The effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A on blood pressure and cardiac function

ZBP1-mediated PANoptosis: A possible novel mechanism underlying the therapeutic effects of penehyclidine hydrochloride on myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury

Although penehyclidine hydrochloride (PHC) has been identified to alleviate myocardial injury induced by ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), the regulatory molecules and related mechanisms are unknown. In this study, bioinformatics, molecular biology, and biochemistry methods were used to explore the molecular mechanisms and targets of PHC. In the myocardial ischemia-reperfusion injury (MIRI)-induced rat model, PHC pretreatment significantly improved cardiac function (p < 0.01). Multiple differentially expressed genes, including Z-DNA binding protein 1 (ZBP1), were identified through mRNA sequencing analysis of myocardial ischemic penumbra tissue in MIRI rats. The transduction of the ZBP1 adenovirus vector (Ad-Zbp1) in PHC-pretreated rats exhibited a reversible augmentation in myocardial infarct size (p < 0.01), pronounced pathological damage to the myocardial tissue, as well as a significant elevation of serum myocardial enzymes (p < 0.05). The interaction among ZBP1, fas-associating via death domain (FADD), and receptor-interacting serine/threonine-protein kinase 3 (RIPK3) leads to a remarkable up-regulation of cleaved-Caspase-1 (Cl-Casp-1), N-terminal gasdermin D (N-GSDMD), phospho-mixed lineage kinase domain-like Ser358 (p-MLKLS358), and other regulatory proteins, thereby triggering pyroptosis, apoptosis, and necroptosis (PANoptosis) in cardiomyocytes of MIRI rats. Moreover, the transduction of Ad-Zbp1 in the oxygen-glucose deprivation/re-oxygenation (OGD/R)-induced H9c2 cell model also dramatically augmented the number of cell deaths. However, the intervention of PHC considerably enhanced cell viability (p < 0.01), effectively mitigated the release of myocardial enzymes (p < 0.05), and markedly attenuated the expression levels of PANoptosis regulatory proteins through restraint of ZBP1 expression. Therefore, the therapeutic efficacy of PHC in improving MIRI might be attributed to targeting ZBP1-mediated PANoptosis.

Celochalcoside, a new quinochalcone C-glycoside from Celosia trigyna

A new quinochalcone C-glycoside featuring a unique quinonoid moiety, named celochalcoside (1), was isolated from the n-butanol extract of the aerial parts of Celosia trigyna L. The structure was determined by extensive spectroscopic analysis as well as mass spectrometric data. Compound 1 showed moderate cytotoxic activities against breast cancer cell lines (MCF-7), colon cancer cell lines (HT-29) and hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines (HepG2) with IC50 values of 23.16, 37.05 and 18.35 μg/ml, respectively.

The importance of natural chalcones in ischemic organ damage: Comprehensive and bioinformatic analysis review

Over the last few decades, extensive research has been conducted, yielding a detailed account of thousands of newly discovered compounds of natural origin and their biological activities, all of which have the potential to be used for a wide range of therapeutic purposes. There are multiple research papers denoting the central objective of chalcones, which have been shown to have therapeutic potential against various forms of ischemia. The various aspects of chalcones are discussed in this review regarding molecular mechanisms involved in the promising anti-ischemic potential of these chalcones. The main mechanisms involved in these protective effects are Nrf2/Akt activation and NF-κB/TLR4 suppression. Furthermore, in-silico studies were carried out to discover the probable binding of these chalcones to Keap-1 (an inhibitor of Nrf2), Akt, NF-κB, and TLR4 protein molecules. Besides, network pharmacology analysis was conducted to predict the interacting partners of these signals. The obtained results indicated that Nrf2, Akt, NF-κB, and TLR4 are involved in the beneficial anti-ischemic actions of chalcones. Conclusively, the present findings show that chalcones as anti-ischemic agents have a valid rationale. The discussed studies will provide a comprehensive viewpoint on chalcones and can help to optimize their effects in different ischemia. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: Ischemic organ damage is an unavoidable pathological condition with a high worldwide incidence. According to the current research progress, natural chalcones have been proved to treat and/or prevent various types of ischemic organ damage by alleviating oxidative stress, inflammation, and apoptosis by different molecular mechanisms. This article displays the comprehensive research progress and the molecular basis of ischemic organ damage pathophysiology and introduces natural chalcones' mechanism in the ischemic organ condition.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A, a natural compound from Carthamus tinctorius L with good effect of alleviating atherosclerosis

BACKGROUND

Atherosclerosis is a chronic vascular inflammatory disease with complex pathogenesis. Its serious consequence is insufficient blood supply to heart and brain, which eventually leads to myocardial ischemia, infarction and stroke. Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), a single chalcone glycoside compound with a variety of pharmacological effects, which has shown a potential biological activity for prevention and treatment of atherosclerosis.

PURPOSE

The main purpose of this review is to comprehensively elucidate the mechanism of HSYA on atherosclerosis and its risk factors (hyperlipidemia, hypertension and diabetes mellitus).

METHOD

The literatures on HSYA in the treatment of atherosclerosis and its risk factors were searched in PubMed, Google Scholar, China National Knowledge Infrastructure, including in vitro (cell), in vivo (animal) and clinical (human) studies, and summarized reasonably.

RESULTS

HSYA is a promising natural product for treating atherosclerosis. It can suppress foam cell formation, vascular endothelial cell dysfunction, vascular smooth muscle cell proliferation and migration, and platelet activation. The mechanisms are achieved by regulating the reverse cholesterol transport process, fatty acid synthesis, oxidative stress, PI3K/Akt/mTOR, NLRP3 inflammasome, TNFR1/NF-κB, NO-cGMP, Bax/Bcl-2, MAPKs, CDK/CyclinD and TLR4/Rac1/Akt signaling pathways. Besides, HSYA is devoted to lowering blood lipids, regulating ion channels, reducing vascular inflammation, and protecting pancreatic beta cells, which is conducive to reducing the harm of independent risk factors of atherosclerosis.

CONCLUSIONS

HSYA exhibits the preventive and therapeutic effects on atherosclerosis and its risk factors in vivo and in vitro, which is relevant to multiple mechanisms. The clinical trials of HSYA need to be further investigated to provide a solid foundation for its clinical application.

Assessment of Metabolic Profiles in Florets of Carthamus Species Using Ultra-Performance Liquid Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry

The genus Carthamus is a diverse group of plants belonging to the family Compositae. Florets of Carthamus species exhibit various colors, including white, yellow, orange, and red, which are related to their metabolite compositions. We aimed to investigate the metabolites accumulated in florets of three wild (C. lanatus, C. palaestinus, and C. turkestanicus) and one cultivated (C. tinctorius) species of safflower at three developmental stages. Metabolites were extracted from freeze-dried florets using 70% methanol; qualification and quantification were carried out using liquid chromatography quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry in positive and negative ion modes followed by extraction of the peaks. Fifty-six metabolites, including phenylpropanoids, chalcones, isoflavonoids, flavanones, flavonols, flavones, and other primary metabolites, were identified for the first time in safflower wild species. The orange florets contained high abundances of safflomin A, anhydrosafflor yellow B, and baimaside, whereas white/cream and light-yellow pigmented florets had high abundances of 1,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid, luteolin 7-O-glucuronide, and apigenin 7-O-β-D-glucuronide. The principal component analysis clearly distinguished the samples based on their pigment types, indicating that color is a dominant factor dictating the identity and amount of the metabolites. Pearson correlation data based on levels of metabolites showed that orange and yellow florets were significantly correlated to each other. White and cream pigmented species were also highly correlated. Comparison between three developmental stages of safflower wild species based on their metabolite profile showed inconsistent. The findings of this study broaden the current knowledge of safflower metabolism. The wide diversity of metabolites in safflower materials also helps in efforts to improve crop quality and agronomic traits.

Therapeutic Potential of Hydroxysafflor Yellow A on Cardio-Cerebrovascular Diseases

The incidence rate of cardio-cerebrovascular diseases (CCVDs) is increasing worldwide, causing an increasingly serious public health burden. The pursuit of new promising treatment options is thus becoming a pressing issue. Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is one of the main active quinochalcone C-glycosides in the florets of Carthamus tinctorius L., a medical and edible dual-purpose plant. HSYA has attracted much interest for its pharmacological actions in treating and/or managing CCVDs, such as myocardial and cerebral ischemia, hypertension, atherosclerosis, vascular dementia, and traumatic brain injury, in massive preclinical studies. In this review, we briefly summarized the mode and mechanism of action of HSYA on CCVDs based on these preclinical studies. The therapeutic effects of HSYA against CCVDs were presumed to reside mostly in its antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and neuroprotective roles by acting on complex signaling pathways.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A actives BKCa channels and inhibits L-type Ca channels to induce vascular relaxation

Hydroxy-safflor yellow A (HSYA) can exert a variety of effects upon the vascular system. However, the underlying mechanisms are not clear. The present study is to investigate its vasodilating effect and the mechanisms. Wistar-Kyoto (WKY) rats and spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHR) were enrolled for studying effects of HSYA on blood pressure, vasodilation, intracellular Ca²⁺ transient and membrane ion channels. Vasodilation and intracellular Ca²⁺ transient were measured by using vasomotor assay and fluorescence imaging system, respectively. The effect of HSYA on the large conductance Ca²⁺ activated and voltage-gated potassium channel (BK_Ca channel) currents in rat mesentery artery and on L-type calcium channel (Ca-L) currents in HEK293cells expressed with Ca-L were investigated using patch clamp techniques. Blood pressure of SHR and WKY rats were concentration dependently reduced by HSYA with a larger effect of HSYA in SHR than that in WKY rats. The tension of mesenteric arteries induced by 3 μM phenylephrine was attenuated by HSYA (IC₅₀ = 90.8 μΜ). Patch clamp study showed that HSYA could activate BK_Ca channels and suppress Ca-L channels in a concentration dependent manner. The results of calcium signaling assays indicated that HSYA could reduce the intracellular free Ca²⁺ level. These findings demonstrate that HSYA could activate BK_Ca channels and inhibit Ca-L channels and reduce intracellular free Ca²⁺ level, which are probably important for its vasodilatory effect.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) targets the platelet-activating factor (PAF) receptor and inhibits human bronchial smooth muscle activation induced by PAF

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is the main active ingredient of edible plant safflower. HSYA has demonstrated anti-inflammatory effects. The inflammatory response is the key mechanism responsible for asthma, and the pro-inflammatory platelet-activating factor (PAF) is known to play a role in the pathology of bronchial asthma. In this study, we stimulated human bronchial smooth muscle cells (HBSMCs) with PAF and examined the effects of HSYA on the resulting asthma-related process. PAF stimulation induced HBSMC activation, induced proliferation, increased expression of the pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin (IL)-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor-α, and activated asthma-related signaling pathways. All these effects were significantly inhibited by treatment with HSYA (9, 27, 81 μmol L^-1). The effects of HSYA were prevented by the addition of a PAF receptor (PAFR) antagonist or by PAFR gene silencing with small interfering RNA. These results suggest that HSYA may inhibit PAF-induced activation of HBSMCs by targeting the PAFR. Overall, these findings provide evidence that HSYA can be applied as a potential therapeutic agent in the treatment of bronchial asthma.

The Effects of Safflower Yellow on Acute Exacerbation of Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease: A Randomized, Controlled Clinical Trial

Objectives

To evaluate the efficacy of safflower yellow in the acute exacerbation of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (AECOPD).

Methods

In a prospective, randomized, controlled trial, 127 patients who met the inclusion criteria were enrolled and were randomly divided into two groups. The control group included 64 patients treated according to the global strategy for diagnosis, management, and prevention of COPD (www.goldcopd.org, updated 2011). The intervention group included 63 patients who received intravenous infusions of safflower yellow (100 mg of safflower yellow dissolved in 250 ml 0.9% saline) once daily for 14 consecutive days in addition to standard diagnosis and treatment. The difference in the average length of the hospital stay between the two groups of patients was determined. The follow-up period was 28 days; the differences in symptoms, clinical indicators, and 28-day mortality in the two groups were compared. Statistical analysis was conducted using SPSS 22.0 software to determine whether there were statistically significant differences (P <0.05) between groups.

Results

There were no statistically significant differences between the intervention group and the control group in changes in secondary indicators. There were no statistically significant differences in the 28-day mortality or in the survival curves of the two groups (P=0.496 and P=0.075, respectively). Safflower yellow treatment of AECOPD may relieve the patient's clinical symptoms, such as dyspnoea, shorten the average length of hospital stay (P=0.006, respectively), and decrease the duration of mechanical ventilation.

Conclusion

Safflower yellow in the treatment of AECOPD has a degree of clinical value. This trial is registered under the identifier ChiCTR-IPR-17014176.

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A: A Promising Therapeutic Agent for a Broad Spectrum of Diseases

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is one of the major bioactive and water-soluble compounds isolated from Carthami Flos, the flower of safflower (Carthamus tinctorius L.). As a natural pigment with favorable medical use, HSYA has gained extensive attention due to broad and effective pharmacological activities since first isolation in 1993. In clinic, the safflor yellow injection which mainly contains about 80% HSYA was approved by the China State Food and Drug Administration and used to treat cardiac diseases such as angina pectoris. In basic pharmacology, HSYA has been proved to exhibit a broad spectrum of biological effects that include, but not limited to, cardiovascular effect, neuroprotection, liver and lung protection, antitumor activity, metabolism regulation, and endothelium cell protection. Although a great number of studies have been carried out to prove the pharmacological effects and corresponding mechanisms of HYSA, a systemic review of HYSA has not yet been seen. Here, we provide a comprehensive summarization of the pharmacological effects of HYSA. Together with special attention to mechanisms of actions, this review can serve as the basis for further researches and developments of this medicinal compound.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A attenuates high glucose-induced pancreatic β-cells oxidative damage via inhibiting JNK/c-jun signaling pathway

Pancreatic β-cells apoptosis and dysfunction induced by glucose toxicity were attributed to the formation of excess oxidative damage. Some studies have found that hydroxysafflor yellow A has strong effects to scavenge oxidative stress and inhibit apoptosis. In order to explore the influence of HSYA on oxidative stress induced by high glucose and the potential mechanisms, we set up a high glucose damage model and induced oxidative stress in INS-1 rat insulinoma cells. N-acetylcysteine was added as a group of oxidative stress scavenger. After 72 h of cultivation, the related indexes of oxidative stress (reactive oxygen species, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, lipid peroxidation, and superoxide dismutase), apoptosis (caspase3, parp) and the function of glucose stimulated insulin secretion were determined. In addition, the signaling pathway proteins of C-Jun NH2 -terminal kinases (JNK), phosphorylated JNK, C-jun, phosphorylated C-jun were evaluated. Fluorescence microscopy, qRT-PCR, western blotting were the main methods used in the experiment. Our results showed that hydroxysafflor yellow A reduced pancreatic β-cells apoptosis by attenuating oxidative damage, and JNK/c-Jun signaling pathway was involved. It indicated a significant mechanism for the positive impacts of HSYA on oxidative stress induced by high glucose, and provide important basis for using HSYA in diabetic prevention and therapy.

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Suppresses Platelet Activating Factor-Induced Activation of Human Small Airway Epithelial Cells

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is a chemical component isolated from the Chinese medicine Carthamus tinctorius L. HSYA has numerous pharmacological effects, including protecting against and mitigating some respiratory diseases such as acute lung injury and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; however, its effect on asthma remains unclear. We previously found that HSYA attenuated ovalbumin-induced allergic asthma in guinea pigs. Platelet activating factor (PAF) is a phospholipid mediator of inflammation and an important factor in the pathological process of asthma. In this study, we investigated the anti-inflammatory effects of HSYA and its underlying mechanisms in PAF-induced human small airway epithelial cells (HSAECs). PAF-activated cells were pretreated with HSYA and/or the PAF receptor inhibitor, ginkgolide B, and we observed changes in the expression of interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, and tumor necrosis factor alpha, monolayer permeability of HSAECs, and inflammatory signaling pathways. HSYA attenuated the PAF-induced increase in expression of inflammatory factors and destruction of cell-barrier function, and inhibited the expression of protein kinase C, mitogen-activated protein kinases, activator protein-1, and nuclear factor-κB activation induced by PAF. These findings suggest that HSYA may represent a potential new drug for the treatment of asthma.

Oral hydroxysafflor yellow A reduces obesity in mice by modulating the gut microbiota and serum metabolism

Given the high and increasing prevalence of obesity, the safe and effective treatment of obesity would be beneficial. Here, we examined whether oral hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), an active compound from the dried florets of Carthamus tinctorius L., can reduce high-fat (HF) diet-induced obesity in C57BL/6 J mice. Our results showed that the average body weight of HF group treated by HSYA was significantly lower than that of the HF group (P < 0.01). HSYA also reduced fat accumulation, ameliorated insulin resistance, restored glucose homeostasis, reduced inflammation, enhanced intestinal integrity, and increased short-chain fatty acids (SCFAs) production in HF diet-fed mice. Sequencing of 16S rRNA genes in fecal samples demonstrated that HSYA reversed HF diet induced gut microbiota dysbiosis. Particularly, HSYA increased the relative abundances of genera Akkermansia and Romboutsia, as well as SCFAs-producing bacteria, including genera Butyricimonas and Alloprevotella, whereas it decreased the phyla Firmicutes/Bacteroidetes ratio of HF diet-fed mice. Additionally, serum metabolomics analysis revealed that HSYA increased lysophosphatidylcholines (lysoPCs), L-carnitine and sphingomyelin, and decreased phosphatidylcholines in mice fed a HF diet, as compared to HF group. These changed metabolites were mainly linked with the pathways of glycerophospholipid metabolism and sphingolipid metabolism. Spearman's correlation analysis further revealed that Firmicutes was positively while Bacteroidetes and Akkermansia were negatively correlated with body weight, fasting serum glucose and insulin. Moreover, Akkermansia and Butyricimonas had positive correlations with lysoPCs, suggestive of the role of gut microbiota in serum metabolites. Our findings suggest HSYA may be a potential therapeutic drug for obesity and the gut microbiota may be potential territory for targeting of HSYA.

A comprehensive in vitro and in vivo metabolism study of hydroxysafflor yellow A

As the most important marker component in Carthamus tinctorius L., hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) was widely used in the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases, due to its effect of improving blood supply, suppressing oxidative stress, and protecting against ischemia/reperfusion. In this paper, both an in vitro microsomal incubation and an in vivo animal experiment were conducted, along with an LC-Q-TOF/MS instrument and a 3-step protocol, to further explore the metabolism of HSYA. As a result, a total of 10 metabolites were searched and tentatively identified in plasma, urine, and feces after intravenous administration of HSYA to male rats, although no obvious biotransformation was found in the simulated rat liver microsomal system. The metabolites detected involving both phase I and phase II metabolism including dehydration, deglycosylation, methylation, and glucuronic acid conjugation. A few of the metabolites underwent more than one-step metabolic reactions, and some have not been reported before. The study would contribute to a further understanding of the metabolism of HSYA and provide scientific evidence for its pharmacodynamic mechanism research and clinical use.

Superior Stability of Hydroxysafflor Yellow A in Xuebijing Injection and the Associated Mechanism

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is the main bioactive ingredient of XBJ injection. At first, the stability of HSYA in solution and in a Xuebijing injection was investigated, then the mechanisms of the increased stability of HSYA in the XBJ injection were investigated to provide useful information on clinical safety. HSYA stability was investigated as a function of pH and temperature in aqueous solution and an XBJ injection, following the guidelines from the International Conference on Harmonisation of Technical Requirements for Registration of Pharmaceuticals for Human Use. Products were identified by UPLC-MS/MS. HSYA reaction followed first-order kinetics under all conditions. The half-life of HSYA in XBJ was almost 40 times longer than in aqueous solution. The activation energies of HSYA reaction in aqueous solution and XBJ were calculated to be 78.53 and 92.90 kJ∙mol-1 by using Arrhenius equation. The results indicated that HSYA was more stable in XBJ than in aqueous solution. Two products were identified and the mechanism was intra-molecular nucleophilic substitution. The excellent stability of HSYA in XBJ injection partly due to the micelles formed in the injection. The study may provide clues for compatibility in TCM prescription and also provide useful information for further preparation technology research of HSYA and assessment of clinical safety of XBJ.

Protective cerebrovascular effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) on ischemic stroke

The purpose of the present work was designed to explore protective cerebrovascular effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), and provide preclinical efficacy and mechanism data for its possible application in patients with cerebral ischemia. The protective effect of HSYA on ischemic stroke was evaluated by infarct sizes and neurological scores in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats with middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO). Cerebrovascular permeability was detected by Evans blue dye leakage in MCAO rats. Cerebral blood flow, as well as blood pressure and heart rate were monitored using flow probes in Beagle dogs. Basilar artery tension isolated from Beagle dogs was evaluated with an MPA 2000 data-acquisition system. Coagulation-related function was also judged, including rabbit platelet aggregation by adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and platelet-aggregating factor (PAF), rabbit blood viscosity by a blood viscometer, and thrombus formation by rat arterial-venous shunts. Results showed that HSYA treatment significantly decreased the infarct sizes, neurological scores and cerebrovascular permeability in rats with MCAO. However, cerebral blood flow, blood pressure and heart rate were not affected by HSYA. In vitro, HSYA had a strong effect on cerebrovascular vasodilatation, and significantly decreased platelet aggregation, blood viscosity, and thrombogenesis. Besides well-known anti-coagulation effects, HSYA protects against ischemic stroke by dilating cerebral vessels and improving cerebrovascular permeability.

Danhong injection reduces vascular remodeling and up-regulates the Kallikrein-kinin system in spontaneously hypertensive rats

Although Danhong injection (DHI) is one of the most prescribed cardiovascular medicines in China, its therapeutic indications and mechanisms remain partially defined. We now identify molecular targets of DHI in resistance vasculatures and demonstrate its role in vascular function and blood pressure (BP) regulation. BP was determined in DHI, Losartan, and placebo- treated Spontaneously Hypertensive Rats (SHR) by both noninvasive and invasive measurements. Vasorelaxation was examined both in conduit and resistance vasculature by ex vivo aortic rings. Microarray analysis was performed and gene expression changes were verified by RT-qPCR and ELISA. Diastolic, systolic and mean BPs were significantly lower in DHI-treated SHR than controls by both tail-cuff and invasive BP measurements. In ex vivo rings, aortic and mesenteric vessels from SHR treated with DHI exhibited significantly greater acetylcholine-mediated relaxation. Among the 282 genes that are differentially expressed in microarray analysis, DHI treatment up-regulated the expression of kallikrein and plasma kallikrein B genes. DHI also significantly increased serum kallikrein content in SHR. Treatment with DHI significantly increased the ratio of aortic lumen to outer diameter. Therefore, the reduction of vascular remodeling and the up-regulation of Kallikrein-kinin system contribute, at least in part, to the antihypertensive effect of DHI in SHR.

HSYA alleviates secondary neuronal death through attenuating oxidative stress, inflammatory response, and neural apoptosis in SD rat spinal cord compression injury

Background

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is a major active component of yellow pigment extracted from safflowers; this compound possesses potent neuroprotective effects both in vitro and in vivo. However, underlying mechanism of HSYA is not fully elucidated. The present study investigated the protective effects of HSYA in rat spinal cord compression injury model and related mechanisms involved.

Methods

Sprague–Dawley rats were divided as Sham, Control, and HSYA groups (n = 30 per group). Spinal cord injury (SCI) model was induced by application of vascular clips (force of 50 g, 1 min) to the dura at T9–T10 level of vertebra. Injured animals were administered with either HSYA (8 mg/kg at 1 and 6 h after injury, then 14 mg/kg, for a total of 7 days at 24-h time intervals) or equal volume of saline by intraperitoneal injection.

Results

From this experiment, we discovered that SCI in rats resulted in severe trauma, which is characterized by tissue damage, lipid peroxidation, neutrophil infiltration, inflammation mediator release, and neuronal apoptosis. However, HSYA treatment significantly reduced the following: (1) degree of tissue injury (histological score) and edema; (2) neutrophil infiltration (myeloperoxidase activity); (3) oxidative stress (superoxide dismutase, malondialdehyde, and nitric oxide); (4) pro-inflammatory cytokine expression (tumor necrosis factor-α, interleukin-6, inducible nitric oxide synthase, cyclooxygenase-2); (5) nuclear factor-κB activation; (6) apoptosis (terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling staining and cysteine-aspartic protease-3 activity). Moreover, in a separate set of experiments, we clearly demonstrated that HSYA treatment significantly ameliorated recovery of limb function (as evaluated by Basso, Beattie, and Bresnahan behavioral recovery scores).

Conclusions

Treatment with HSYA restrains development of oxidative stress, inflammation response, and apoptotic events associated with SCI of rats, demonstrating that HSYA is a potential neuroprotectant for human SCI therapy.

Natural formulas and the nature of formulas: Exploring potential therapeutic targets based on traditional Chinese herbal formulas

By comparing the target proteins (TPs) of classic traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) herbal formulas and modern drugs used for treating coronary artery disease (CAD), this study aimed to identify potential therapeutic TPs for treating CAD. Based on the theory of TCM, the Xuefu-Zhuyu decoction (XZD) and Gualou-Xiebai-Banxia decoction (GXBD), both of which are classic herbal formulas, were selected for treating CAD. Data on the chemical ingredients and corresponding TPs of the herbs in these two formulas and data on modern drugs approved for treating CAD and related TPs were retrieved from professional TCM and bioinformatics databases. Based on the associations between the drugs or ingredients and their TPs, the TP networks of XZD, GXBD, and modern drugs approved for treating CAD were constructed separately and then integrated to create a complex master network in which the vertices represent the TPs and the edges, the ingredients or drugs that are linked to the TPs. The reliability of this master network was validated through statistical tests. The common TPs of the two herbal formulas have a higher possibility of being targeted by modern drugs in comparison with the formula-specific TPs. A total of 114 common XZD and GXBD TPs that are not yet the target of modern drugs used for treating CAD should be experimentally investigated as potential therapeutic targets for treating CAD. Among these TPs, the top 10 are NOS3, PTPN1, GABRA1, PRKACA, CDK2, MAOB, ESR1, ADH1C, ADH1B, and AKR1B1. The results of this study provide a valuable reference for further experimental investigations of therapeutic targets for CAD. The established method shows promise for searching for potential therapeutic TPs based on herbal formulas. It is crucial for this work to select beneficial therapeutic targets of TCM, typical TCM syndromes, and corresponding classic formulas.

Hydroxysafflor Yellow A Alleviates Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome in Mice

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is an effective ingredient of the Chinese herb Carthamus tinctorius L. The present study investigated the protective effect of HSYA on lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced acute respiratory distress syndrome in mice, and the underlying mechanisms involved. HSYA (14, 28, 56 mg/kg) was intraperitoneally injected to mice once daily from day 1 to 10 after LPS administration. HSYA attenuated the body weight loss, the augmented left index and the increase of pathologic changes in pulmonary inflammation caused by LPS. Treatment with HSYA also alleviated increased expressions of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, interleukin (IL)-1β, IL-6, transforming growth factor (TGF)-β1, collagen (Col) I, Col III, α-smooth muscle actin (α-SMA), myeloid differentiation (MD)-2, Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4) and cluster differentiation (CD)14 at the mRNA (RT-PCR) and protein levels (Western blot and enzyme-linked immuno sorbent assay). Moreover, HSYA inhibited the elevated levels of nuclear factor (NF)-κB and α-SMA in lung tissue (immunohistochemistry), and alleviated the slight collagen deposition in pulmonary tissues (Masson's trichrome staining). HSYA inhibited the specific binding of fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-LPS on human lung epithelial cell line (A549) or human umbilical vein cell line (Eahy926) cells (flow cytometry). These findings suggested that HSYA has a protective effect on acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) induced by LPS through blocking the TLR4/NF-κB pathway, and that the TLR4 receptor might be a target of HSYA on the cell membrane.

Coordinated Activation of VEGF/VEGFR-2 and PPARδ Pathways by a Multi-Component Chinese Medicine DHI Accelerated Recovery from Peripheral Arterial Disease in Type 2 Diabetic Mice

Diabetic mellitus (DM) patients are at an increased risk of developing peripheral arterial disease (PAD). Danhong injection (DHI) is a Chinese patent medicine widely used for several cardiovascular indications but the mechanism of action is not well-understood. We investigated the therapeutic potential of DHI on experimental PAD in mice with chemically induced as well as genetic (KKAy) type 2 DM and the overlapping signaling pathways regulating both therapeutic angiogenesis and glucose homeostasis. Compared with normal genetic background wild type (WT) mice, both DM mice showed impaired perfusion recovery in hind-limb ischemia (HLI) model. DHI treatment significantly accelerated perfusion recovery, lowered blood glucose and improved glucose tolerance in both DM models. Bioluminescent imaging demonstrated a continuous ischemia-induced vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2 (VEGFR-2) gene expressions with a peak time coincident with the maximal DHI stimulation. Flow cytometry analysis showed a DHI-mediated increase in endothelial progenitor cell (EPC) mobilization from bone marrow to circulating peripheral blood. DHI administration upregulated the expression of vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGF-A) and VEGF receptor-2 (VEGFR-2) in ischemic muscle. A cross talk between ischemia-induced angiogenesis and glucose tolerance pathways was analyzed by Ingenuity Pathway Analysis (IPA) which suggested an interaction of VEGF-A/VEGFR-2 and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor δ (PPARδ)/peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) genes. We confirmed that upregulation of VEGF-A/VEGFR-2 by DHI promoted PPARδ gene expression in both type 2 diabetic mice. Our findings demonstrated that a multi-component Chinese medicine DHI effectively increased blood flow recovery after tissue ischemia in diabetic mice by promoting angiogenesis and improving glucose tolerance through a concomitant activation of VEGF-A/VEGFR-2 and PPARδ signaling pathways.

Safflower (Catharmus tinctorius L.) oil supplementation in overnourished rats during early neonatal development: effects on heart and liver function in the adult

Carthamus tinctorius L. (common name: safflower) is an herb whose extracted oil (safflower oil) has been employed in both alternative and conventional medicine in the treatment of disease. Overnutrition during early postnatal life can increase the lifetime risk of obesity and metabolic syndrome. Here we investigate the effect of safflower oil supplementation given during a critical early developmental stage on the eventual occurrence of metabolic disease in overnourished rats. Groups of overnourished or adequately nourished rats were randomly assigned into 2 additional groups for supplementation with either safflower oil (SF) or vehicle for 7 to 30 days. Murinometric data and weights were examined. Serum was collected for measurement of glucose, cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol, and triglycerides. Heart and liver oxidative status were also measured. Overnutrition for 7–30 days induced a significant increase in body weight and in values for abdominal circumference, thoracic circumference, body length, and body mass index. SF supplementation did not attenuate the effect of overnutrition on any of these parameters. In addition, overnutrition increased levels of glucose, triglycerides, and very low-density lipid compared with normal controls, but SF supplementation had no effect on these parameters. Measures of oxidative status in heart or liver were not influenced by overnutrition. However, oxidative measures were altered by SF supplementation in both of these organs. The present study reveals that nutritional manipulation during early development induces detrimental effects on metabolism in the adult that are not ameliorated by supplemental SF.

Effects of extracts and isolated compounds from safflower on some index of promoting blood circulation and regulating menstruation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Carthamus tinctorius is used as one of the Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) materials in prescriptions and composite to promote blood circulation to remove blood stasis, regulate menstruation and alleviate pain for over 2500 years. Modern pharmacological experiments have demonstrated that safflower has wide-reaching biological activities, including dilating coronary artery, modulating immune system, improving myocardial ischemia, anticoagulation and thromboprophylaxis, antioxidation, antihypoxic, antiaging, antifatigue, antiinflammation, anti-hepatic fibrosis, antitumor, analgesia, etc.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Platelet aggregation of safflower extract and main constituents in safflower were determined by PAF-induced or ADP-induced platelet aggregation in vitro. Anticoagulation activity was measured by clotting assay of thrombin time (TT), prothrombin time (PT) and activated partial thromboplastin time (APTT) according to the methods provided by the biological reagents provider (Sun Biochemical). Antioxidant effects of safflower were assessed using DPPH radical-scavenging activity test, ABTS radical-scavenging activity test and ferric reducing antioxidant power test. In addition, rats ovary granulosa cell proliferation activity was used for the bio-activity index on regulate menstruation of safflower.

RESULTS

Safflower extract at the concentration of 0.7g/mL (P<0.001) and 0.5g/mL (P<0.01) had significantly antagonistic effect on PAF-induced platelet aggregation, compared with negative control. And the anti-platelet aggregation of 0.7g/mL safflower extract was significantly stronger than that of positive control (P<0.001). 0.7g/mL of hydroxysafflor yellow A (P<0.01), anhydrosafflor yellow B (P<0.05), 6-hydroxykaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (P<0.05), keampferol-3-O-β-rutinoside (P<0.01) had significant effect on platelet aggregation compared with negative control. Safflower extract at the concentration of 0.5g/mL (P<0.001) and 0.125g/mL (P<0.01) could significantly inhibit ADP-induced platelet aggregation, compared with negative control. And antagonistic effect of safflower extract was significantly stronger than the effect of positive control (P<0.001). Adenosine (P<0.001), anhydrosafflor yellow B (P<0.01) and 6-hydroxykaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (P<0.01) at the concentration of 0.5g/mL had significant effect on ADP-induced platelet aggregation compared with negative control. 0.125g/mL of adenosine (P<0.05) had significant effect on ADP-induced platelet aggregation compared with negative control. The effect of 0.5g/mL adenosine (P<0.01) and 6-hydroxykaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (P<0.05) was significantly stronger than that of positive control. Safflower extract at the concentration of 0.7mg/mL (P<0.001) and 0.5mg/mL (P<0.001) had significantly anticoagulation activity in PT, TT and APTT, compared with negative control. However, the respective compound didn't have significant effect on PT and TT at experiment concentration. At the concentration of 0.7mg/mL, hydroxysafflor yellow A (P<0.01), 6-hydroxykaempferol-3,6,7-tri-O-β-d-glucoside (P<0.05), 6-hydroxyapigenin-6-O-glucoside-7-O-glucuronide (P<0.01), anhydrosafflor yellow B (P<0.001), 6-hydroxykaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (P<0.05) and keampferol-3-O-β-rutinoside (P<0.05) significantly prolonged APTT, compared with negative control. At the concentration of 0.5mg/mL, hydroxysafflor yellow A (P<0.05), 6-hydroxyapigenin-6-O-glucoside-7-O-glucuronide (P<0.05), anhydrosafflor yellow B (P<0.001), 6-hydroxykaempferol-3-O-rutinoside (P<0.05) and keampferol-3-O-β-rutinoside (P<0.05) could significantly prolong APTT, compared with negative control. From the results of DPPH, ABTS radical scavenging activity test and Fe(3+) reduction power test, 5mg/mL, 2.5mg/mL and 1.25mg/mL safflower extract had antioxidant effects. Every compound with each concentration (5mg/mL, 2.5mg/mL and 1.25mg/mL) had significant effect on Fe(3+) reduction power (P<0.001 vs. negative control). Safflower extract, cytidine, 6-hydroxy-kaempferol-3,6-di-O-β-d-glucoside-7-O-β-d-glucuronide, 6-hydroxykaemp-ferol-3,6,7-tri-O-β-D-glucoside and keampferol-3-O-β-rutinoside significantly promoted ovarian granulosa cell proliferation.

CONCLUSION

Based on previous researches, the activities of safflower extract and pure compounds isolated from safflower were studied in this paper. This study found some compounds with the effects of anti-platelet aggregation, anticoagulation, antioxidation and ovarian granulosa cell proliferation, and further revealed the possible pharmacological mechanism of safflower.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A inhibits TGF-β1-induced activation of human fetal lung fibroblasts in vitro

Objective

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is one of the chemical component isolated from Chinese medicine Carthamus tinctorius L. Our preliminary study confirmed that HSYA attenuated bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis in mice. In this study, we evaluated the effect of HSYA on TGF-β1-induced activation of human fetal lung fibroblasts (MRC-5) and explored the underlying mechanisms of its activity.

Method

MRC-5 cells activated by TGF-β1 were incubated with HSYA and/or the TGF-β type I receptor inhibitor, SB431542. TGF-β1-induced cell proliferation, α-smooth muscle actin, collagen I alpha 1 and fibronectin expression, Smad, mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) and phosphatidylinositol-3 kinase/Akt signalling pathway activation were observed.

Key findings

Hydroxysafflor yellow A significantly inhibited TGF-β1-induced cell proliferation and the expression, both mRNA and protein, of α-smooth muscle actin, collagen I alpha 1 and fibronectin. HSYA also suppressed TGF-β1 activation of Smad signal transduction via inhibition of Smad2 and Smad3 phosphorylation, their nuclear translocation and the binding activity of Smad3 to type I collagen promoter in MRC-5 cells. In addition, HSYA inhibited TGF-β1-induced phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). The inhibitory effects of HSYA were similar to SB431542.

Conclusion

These findings suggest that HSYA inhibits TGF-β1-induced activation of MRC-5 cells associated with TGF-β1/Smad and ERK/MAPK signalling pathways.

Natural Products to Counteract the Epidemic of Cardiovascular and Metabolic Disorders

Natural products have always been exploited to promote health and served as a valuable source for the discovery of new drugs. In this review, the great potential of natural compounds and medicinal plants for the treatment or prevention of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders, global health problems with rising prevalence, is addressed. Special emphasis is laid on natural products for which efficacy and safety have already been proven and which are in clinical trials, as well as on plants used in traditional medicine. Potential benefits from certain dietary habits and dietary constituents, as well as common molecular targets of natural products, are also briefly discussed. A glimpse at the history of statins and biguanides, two prominent representatives of natural products (or their derivatives) in the fight against metabolic disease, is also included. The present review aims to serve as an "opening" of this special issue of Molecules, presenting key historical developments, recent advances, and future perspectives outlining the potential of natural products for prevention or therapy of cardiovascular and metabolic disease.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) attenuates hypoxic pulmonary arterial remodelling and reverses right ventricular hypertrophy in rats

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Carthamus tinctorius L. is a traditional herbal medicine native to China with properties of promoting blood circulation and removing blood stasis, which is used for the treatment of cerebrovascular and cardiovascular diseases. Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is the main constituent isolated from the flower of Carthamus tinctorius L. which is used as a marker substance in the quality control of Carthamus tinctorius L. in Chinese Pharmacopeia.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study is to investigate the hypertension attenuating effect of HSYA on hypoxia-induced pulmonary artery hypertension model rats, and the possible mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The animal models were made by treating adult male Wistar rats (of the same age with the same weight of 200±25g) under hypoxia 24h per day for 9 days with or without administration of HSYA. The pulmonary arterial pressure of rats was measured after anesthetization; The right ventricular hypotrophy was evaluated by the right ventricular hypotrophy index (RVHI=[RV/(LV+S)]) as well as histomorphology assay with Hematoxylin and Eosin (HE) staining; The reducing of pulmonary artery remodelling was evaluated by histomorphology assay with HE staining; The proliferation of pulmonary artery smooth muscle cells (PASMCs) was evaluated by immunohistochemistry assays (PCNA and Ki67) and MTT assay. Cell cycle analysis and Weston-blot analysis were also performed in the study.

RESULTS

HSYA reduced the mean right ventricular systolic pressure (RVSP) of rats with hypoxic pulmonary arterial hypertension (HPH) in a manner of concentration dependency. It significantly inhibited the PASMCs proliferation and attenuated the remodelling of the pulmonary artery and right ventricular hypertrophy.

CONCLUSION

These findings suggested that HSYA protected against hypoxic induced pulmonary hypertension by reversing the remodelling of the pulmonary artery through inhibiting the proliferation and hypertrophy of PASMCs. This is in accordance with our previous finding that HSYA protects against the pulmonary artery vascular constriction. All these results suggest that HSYA may be a promising candidate for HPH treatment.

Antioxidant effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A and acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid in combination on isoproterenol-induced myocardial injury in rats

Oxidative stress plays an important role in the initiation and development of myocardial injury (MI). The peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma coactivator-1α (PGC-1α)/nuclear factor erythroid 2-related factor 2 (Nrf2) pathway is considered to be a potential target for cardioprotection in MI. Acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid (AKBA) is the major organic acid component extracted from Boswellia serrata Roxb. ex Colebr. Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) is the principal active constituent of Carthamus tinctorius L. In the present study, we aimed to investigate the cardioprotective effects of HSYA and AKBA in combination in vivo and in vitro, as well as the underlying mechanisms responsible for these effects. For this purpose, MI was produced in Sprague-Dawley rats by subcutaneous injection with isoproterenol. To model ischemic-like conditions in vitro, H9C2 cells were subjected to oxygen-glucose deprivation (OGD). The levels of creatine kinase-MB (CK-MB), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH), malondialdehyde (MDA) as well as superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity were examined as well as apoptotic cell death. Mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨm or MMP) were measured using MitoSOX Red and 5,5′,6,6′-tetraethylbenzimidazolylcarbocya-nine iodide (JC-1) dye. The expression of PGC-1α and Nrf2 was quantified by western blot analysis and immunohistochemistry. HSYA and AKBA prevented myocardial pathological changes, significantly reduced the blood levels of CK-MB and LDH, and decreased apoptotic cell death. They significantly increased the expression of PGC-1α and Nrf2, and the activity of the antioxidant enzyme SOD and also decreased the levels of MDA and ROS. Moreover, the reduction in MMP was partly prevented by HSYA and AKBA. Taken together, these findings elucidate the underlying mechanisms through which HSYA and AKBA protect against MI. Additionally, HSYA and AKBA appear to act synergistically in order to exert cardioprotective effects.

Phytochemistry and Pharmacology of Carthamus tinctorius L

Carthamus tinctorius L. is a multifunctional cash crop. Its flowers and seeds are extensively used in traditional herbal medicine in China, Korea, Japan, and other Asian countries, for treating various ailments such as gynecological, cardiovascular, and cerebrovascular diseases as well as blood stasis and osteoporosis. More than 100 compounds have been isolated and identified from C. tinctorius. Flavonoids and alkaloids, especially the quinochalcone c-glycoside hydroxysafflor yellow A, N-(p-Coumaroyl)serotonin, and N-feruloylserotonin, are responsible for most of the pharmacological activities of C. tinctorius. In this paper, comprehensive and up-to-date information on the phytochemistry and pharmacology of C. tinctorius is presented. This information will be helpful for further explorations of the therapeutic potential of C. tinctorius and may provide future research opportunities.

Anti-Hypertensive Herbs and Their Mechanisms of Action: Part II

Traditional medicine has a history extending back to thousands of years, and during the intervening time, man has identified the healing properties of a very broad range of plants. Globally, the use of herbal therapies to treat and manage cardiovascular disease (CVD) is on the rise. This is the second part of our comprehensive review where we discuss the mechanisms of plants and herbs used for the treatment and management of high blood pressure. Similar to the first part, PubMed and ScienceDirect databases were utilized, and the following keywords and phrases were used as inclusion criteria: hypertension, high blood pressure, herbal medicine, complementary and alternative medicine, endothelial cells, nitric oxide (NO), vascular smooth muscle cell (VSMC) proliferation, hydrogen sulfide, nuclear factor kappa-B (NF-κB), oxidative stress, and epigenetics/epigenomics. Each of the aforementioned keywords was co-joined with plant or herb in question, and where possible with its constituent molecule(s). This part deals in particular with plants that are used, albeit less frequently, for the treatment and management of hypertension. We then discuss the interplay between herbs/prescription drugs and herbs/epigenetics in the context of this disease. The review then concludes with a recommendation for more rigorous, well-developed clinical trials to concretely determine the beneficial impact of herbs and plants on hypertension and a disease-free living.

Pharmacokinetic profiles of hydroxysafflor yellow A following intravenous administration of its pure preparations in healthy Chinese volunteers

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), the major active marker compound isolated from Carthamus tinctorius L., has been demonstrated to possess various attractive pharmacological activities. However, there is a lack of information about the complete clinical pharmacokinetic profiles of HSYA following the administration of its pure preparations. The purpose of this study was to fully characterize the pharmacokinetic (PK) properties of HSYA in healthy Chinese volunteers following drip intravenous infusion of injectable powder of pure HSYA (IPPH), a new drug recently approved for the phase I clinical study by China Food and Drug Administration.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

36 healthy subjects of either sex were recruited in this single-center, and open-label, single doses (25, 50, and 75 mg) and multiple doses (50 mg, once daily, 7 consecutive days) study. Plasma samples were analyzed with a validated LC-MS/MS method. Various PK parameters were estimated from the plasma concentration versus time data using non-compartmental methods.

RESULTS

After single dose administration of IPPH, the values of AUC(0-t), AUC(0-∞) and C(max) for HSYA were statistically proportional over the dose range of 25-75 mg. After 7 repeated doses of 50 mg IPPH, both C(max) and AUC(0-∞) were significantly decreased, from 3207 to 2959 μg L(-1), and from 12,811 to 12,135 µg h L(-1) respectively, while t(1/2) was significantly prolonged from 3.912 to 4.414 h. The minimum plasma concentrations on day 5, 6 and 7 showed good stability with no significant difference. Both Cmax and AUC of HSYA in male volunteers were generally lower than that in females. IPPH was generally well tolerated in healthy volunteers by either single or multiple dosing.

CONCLUSION

HSYA displayed moderately linear PK properties over the doses ranging from 25 to 75 mg of IPPH. Repeated administration of IPPH once daily could not lead to the in-vivo drug accumulation, but significantly affect PK behavior of HSYA. Gender difference should be considered for dosage recommendation in the clinic.

Matrix solid-phase dispersion extraction followed by high performance liquid chromatography-diode array detection and ultra performance liquid chromatography-quadrupole-time of flight-mass spectrometer method for the determination of the main compounds from Carthamus tinctorius L. (Hong-hua)

A simple and low-cost method based on matrix solid-phase dispersion (MSPD) extraction, HPLC separation, diode array detection and UPLC-Q-TOF-MS have been developed for the determination of Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), Kaempferol and other main compounds in Carthamus tinctorius. The experimental parameters that may affect the MSPD method, including dispersing sorbent, ratio of dispersing sorbent to sample, elution solvent, and volume of the elution solvent were examined and optimized. The optimized conditions were determined to be that silica gel was used as dispersing sorbent, the ratio of silica gel to sample mass was selected to be 3:1, and 10 mL of methanol: water (1:3, v:v) was used as elution solvent. The highest extraction yields of the two compounds were obtained under the optimized conditions. The method showed good linearity (r(2)≥0.999 2) and precision (RSD≤3.4%) for HSYA and Kaempferol, with the limits of detection of 35.2 and 14.5 ng mL(-1), respectively. The recoveries were in the range of 92.62-101.7% with RSD values ranging from 1.5 to 3.5%. At the meanwhile, there were 21 compounds in the extraction by MSPD method were identified by TOF-MS method to improve the quality control for safflower. Comparing to ultrasonic and soxhlet methods, the proposed MSPD procedure was more convenient and less time-consuming with reduced requirements on sample and solvent amounts. The proposed procedure was applied to analyze four real samples that were collected from different localities.

Saffloflavonesides A and B, two rearranged derivatives of flavonoid C-glycosides with a furan-tetrahydrofuran ring from Carthamus tinctorius

Two new rearranged derivatives of flavonoid C-glycosides, saffloflavonesides A (1) and B (2), were isolated from the florets of Carthamus tinctorius. Their structures were determined using UV, IR, HRESIMS, and 1D and 2D NMR data and by comparing experimental and calculated electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectra. Compounds 1 and 2 were unprecedented chalcone and flavanone derivatives possessing a furan conjoining tetrahydrofuran ring. A potential biosynthetic pathway was proposed. At 10 μM, 1 and 2 both showed strong inhibitory activity against PC12 cell damage induced by rotenone.

Hydroxysafflor yellow a attenuates small airway remodeling in a rat model of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease

Our previous studies found that hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), an active ingredient in Carthamus tinctorius L., has anti-inflammatory and anti-fibrosis properties. In this study, we investigated the effect of HSYA on small airway remodeling (SAR) in a chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) rat model induced by cigarette smoke and lipopolysaccharide (LPS). SAR is a common lesion in COPD characterized by thickening of the airway wall, mainly by subepithelial fibrosis. In this study the thickness of the small airway was determined by total wall area/basement membrane perimeter (WAt/Pbm). Collagen deposition of the small airway was assessed by Masson's trichrome staining. HSYA significantly attenuated the thickening and collagen deposition of the small airway and inhibited transforming growth factor β1 (TGF-β1) mRNA and protein expression in COPD rat. In addition, HSYA inhibited the phosphorylation of p38 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPK) in the lung tissue of rat. HSYA can attenuate experimentally induced airway remodeling and this attenuation may be attributed to suppression of TGF-β1 expression.

Inhibitory effect of hydroxysafflor yellow a on mouse skin photoaging induced by ultraviolet irradiation

Chronic exposure to ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is believed to be the major cause of skin damage that results in premature aging of the skin, so called photoaging, characterized by increases in skin thickness, formation of wrinkles, and loss of skin elasticity. UV induces damage to skin mainly by oxidative stress and collagen degradation. In this study, we examined the photo-protective effect of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), a major active chemical component isolated from Carthamus tinctorius L., by topical application on the skin of mice. Exposure of the dorsal depilated skin of mice to UV radiation four times a week for 10 weeks induced epidermal hyperplasia, elastin accumulation, collagen degradation, etc. HSYA at the doses of 50, 100, and 200 μg/mouse was topically applied immediately following each UV exposure. The effects of HSYA were evaluated by a series of tests, including macroscopic and histopathological evaluation of skin, pinch test, and redox homeostasis of skin homogenates. Results showed that the UV-induced skin damage was significantly improved after HSYA treatment, especially at doses of 100 and 200 μg/mouse. This protective effect is possibly related to the anti-oxidative property of HSYA and mediated by promoting endogenous collagen synthesis. This is the first study providing preclinical evidence for the protective effect of HSYA against photoaging.

Inhibitory effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A on PDGF‑BB‑induced proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells via mediating Akt signaling

The abnormal proliferation and migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) are key pathological factors in the initiation and progression of vascular disorders, including arteriosclerosis and restenosis following percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI). Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA), the main component of the safflower yellow pigments, has widely been used for the treatment of cardiovascular diseases in traditional Chinese medicine. However, to the best of our knowledge, there are no studies investigating the pharmaceutical effect of HSYA on VSMCs or the underlying molecular mechanism. The present study aimed to investigate the effect of HSYA on platelet‑derived growth factor (PDGF)‑BB‑stimulated VSMC proliferation and migration. HSYA significantly inhibited PDGF‑BB‑stimulated VSMC proliferation and, in response to PDGF‑BB‑stimulation, VSMCs dedifferentiated into a proliferative phenotype. However, HSYA effectively reversed this phenotype switching. In addition, the production of nitrous oxide and cyclic guanosine monophosphate induced by PDGF‑BB was also suppressed by HSYA, and HSYA markedly inhibited PDGF‑BB‑stimulated VSMC migration. Investigation of the molecular mechanism revealed that HSYA inhibited PDGF‑BB‑induced activation of Akt signaling. In addition, HSYA also suppressed PDGF‑BB‑stimulated upregulation of cell cycle related proteins and heme oxygenase‑1. In conclusion, HSYA was able to inhibit PDGF‑BB‑stimulated VSMC proliferation and migration, partially via suppressing PDGF‑BB‑induced Akt signaling activation. Therefore, HSYA may be useful for the prevention and treatment of cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis and restenosis following PCI.

AKT-related autophagy contributes to the neuroprotective efficacy of hydroxysafflor yellow A against ischemic stroke in rats

Hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) has been approved clinically for treating cardiac patients in China since 2005. Recent studies have indicated that HSYA may be neuroprotective at 24 h in experimental stroke models. Autophagy is a vital degradation pathway of damaged intracellular macromolecules or organelles to maintain homeostasis in physiological or pathological conditions. The purpose of this study is to investigate the neuroprotection of HSYA at 72 h and its mechanism via activating the autophagy pathway using an acute ischemic-reperfusion stroke rat model. Rats were treated with HSYA (2 mg/kg) during 90 min middle cerebral artery occlusion/72 h reperfusion by intravenous administration at four different time points (15 min post-ischemia, 15 min, 24 h, and 48 h post reperfusion), mimicking the potential treatment for acute ischemic stroke. HSYA administration reduced infarction volume and improved various neurological functions at 72 h of reperfusion. The possible molecular mechanism was investigated. We found that HSYA activated the AKT-autophagy pathway in penumbra tissue, which occurred in neuronal-specific cells. Moreover, blocking the AKT-autophagy pathway by an AKT inhibitor abolished HSYA-induced neuroprotection after cerebral ischemia. HSYA may be a promising drug for treating acute ischemic stroke and the AKT-dependent autophagy pathway contributes to the HSYA-afforded neuroprotection.

Macrophage heterogeneity in liver injury and fibrosis

Hepatic macrophages are central in the pathogenesis of chronic liver injury and have been proposed as potential targets in combatting fibrosis. Recent experimental studies in animal models revealed that hepatic macrophages are a remarkably heterogeneous population of immune cells that fulfill diverse functions in homeostasis, disease progression, and regression from injury. These range from clearance of pathogens or cellular debris and maintenance of immunological tolerance in steady state conditions; central roles in initiating and perpetuating inflammation in response to injury; promoting liver fibrosis via activating hepatic stellate cells in chronic liver damage; and, finally, resolution of inflammation and fibrosis by degradation of extracellular matrix and release of anti-inflammatory cytokines. Cellular heterogeneity in the liver is partly explained by the origin of macrophages. Hepatic macrophages can either arise from circulating monocytes, which are recruited to the injured liver via chemokine signals, or from self-renewing embryo-derived local macrophages, termed Kupffer cells. Kupffer cells appear essential for sensing tissue injury and initiating inflammatory responses, while infiltrating Ly-6C(+) monocyte-derived macrophages are linked to chronic inflammation and fibrogenesis. In addition, proliferation of local or recruited macrophages may possibly further contribute to their accumulation in injured liver. During fibrosis regression, monocyte-derived cells differentiate into Ly-6C (Ly6C, Gr1) low expressing 'restorative' macrophages and promote resolution from injury. Understanding the mechanisms that regulate hepatic macrophage heterogeneity, either by monocyte subset recruitment, by promoting restorative macrophage polarization or by impacting distinctive macrophage effector functions, may help to develop novel macrophage subset-targeted therapies for liver injury and fibrosis.

Hydroxysafflor yellow A induces apoptosis in MCF-7 cells by blocking NFκB/p65 pathway and disrupting mitochondrial transmembrane potential

The molecular mechanisms and the possible effects of hydroxysafflor yellow A (HSYA) on the induction of apoptosis in the human breast cancer MCF-7 cells were investigated.

Towards a better understanding of medicinal uses of Carthamus tinctorius L. in traditional Chinese medicine: a phytochemical and pharmacological review

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Carthamus tinctorius L. (Compositae), a widely used traditional Chinese medicine, was known as Hong hua (Chinese: ), safflower. Safflower with a wide spectrum of pharmacological effects has been used to treat dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, postpartum abdominal pain and mass, trauma and pain of joints, etc. The present paper reviews the advancements in investigation of botany and ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of safflower. Finally, the possible tendency and perspective for future investigation of this plant are discussed, too.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The information on safflower was collected via piles of resources including classic books about Chinese herbal medicine, and scientific databases including Pubmed, Google Scholar, ACS, Web of science, CNKI and others.

RESULTS

Over 104 compounds from this plant have been isolated and identified, and quinochalcones and flavonoids are considered as the characteristic and active constituents of safflower. Safflower with its active compounds possesses wide-reaching biological activities, including dilating coronary artery, improving myocardial ischemia, modulating immune system, anticoagulation and antithrombosis, antioxidation, antiaging, antihypoxia, antifatigue, antiinflammation, anti-hepatic fibrosis, antitumor, analgesia, etc.

CONCLUSIONS

As an important traditional Chinese medicine, it is important to investigate the pharmacological effects and molecular mechanisms of this plant based on modern realization of diseases' pathophysiology. More bioactive components should be identified using bioactivity-guided isolation strategies, and the possible mechanism of action as well as potential synergistic or antagonistic effects of multi-component mixtures derived from safflower need to be evaluated integrating pharmacological, pharmacokinetic, bioavailability-centered and physiological approaches. Further studies on safflower can lead to the development of new drugs and therapeutics for various diseases, and how to utilize it better should be paid more attention to.

Chemical and biological properties of quinochalcone C-glycosides from the florets of Carthamus tinctorius

Quinochalcone C-glycosides are regarded as characteristic components that have only been isolated from the florets of Carthamus tinctorius. Recently, quinochalcone C-glycosides were found to have multiple pharmacological activities, which has attracted the attention of many researchers to explore these compounds. This review aims to summarize quinochalcone C-glycosides’ physicochemical properties, chromatographic behavior, spectroscopic characteristics, as well as their biological activities, which will be helpful for further study and development of quinochalcone C-glycosides.