agriculture and Its Implementation Gap—Overcoming Obstacles to Implementation

There are numerous studies and publications about sustainable agriculture. Many papers argue that sustainable agriculture is necessary, and analyze how this goal could be achieved. At the same time, studies question the sustainability of agriculture. Several obstacles, including theoretical, methodological, personal, and practical issues, hinder or slow down implementation, resulting in the so-called implementation gap. This study addresses potential obstacles that limit the implementation of sustainable agriculture in practice. To overcome the obstacles and to improve implementation, different solutions and actions are required. This study aims to illustrate ways of minimizing or removing obstacles and how to overcome the implementation gap. Unfortunately, the diversity of obstacles and their complexity mean there are no quick and easy solutions. A broader approach that addresses different dimensions and stakeholders is required. Areas of action include institutionalization, assessment and system development, education and capacity building, and social and political support. To realize the suggestions and recommendations and to improve implementation, transdisciplinary work and cooperation between many actors are required.

Seeding and Overseeding Native Hayseed Support Plant and Soil Arthropod Communities in Agriculture Areas

Using native seed mixtures to create or recover grassland habitats in rotation to crops or in strips surrounding fields is considered a cost-effective practice to enhance ecosystem resilience and agro-biodiversity. The aim of this research was to assess the effects of native hayseed mixtures on plant and microarthropod communities in an agricultural area of Northern Italy. Three different experimental treatments were set up. The first was a control (C) (i.e., non-seeded plots left to spontaneous vegetation succession after ploughing no deeper than 15 cm). The second, hayseed seeded (Hs) after ploughing no deeper than 15 cm. The third experimental treatment was hayseed overseeded (Ov) on the resident plant community after only a superficial harrowing. Ov plots exhibited the preeminent positive effects on the total productivity and quality of the grassland in terms of total vegetation cover, cover and richness of typical grassland species (i.e., Molinio-Arrhenatheretea species), and cover of legumes, grasses and perennial species. Moreover, Ov sites exhibited the highest abundance of microarthropod taxa and soil biological quality (QBS-ar) but only in spring, when the disturbance of ploughing negatively affected Hs and C plots. On the other hand, Hs sites showed a great reduction of invasive alien (i.e., Ambrosia artemisiifolia and Artemisia verlotiorum) and segetal weed species (i.e., Capsella bursa-pastoris and Spergula arvensis) in terms of cover. This study provides valuable indication on using hayseed mixtures to create grassland habitats as reservoir of native flora and soil biodiversity in agriculture areas.

Local Scale Prioritisation of Green Infrastructure for Enhancing Biodiversity in Peri-Urban Agroecosystems: A Multi-Step Process Applied in the Metropolitan City of Rome (Italy)

Urban–rural interfaces represent complex systems that require complex solutions for sustainable development and resilience against pollution, habitat fragmentation, biodiversity loss and impaired flux of ecosystem services (ES). Green infrastructure (GI) is increasingly recognised as an effective tool for addressing such a complexity, but needs priority setting to maximise benefits and minimise drawbacks of implementation. Therefore, a prioritisation approach focused on biodiversity and ES in peri-urban areas is required. In the present work, a systematic and hierarchical framework is proposed for setting priority GI objectives, location and actions aimed at enhancing local biodiversity, ES flux and farming sustainability in urban peripheries. By means of a case study in the Metropolitan City of Rome, the framework allowed identification of the main demand for ES and biodiversity; the most suitable location for GI implementation; and the best cost-effective actions. The GI implementation showed an improvement in terms of wooded hedgerow density, an increase regarding the ecological connectivity of riparian ecosystems, and an increment of agroecosystems designated to enhance the ecological network and wildlife support. Finally, the prioritisation framework contributes to fostering environmental benefits while complying with regulations and management practices from the regional to the farm/field decision level.

Assessing Food Systems and Their Impact on Common Pool Resources and Resilience

The ongoing expansion of agro-industrial food systems is associated with severe socio-ecological problems. For a closer look at the socio-ecological impacts, we analyze the capacity of six food systems to provide farm-based agroecosystem services with the Agroecosystem Service Capacity (ASC) approach. At the same time, we analyze how food systems affect the management of common pool resources (CPR). Our findings show that indigenous peoples and agroecological food systems can have up to three times the ASC-index of agro-industrial food systems. Through their contribution to the sustainable management of cultural landscapes with robust institutions for the management of CPRs, food systems contribute to socio-ecological integrity. On the other hand, regional and agro-industrial food systems with a lower ASC-index contribute less to socio-ecological integrity, and they undermine and open up common property institutions for robust CPR management. As a result, they appropriate (or grab) access to CPRs that are vital for food systems with higher ASC-indexes resulting from a robust management of CPRs. Strengthening a robust management of CPRs could put a halt to the ongoing expansion of food systems with a low ASC-index by replacing them with a high ASC-index to prevent an exacerbation of the current socio-ecological situation.

Environmental and socio-economic resources at the landscape level - Potentials for sustainable land use in the Georgian Greater Caucasus

Mountain regions cover one quarter of the Earth's terrestrial surface, and are both valuable and vulnerable areas with complex human-environmental interrelationships. In this coupled system, land-use changes induced by political or socio-economic transformations generate consequences for ecological landscape functions like soil productivity and species richness, and integrative land-use concepts provide the potential of a sustainable land development. In the Kazbegi region in the central Greater Caucasus of Georgia, these transformations further lead to landscape-structure change and population marginalization. Hence, we developed three agricultural land-use scenarios that meet Agenda 2030 Sustainable Development Goals to ensure a sustainable rural land development and the conservation of mountain ecosystems. Our normative scenario approach integrates quantitative and qualitative findings of empirical research in landscape ecology, soil science, vegetation ecology as well as agronomics and socio-economics. According to the examined environmental and socio-economic resources, we defined various scenario logics and normative assumptions that combine optimized livestock production (in dairy cow keeping and cattle fattening) with ecological limitations to maintain the functioning of mountain ecosystems. The rule-based scenarios achieved measurably increased outputs in biomass yields, livestock production and related revenues at the regional scale. Further, GIS generated scenario maps demonstrate the related land-use patterns spatially explicit and in high resolution, and visualize the alternative future from local to the regional scale. In conclusion, scenario development helps to determine region-specific and integrated land-use options to provide a sound base for land users and decision makers. Based on research on multiple landscape functions, this approach can assist sustainable land development in a mountain region.

Towards resilience through systems-based plant breeding. A review

How the growing world population can feed itself is a crucial, multi-dimensional problem that goes beyond sustainable development. Crop production will be affected by many changes in its climatic, agronomic, economic, and societal contexts. Therefore, breeders are challenged to produce cultivars that strengthen both ecological and societal resilience by striving for six international sustainability targets: food security, safety and quality; food and seed sovereignty; social justice; agrobiodiversity; ecosystem services; and climate robustness. Against this background, we review the state of the art in plant breeding by distinguishing four paradigmatic orientations that currently co-exist: community-based breeding, ecosystem-based breeding, trait-based breeding, and corporate-based breeding, analyzing differences among these orientations. Our main findings are: (1) all four orientations have significant value but none alone will achieve all six sustainability targets; (2) therefore, an overarching approach is needed: "systems-based breeding," an orientation with the potential to synergize the strengths of the ways of thinking in the current paradigmatic orientations; (3) achieving that requires specific knowledge development and integration, a multitude of suitable breeding strategies and tools, and entrepreneurship, but also a change in attitude based on corporate responsibility, circular economy and true-cost accounting, and fair and green policies. We conclude that systems-based breeding can create strong interactions between all system components. While seeds are part of the common good and the basis of agrobiodiversity, a diversity in breeding approaches, based on different entrepreneurial approaches, can also be considered part of the required agrobiodiversity. To enable systems-based breeding to play a major role in creating sustainable agriculture, a shared sense of urgency is needed to realize the required changes in breeding approaches, institutions, regulations and protocols. Based on this concept of systems-based breeding, there are opportunities for breeders to play an active role in the development of an ecologically and societally resilient, sustainable agriculture.

How agricultural multiple ecosystem services respond to socioeconomic factors in Mengyin County, China

Provisioning services have always been the main focus of agriculture, and which have led to a decline in biodiversity and have damaged a number of other services. Agriculture should contribute to current and future food security while producing multiple ecosystem services (ES). Restoration outcomes of multiple ES were affected by different socioeconomic drivers, thus a better understanding of how multiple ES respond to socioeconomic drivers can help to restore multiple ES. This paper used rural people's perceptions of ES to quantify and map ecosystem service obtainment and demand in the Mengyin County, China. An integrative index of multiple ecosystem services (IMES) was used to effectively aggregate the values of multiple ES. The threat categorization framework is designed to communicate the degree to which the adequate and sustainable provision of multiple ES is threatened, in order to prioritize conservation actions. The results revealed that 6 townships in the Mengyin County exhibited an excessive obtainment situation (demand is less than obtainment) of multiple ES; an insufficient obtainment situation (demand is greater than obtainment) of multiple ES was mainly situated in the northern part of Mengyin County. Overall, the current state of multiple ES across Mengyin County is classified as "Endangered" classification according to application of threat categorization framework. It is necessary to restructure and manage socioeconomic factors for multiple ES. At national level, the macro decision-making (controlling population density) and the mechanisms (attracting high-quality human resources into the rural) will play an important role in promoting multiple ES management, and it is necessary to provide 3 or more years of tailored educational resources for rural residents to advance multiple ES in agricultural landscape. Development of agricultural PES programs in China that enable farmers to profit from production ES is a sustainable strategy for increasing multiple ecosystem services.

A socio-scientific analysis of the environmental and health benefits as well as potential risks of cassava production and consumption

Due to its high adaptability, cassava (Manihot esculenta Crantz) is one of the world's most cultivated and consumed plants after maize and rice. However, there are relatively few scientific studies on this important crop. The objective of this review was therefore to summarize and discuss the available information on cassava cropping in order to promote sustainable practices in terms of production and consumption. Cassava cultivation has been expanding recently at the global scale and is widely consumed in most regions of South America, Africa, and Asia. However, it is also characterized by the presence in its roots of potentially toxic hydrocyanic acid. Furthermore, cassava can also absorb pollutants as it is currently cultivated near roads or factories and generally without consideration for potential sources of soil, water, or atmospheric pollution. Careful washing, peeling, and adequate preparation before eating are therefore crucial steps for reducing human exposure to both environmental pollutants and natural hydrocyanic acid. At present, there is not enough precise data available on this staple food crop. To improve our knowledge on the nutritive benefits versus health risks associated with cassava consumption, further research is necessary to compare cassava cultivars and precisely study the influence of preparation methods.

Tropical grasslands: A pivotal place for a more multi-functional agriculture

Tropical grasslands represent a pivotal arena for the sustainable intensification of agriculture in the coming decades. The abundant ecosystem services provided by the grasslands, coupled with the aversion to further forest destruction, makes sustainable intensification of tropical grasslands a high policy priority. In this article, we provide an inventory of agricultural initiatives that would contribute to the sustainable intensification of the tropical grassland agro-ecosystem, and we recommend a shift in the scientific priorities of animal scientists that would contribute to realization of a more agro-ecological and multi-functional agriculture in the world's tropical grasslands.