Environmental impacts of lithium production showing the importance of primary data of upstream process in life-cycle assessment

Early-stage recovery of lithium from spent batteries via CO2-assisted leaching optimized by response surface methodology

Recycling lithium (Li) from spent lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) due to the depletion of natural resources and potential toxicity is becoming a progressively favourable measure to realize green sustainability. Presently, the prevalent recycling technique relying on pyrometallurgy lacks the capability to extract lithium. Meanwhile, conventional hydrometallurgical processes frequently employ robust acidic solutions like sulfuric acid and precipitation agents such as sodium carbonate. Unfortunately, this approach tends to result in the extraction of lithium at the end of a lengthy process chain, leading to associated losses and creating challenges in managing complex waste. This study addresses a cost-effective and environmentally friendly early-stage lithium recovery from the thermally conditioned black mass. In this sense, a thermally conditioned black mass is subjected to the carbonization process in a water solution to transform the water-insoluble Li phase into soluble lithium bicarbonate (LiHCO3) and carbonate (Li2CO3) facilitating its selective separation from other elements. Response surface methodology (RSM)-a statistical tool integrated with central composite design (CCD) is employed to optimize the parameters for Li recovery. Temperature, solid-liquid (S/L) ratio, leaching time and CO2 flow rate are considered as variable factors in modelling the optimum recycling process. A quadratic regression model is developed for Li recovery and based on ANOVA analysis, (S/L) ratio, temperature and time are identified as statistically significant factors. Experimental results demonstrate a maximum leaching efficiency of lithium with optimized parameter set, achieving a recovery rate of 97.18% with a fit response of 93.54%.

Life cycle assessment of a LiFePO4 cylindrical battery

Reduction of the environmental impact, energy efficiency and optimization of material resources are basic aspects in the design and sizing of a battery. The objective of this study was to identify and characterize the environmental impact associated with the life cycle of a 7.47 Wh 18,650 cylindrical single-cell LiFePO4 battery. Life cycle assessment (LCA), the SimaPro 9.1 software package, the Ecoinvent 3.5 database and the ReCiPe 2016 impact assessment method were used for this purpose. Environmental impacts were modelled and quantified using the dual midpoint-endpoint approach and the "cradle-to-gate" model. The results showed the electrodes to be the battery components with the highest environmental impact (41.36% of the total), with the negative electrode being the most unfavourable (29.8 mPt). The ageing, calibration and testing process (53.97 mPt) accounts for 97.21% of the total impact associated with the production process's consumption of energy, and 41.20% of the total impact associated with the battery. This new knowledge will allow a more detailed view of the environmental impact of cylindrical cell LiFePO4 batteries, favouring the identification of critical points to enhance their sustainable production.

Social, economic and environmental benefits of organic waste home composting in Iran

Organic waste management is challenging in low-middle income countries. Environmental impacts and high management costs affect the sustainable development of cities, an issue that is exacerbated by the lack of social involvement. The research conducted in Iran aims to assess the benefits of organic waste home composting in Shiraz to improve solid waste management (SWM) sustainability. The introduction of a pilot project to assess home composting systems was described, together with an economic, social and environmental analysis. The current SWM system (S0) has been compared with the new strategy proposed (S1), where home composting is considered to be introduced to collect about 10% of the municipal solid waste generated in a 10-year horizon. An economic balance related to the capital costs and operational costs of both systems was introduced, in parallel with a life cycle assessment (LCA) of the SWM system, and a questionnaire survey of the local population. Results showed that S1 leads to around 5% economic savings for the municipality due to the avoidance of organic waste transportation and disposal. Environmental benefits include a lowering of CO2-Eq emissions of about 19,076 tonnes year-1. In addition, about 28% of the interviewed (n = 319) agreed to employ the home composting system at home (CI 5.5%, 95% of confidence level) supporting the theory that about 10% of the organic waste can be segregated and home-composted. The research underlines that home composting can contribute to improve the sustainability of SWM systems in developing countries.

Life cycle assessment and carbon reduction potential prediction of electric vehicles batteries

Electric vehicles (EVs) battery is a crucial component of energy storage components for electric vehicles. However, the environmental impact of EVs battery is still not clear. Therefore, this paper establishes a cradle-to-cradle life cycle assessment (LCA) frame and clarifies the environmental impacts on the entire lifespan of EVs battery in China. Specifically, the environmental impact of battery production, battery use, and recycling & disposal stages are analyzed and measured. In addition, the carbon reduction potential of recycling and secondary use under a future electricity mix is estimated. Results show that: (1) The production stage of EVs battery with the carbon emission of 105 kgCO2-eq/kWh, which has the most significant impact on the environment. (2) In the recycling process, cascade utilization can reduce 1.536 kgCO2-eq/kWh carbon emission. In terms of recycling methods, hydrometallurgy can reduce the most carbon emission (13.3 kgCO2-eq/kWh), followed by the combined hydro-pyrometallurgical process (8.11 kgCO2-eq/kWh) and pyrometallurgy (0.57 kgCO2-eq/kWh). (3) Under the estimated electricity mix in 2030, 2040, and 2050, the carbon emission in battery production can be approximately reduced by 31.9 %, 45 %, and 48.1 %, respectively.

Evaluating the Environmental Impact of Single-Use and Multi-Use Surgical Staplers with Staple Line Buttressing in Laparoscopic Bariatric Surgery

PURPOSE

Operation rooms have a large environmental impact. Single-use staplers (SUS) are widely used surgical instruments that contribute to resource consumption and waste generation, whereas multi-use staplers (MUS) can greatly reduce the environmental impact of surgery. The staple lines are often reinforced with buttressing material to prevent leaks and bleeding. We explore current clinical practice and environmental concerns regarding stapling and buttressing, as well as the environmental impact of staple line buttressing in sleeve gastrectomy (SG) and Roux-en-Y gastric bypass (RYGB). Furthermore, we extend this analysis by taking packaging material and the lithium in power supplies into consideration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A survey of bariatric surgeons was conducted to assess stapler and buttressing use in clinical practice. We deconstructed and analyzed the product and packaging composition of a commonly used SUS with separate staple line reinforcement (Echelon Flex™ with Echelon Endopath™, Ethicon) and MUS (Signia™ with Tri-Staple™ reinforced reloads, Medtronic), where the buttressing material was delivered separately or already incorporated in the reload cartridge, respectively. Both systems were compared regarding total waste generation, resource use (determined as total material requirement), and greenhouse gas emission caused by their lithium content.

RESULTS

60 mm cartridges were most frequently used in bariatric surgery, and 67% of surveyed surgeons applied staple line reinforcement. MUS with pre-attached buttressing resulted in a reduction of waste, material consumption, and greenhouse gas emissions compared to SUS with separate buttressing: they reduced product waste by 40% (SG and RYBG), packaging waste by 60% (SG) and 57% (RYGB), resource consumption by more than 90%, and greenhouse gas emissions related to the lithium in the batteries by 99.7%. Preloaded buttressing produced less waste than separate buttressing per stapler firing.

CONCLUSION

The environmental impact of surgery can be greatly reduced by using MUS with pre-attached buttressing rather than SUS with separate buttressing.

Tracing the origin of lithium in Li-ion batteries using lithium isotopes

Rechargeable lithium-ion batteries (LIB) play a key role in the energy transition towards clean energy, powering electric vehicles, storing energy on renewable grids, and helping to cut emissions from transportation and energy sectors. Lithium (Li) demand is estimated to increase considerably in the near future, due to the growing need for clean-energy technologies. The corollary is that consumer expectations will also grow in terms of guarantees on the origin of Li and the efforts made to reduce the environmental and social impact potentially associated with its extraction. Today, the LIB-industry supply chain is very complex, making it difficult for end users to ensure that Li comes from environmentally and responsible sources. Using an innovative geochemical approach based on the analysis of Li isotopes of raw and processed materials, we show that Li isotope 'fingerprints' are a useful tool for determining the origin of lithium in LIB. This sets the stage for a new method ensuring the certification of Li in LIB.

Life Cycle Assessment of a Lithium-Ion Battery Pack Unit Made of Cylindrical Cells

Saving energy is a fundamental topic considering the growing energy requirements with respect to energy availability. Many studies have been devoted to this question, and life cycle assessment (LCA) is increasingly acquiring importance in several fields as an effective way to evaluate the energy demand and the emissions associated with products’ life cycles. In this work, an LCA analysis of an existent lithium-ion battery pack (BP) unit is presented with the aim to increase awareness about its consumption and offering alternative production solutions that are less energy intensive. Exploiting the literature data about cradle-to-grave and cradle-to-gate investigations, and after establishing reasonable approximations, the main BP sub-elements were considered for this study, such as the plastic cells support, the Li-ion cells brick, the PCBs for a battery management system (BMS), the liquid-based battery thermal management system (BTMS) and the BP container. For each of these components, the impacts of the extraction, processing, assembly, and transportation of raw materials are estimated and the partial and total values of the energy demand (ED) and global warming potential (GWP) are determined. The final interpretation of the results allows one to understand the important role played by LCA evaluations and presents other possible ways of reducing the energy consumption and CO2 emissions.

Enabling Intelligent Recovery of Critical Materials from Li-Ion Battery through Direct Recycling Process with Internet-of-Things

The rapid market expansion of Li-ion batteries (LIBs) leads to concerns over the appropriate disposal of hazardous battery waste and the sustainability in the supply of critical materials for LIB production. Technologies and strategies to extend the life of LIBs and reuse the materials have long been sought. Direct recycling is a more effective recycling approach than existing ones with respect to cost, energy consumption, and emissions. This approach has become increasingly more feasible due to digitalization and the adoption of the Internet-of-Things (IoT). To address the question of how IoT could enhance direct recycling of LIBs, we first highlight the importance of direct recycling in tackling the challenges in the supply chain of LIB and discuss the characteristics and application of IoT technologies, which could enhance direct recycling. Finally, we share our perspective on a paradigm where IoT could be integrated into the direct recycling process of LIBs to enhance the efficiency, intelligence, and effectiveness of the recycling process.

Life Cycle Modelling of Extraction and Processing of Battery Minerals—A Parametric Approach

Sustainable battery production with low environmental footprints requires a systematic assessment of the entire value chain, from raw material extraction and processing to battery production and recycling. In order to explore and understand the variations observed in the reported footprints of raw battery materials, it is vital to re-assess the footprints of these material value chains. Identifying the causes of these variations by combining engineering and environmental system analysis expands our knowledge of the footprints of these battery materials. This article disaggregates the value chains of six raw battery materials (aluminum, copper, graphite, lithium carbonate, manganese, and nickel) and identifies the sources of variabilities (levers) for each process along each value chain. We developed a parametric attributional process-based life cycle model to explore the effect of these levers on the greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions of the value chains, expressed in kg of CO2e. The parametric life cycle inventory model is used to conduct distinct life cycle assessments (LCA) for each material value chain by varying the identified levers within defined engineering ranges. 570 distinct LCAs are conducted for the aluminum value chain, 450 for copper, 170 for graphite, 39 for lithium carbonate via spodumene, 20 for lithium carbonate via brine, 260 for manganese, and 440 for nickel. Three-dimensional representations of these results for each value chain in kg of CO2e are presented as contour plots with gradient lines illustrating the intensity of lever combinations on the GHG emissions. The results of this study convey multidimensional insights into how changes in the lever settings of value chains yield variations in the overall GHG emissions of the raw materials. Parameterization of these value chains forms a flexible and high-resolution backbone, leading towards a more reliable life cycle assessment of lithium-ion batteries (LIB).

Nephrotoxic Metal Mixtures and Preadolescent Kidney Function

Exposure to metals including lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and arsenic (As), may impair kidney function as individual toxicants or in mixtures. However, no single medium is ideal to study multiple metals simultaneously. We hypothesized that multi-media biomarkers (MMBs), integrated indices combining information across biomarkers, are informative of adverse kidney function. Levels of Pb, Cd, and As were quantified in blood and urine in 4–6-year-old Mexican children (n = 300) in the PROGRESS longitudinal cohort study. We estimated the mixture effects of these metals, using weighted quantile sum regression (WQS) applied to urine biomarkers (Umix), blood biomarkers (Bmix), and MMBs, on the cystatin C-based estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR) and serum cystatin C assessed at 8–10 years of age, adjusted for covariates. Quartile increases in Umix and the MMB mixture were associated with 2.5% (95%CI: 0.1, 5.0) and 3.0% (95%CI: 0.2, 5.7) increased eGFR and −2.6% (95% CI: −5.1%, −0.1%) and −3.3% (95% CI: −6.5%, −0.1%) decreased cystatin C, respectively. Weights indicate that the strongest contributors to the associations with eGFR and serum cystatin C were Cd and Pb, respectively. MMBs detected mixture effects distinct from associations with individual metals or media-type, highlighting the benefits of incorporating information from multiple exposure media in mixtures analyses.

Unveiling land footprint of solar power: A pilot solar tower project in China

Land occupation by solar power installations has become a rising concern that may cause adverse impacts on natural ecosystems and biodiversity. Existing studies mainly adopt a local perspective to view land use requirements of solar power and forget that the solar-based electricity system is subordinate to the macro economy and nourished by the material, machinery and service support by various economic sectors. To manifest a key aspect of the footprint of solar power on land resources, this study uncovered the extensive industrial land use initiated by the infrastructure of a representative pilot solar-based electricity plant using a systems perspective. The results in this study show that in magnitude, land footprint by the infrastructure of the pilot solar plant amounts to three times as much as the onsite land area. Also, the land footprint calculated is revealed as one order of magnitude larger than a previous finding that includes primary materials only, and four to seven times higher than the onsite land use by coal-based electricity plants. The outcome implies that existing environmental management policies need to be re-evaluated by putting enough emphasis on the land displacement by solar power systems along the production chain.

An insight into the electro-chemical properties of halogen (F, Cl and Br) doped BP and BN nanocages as anodes in metal-ion batteries

Here, electro-chemical properties of BN and BP nanocages as anodes in metal-ion batteries are examined. The effect of halogens adoption of BN and BP-NCs on electro-chemical properties of M-IBs are investigated. Results showed that the BP nanocages as anode electrode in M-IBs has higher efficiency than BN nanocages and the K-IB has higher cell voltage than N-IBs. Results indicated that the halogens adoption of BN and BP-NCs are improved the cell voltage of M-IBs. Results proved that the F-doped M-IBs have higher cell voltage than M-IBs. Finally, F-B17P18 as anodes in K-IB is proposed as suitable electrodes.

Li-Ion Batteries: A Review of a Key Technology for Transport Decarbonization

Lithium ion batteries are experiencing an increased success thanks to their interesting performances, in particular for electric vehicles applications. Their continuous technological improvements in the last years are providing higher energy density and lower manufacturing costs. However, the environmental performance of their supply chain is of paramount importance to guarantee a cleaner alternative to fossil-based solutions on the entire life cycle of the applications. This paper carries out a comprehensive review on the main aspects related to Li-ion batteries manufacturing, to support the readers in understanding the complexity of the subject and the main challenges and opportunities for the future developments of this technology. The paper discusses the expected future demand of batteries; the main aspects related to the supply chain, including existing assets, input materials and alternative technologies; the end-of-life of batteries; the environmental impacts; and the main geopolitical implications.