Ethnobotanical survey and antibacterial activity of plants used in the Altiplane region of Mexico for the treatment of oral cavity infections

Medicinal Plants Used for Eye Conditions in Mexico-A Review

Medicinal plants have been historically significant for treating common human diseases in Mexico. Although some ethnobotanical research exists, limited ethnomedicinal data has documented medicinal plants employed for eye health. This review focuses on ethnomedicinal information and preclinical and clinical studies regarding medicinal plants used in Mexico for treating symptoms associated with eye conditions. An electronic database search was conducted by consulting scientific articles, books about Mexican herbal medicine, and academic theses. This work recorded 69 plant species belonging to 26 plant families, especially plants from the Crassulaceae family, which are used as remedies for irritation and infections in the eye. Eight of these medicinal plants have been the subject of preclinical studies using ocular models, and one medicinal plant has been tested in clinical trials. The evidence of pharmacological effects indicates the promising therapeutic potential of these medicinal plants for developing new treatments for eye conditions. However, toxicological studies are necessary to ensure safe application to the eye, particularly as traditional medicine continues to be relied upon worldwide. In addition, this review highlights the need to perform ethnobotanical and phytochemical studies in Mexico regarding the medicinal flora used as remedies for eye conditions.

Remnants from the Past: From an 18th Century Manuscript to 21st Century Ethnobotany in Valle Imagna (Bergamo, Italy)

BACKGROUND

This project originated from the study of an 18th century manuscript found in Valle Imagna (Bergamo, Italy) which contains 200 plant-based medicinal remedies. A first comparison with published books concerning 20th century folk medicine in the Valley led to the designing of an ethnobotanical investigation, aimed at making a thorough comparison between past and current phytotherapy knowledge in this territory.

METHODS

The field investigation was conducted through semi-structured interviews. All data collected was entered in a database and subsequently processed. A diachronic comparison between the field results, the manuscript, and a 20th century book was then performed.

RESULTS

A total of 109 interviews were conducted and the use of 103 medicinal plants, belonging to 46 families, was noted. A decrease in number of plant taxa and uses was observed over time, with only 42 taxa and 34 uses reported in the manuscript being currently known by the people of the valley. A thorough comparison with the remedies in the manuscript highlighted similar recipes for 12 species. Specifically, the use of agrimony in Valle Imagna for the treatment of deep wounds calls back to an ancient remedy against leg ulcers based on this species.

CONCLUSIONS

The preliminary results of this study allow us to outline the partial passage through time fragments of ancient plant-based remedies once used in the investigated area.

Hydroalcoholic extract of Haematoxylum brasiletto protects Caenorhabditis elegans from cadmium-induced toxicity

Background

H. brasiletto is used in popular culture due to its therapeutic properties, including antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and antiproliferative properties, although little is known about its role as a protector against metal toxicity. This study aimed to investigate the chemical composition and efficacy of the hydroalcoholic extract from H. brasiletto (HAE-Hbrasiletto) collected in northern Colombia to defend against cadmium (Cd)-induced toxicity.

Methods

Phytochemical characterization was performed using HPLC-ESI-QTOF. Caenorhabditis elegans was employed to assess the shielding effect of HAE-Hbrasiletto against Cd toxicity in vivo, and the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay was utilized to measure radical scavenging activity.

Results

The main secondary metabolites identified by HPLC-ESI-QTOF in the extracts were hematoxylins (brazilein and hematein) and protosappanins (protosappanin A, B and C, 10-O-methylprotosappanin B, and protosappanin A dimethyl acetal). The HAE-Hbrasiletto elicited low lethality in N2 worms and significantly reduced the Cd-induced death of the nematodes. It also improved Cd-induced motility inhibition, as well as body length and reproduction reduction provoked by the heavy metal. The extract displayed a good capacity to halt Cd-induced DAF-16 translocation. As this last process was associated with lethality (r = 0.962, p < 0.01), the antioxidant properties of the extract may contribute to ameliorating tissue damage induced by oxidative stress from Cd exposure.

Conclusion

HAE-Hbrasiletto has remarkable properties to protect against Cd-induced toxicity.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12906-022-03654-6.

Most secondary metabolites tentatively identified in H. brasiletto are homoisoflavones.

Hidroalcoholic extract of H. brasiletto protects C. elegans from Cd toxicity

The extract diminished Cd-induced damage to reproduction, growth, and locomotion.

Cd-induced oxidative stress and translocation of DAF-16 are blocked by the extract.

Wound healing activity of the hydroalcoholic extract and the main metabolites of Amphipterygium adstringens (cuachalalate) in a rat excision model

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The bark of Amphipterygium adstringens Schiede ex Schltdl (Anacardiaceae), commonly known as 'cuachalalate' has been used in Mexican traditional medicine for the treatment of skin and oral lesions, gastric ulcers, and other conditions. The use as wound healing of the bark of this plant has been known since before the Spanish conquest of Mexico. Its uses are mentioned in the first writings of the Spanish in the 16th century. It is important to highlight that its use for wound healing treatment has no scientific previous reports.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The objectives of this study were to determine the wound healing effect of the hydroalcoholic extract of the stem bark of Amphipterygium adstringens and its main metabolites, using a model of excision in the back of Wistar rats. To evaluate its antimicrobial effect against common bacteria that living on the skin of wounds and to evaluate its effect on angiogenesis.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The hydroalcoholic extract of cuachalalate (HAE, 10 mg/wound/day), the 3α-hydroxymasticadienoic acid (3 MA, 300 μg/wound/day), the masticadienoic acid (MA, 300 μg/wound/day), and a mixture of anacardic acids (ANA, 300 μg per wound) were tested in a murine excision model topically for 15 days, to evaluate their wound-healing effect. The results were reported in a wound closure percentage (n = 30 animals per treatment curve), using pirfenidone (PIR, 8% in vehicle) as a reference drug. In addition, histologic analysis was performed to evaluate the structure and quality of the scar. The effect on angiogenesis was assessed using the chick embryo chorioallantoic membrane (CAM) model (n = 6 eggs per treatment). The concentration evaluated for each treatment was 300 μg, using as proangiogenic reference drug the histamine (HIS, 5.6 μg) and as antiangiogenic drugs pirfenidone (9 μg) and acetylsalicylic acid (ASA, 9 μg). The antimicrobial test was performed against S. mutans, S. aureus, P. aeruginosa y E. coli using a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) assay.

RESULTS

The 3α-hydroxymasticadienoic (3 MA) acid and the anacardic acids (ANA) improve the wound closure by approximates 30% (similar to pirfenidone) in comparison with the control-treated with the vehicle in the proliferative phase. On the other hand, the hydroalcoholic extract of cuachalalate (HAE) did not show an effect on the wound healing process. The histologic analysis demonstrated that the three main metabolites showed an improvement in the scar structure. According to the CAM results, it is probable that the main action mechanism of the 3α-hydroxymasticadienoic acid and the anacardic acids is related to their proangiogenic effect. In addition, ANA showed a modest antimicrobial effect.

CONCLUSIONS

The 3α-hydroxymasticadienoic acid and anacardic acids showed a better tissue structure and reduced the time closure of the wound. In addition, the anacardic acids showed antimicrobial effects and both metabolites promote angiogenesis, suggesting that these effects may be related to their action mechanism. These metabolites of cuachalalate could be a good alternative for wound healing treatment.

Gastroprotective effect of low dose Eugenol in experimental rats against ethanol induced toxicity: Involvement of antiinflammatory and antioxidant mechanism

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Syzygium aromaticum L. volatile oil (clove oil) has been traditionally used for various stomach disorders including inflammatory conditions. Eugenol is the major constituent present in the volatile oil, and it has been established as a gastroprotective agent through many published studies, but the exact and complete mechanism of ulcer protection is not delineated yet. Moreover, it plays precisely the opposite effect in higher dose in antiulcer properties with worsening the ulcer at a higher dose.

AIM

This study aims to carry out the prophylactic cytoprotective effect of eugenol with single low doses and explore the probable interrelated underlying transcriptional and translational level mechanism of cytoprotection such as antioxidative, anti-inflammatory, mucous generation in rats using ethanol-induced ulcer model.

METHODS

Rats were administered with different doses of eugenol before ethanol intragastrically. The effects of the eugenol on mucous production, Nitric oxide generation, PGE2 synthesis, lipid peroxidation were recorded together with cytokines measurement in the blood. TNF-α and IL-6, two key cytokines, were also studied in specific. In addition, studies on the immunohistochemical and gene expression of HSP70 and iNOS indicators have been conducted.

RESULTS

According to our findings, Eugenol substantially reduced the ulcer index and completely protected the mucosa from lesions. By restoring the lowered GSH and NP-SH levels, the protective effect of the eugenol was found to be augmented at both doses. This finding has corresponded to an increase in MDA, which was lowered by ethanol administration. Pre-treatment with eugenol on the ethanol-induced ulcer reduced the plasma NO levels and increased PGE2 along with a decreased TNF-α and IL-6 concentration. Additionally, significant transcriptional and translational upregulation of HSP70 and downregulation of iNOS were detected in the eugenol-treated rat stomach tissue.

CONCLUSION

Our findings demonstrated that eugenol had a considerable gastroprotective impact at low doses, which could be attributed to its ability to regulate inflammatory reactions and antioxidant capacity.

Brazilin: Biological activities and therapeutic potential in chronic degenerative diseases and cancer

Caesalpinia sappan and Haematoxylum brasiletto belong to the Fabaceae family, predominantly distributed in Southeast Asia and America. The isoflavonoid brazilin has been identified from the bark and heartwood of these plants. This review summarizes the studies describing the biological activities of these plants and brazilin. Mainly, brazilin protects cells from oxidative stress, shows anti-inflammatory and antibacterial properties, and hypoglycemic effect. In addition, it has a biological impact on various pathologies such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, fibrillogenesis, and osteoarthritis. Interestingly, most of the antecedents are related to the anticancer effect of brazilin. In several cancers such as osteosarcoma, neuroblastoma, multiple myeloma, glioblastoma, bladder, melanoma, breast, tongue, colon, cervical, head, and neck squamous cell carcinoma, brazilin induces autophagy by increasing the levels of the LC3-II protein. Furthermore, it inhibits cell proliferation and induces apoptosis through increased expression of Bcl-2, Bcl-XL, p21, p27, activation of caspase-3 and -7, and the cleavage of PARP and inhibiting the expression of Bax. In addition, it blocks the expression of JNK and regulates the nuclear translocation of Nrf2. Together, these data positions brazilin as a compound of natural origin with multiple bioactivities and therapeutic potential in various chronic degenerative diseases and cancer.

Toxicological studies of aqueous and ethanol leaf extract of Spondias purpurea (red plum) in rats

Background

Spondias purpurea is a flowering plant of the cashew family commonly found in South Western Nigeria. The plant is used in folk medicine for treatment of gastric disorders and diarrhoea. The purpose of the study was to investigate the haematological and histopathological effects of aqueous and ethanol leaf extract of S. purpurea (red plum) in rats.

Methods

Female wistar rats weighing (121.5 ± 30.41 g) were administered 500, 1000 and 1500 mg/kg body weight of aqueous and ethanol extracts of S. purpurea leaf (orally) daily for 14 days, while the control group was administered 0.5 ml of normal saline (vehicle). At the end of the study, the rats were euthanized; blood samples were collected for haematological parameters. The liver, kidney and spleen were harvested from the rats for photomicrographic examination.

Result

The result of the acute toxicity test revealed no death with dose up to 5000 mg/kg body weight. The administration of the extracts showed no significant difference (p > 0.05) in the hematologic parameters of the animals. The liver sections showed congestion, mononuclear infiltration, widened sinusoidal space and congestions with hemosiderin. Similar changes were observed in the kidney showing slight necrosis of renal tubular epithelium, widened Bowman’s space, and collapsed renal tubules and adhesion of the parietal layer of glomerulus to the Bowman’s space. The spleen showed congestion, lymphocyte proliferation at the germinal centre.

Conclusions

The result of this study showed that the alterations observed in the organs intensified with increase in the doses of the extracts administered. It can be inferred that the prolonged consumption of S. purpurea leaf maybe associated with significant tissue damage of some vital organs.

Caribbean Women's Health and Transnational Ethnobotany

Caribbean Women's Health and Transnational Ethnobotany. Immigrants from the Dominican Republic (DR) and Haiti are among the top foreign-born communities in New York City (NYC). As people migrate to new countries, they bring their ethnomedical beliefs and practices, and adapt their plant pharmacopoeias. Haiti and the DR share a flora on the island of Hispaniola. In NYC, the flora is limited to what is available in the city. We selected plants for future laboratory research based on ethnobotanical data from two surveys among Dominicans in the DR and NYC, and a Haitian literature review. In both Dominican datasets, gynecological infections were the top women's health condition treated with plants. We identified 10 species for this purpose reported by Dominicans that are also known medicines in Haitian culture, although not yet documented for women's health. Plants for gynecological infections potentially cause dysbiosis of the vaginal microbiota, and may increase rather than prevent disease. There is a public health need to assess traditional medicines for their ability to inhibit pathogenic bacteria, while causing minimal disruption to the vaginal flora. Several species are known antibacterials, but remain to be tested for their efficacy. These results also provide a foundation for a planned ethnobotanical survey among NYC Haitian women.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s12231-021-09526-3.

Antimicrobial Photodynamic Treatment with Mother Juices and Their Single Compounds as Photosensitizers

The potent antimicrobial effects of antimicrobial photodynamic therapy (aPDT) with visible light plus water-filtered infrared-A irradiation and natural compounds as photosensitizers (PSs) have recently been demonstrated. The aim of this study was to obtain information on the antimicrobial effects of aPDT with mother juices against typical cariogenic oral Streptococcus pathogens in their planktonic form and determine its eradication potential on total human salivary bacteria from volunteers. Mother juices of pomegranate, bilberry, and chokeberry at different concentrations were used as PSs. The unweighted (absolute) irradiance was 200 mW cm⁻², applied five minutes. Planktonic cultures of Streptococcus mutans and Streptococcus sobrinus and total mixed bacteria from pooled saliva of volunteers were treated with aPDT. Up to more than 5 log₁₀ of S. mutans and S. sobrinus were killed by aPDT with 0.4% and 0.8% pomegranate juice, 3% and 50% chokeberry juice, and 12.5% bilberry juice (both strains). Concentrations of at least 25% (pomegranate) and >50% (chokeberry and bilberry) eradicated the mixed bacteria in saliva samples. This pilot study has shown that pomegranate mother juice is superior to the berry juices as a multicomponent PS for killing pathogenic oral bacteria with aPDT.

A Systematic Review of Plants With Antibacterial Activities: A Taxonomic and Phylogenetic Perspective

Background: Antimicrobial resistance represents a serious threat to human health across the globe. The cost of bringing a new antibiotic from discovery to market is high and return on investment is low. Furthermore, the development of new antibiotics has slowed dramatically since the 1950s’ golden age of discovery. Plants produce a variety of bioactive secondary metabolites that could be used to fuel the future discovery pipeline. While many studies have focused on specific aspects of plants and plant natural products with antibacterial properties, a comprehensive review of the antibacterial potential of plants has never before been attempted.

Objectives: This systematic review aims to evaluate reports on plants with significant antibacterial activities.

Methods: Following the PRISMA model, we searched three electronic databases: Web of Science, PubMed and SciFinder by using specific keywords: “plant,” “antibacterial,” “inhibitory concentration.”

Results: We identified a total of 6,083 articles published between 1946 and 2019 and then reviewed 66% of these (4,024) focusing on articles published between 2012 and 2019. A rigorous selection process was implemented using clear inclusion and exclusion criteria, yielding data on 958 plant species derived from 483 scientific articles. Antibacterial activity is found in 51 of 79 vascular plant orders throughout the phylogenetic tree. Most are reported within eudicots, with the bulk of species being asterids. Antibacterial activity is not prominent in monocotyledons. Phylogenetic distribution strongly supports the concept of chemical evolution across plant clades, especially in more derived eudicot families. The Lamiaceae, Fabaceae and Asteraceae were the most represented plant families, while Cinnamomum verum, Rosmarinus vulgaris and Thymus vulgaris were the most studied species. South Africa was the most represented site of plant collection. Crude extraction in methanol was the most represented type of extraction and leaves were the main plant tissue investigated. Finally, Staphylococcus aureus was the most targeted pathogenic bacteria in these studies. We closely examine 70 prominent medicinal plant species from the 15 families most studied in the literature.

Conclusion: This review depicts the current state of knowledge regarding antibacterials from plants and provides powerful recommendations for future research directions.

Antimicrobial investigation of ethnobotanically selected guinean plant species

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

In Guinea, medicinal plants play an important role in the management of infectious diseases including urinary disorders, skin diseases and oral diseases. This study was carried out to collect medicinal plant species employed for the treatment of these diseases and to investigate their antimicrobial potential.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Based on an ethnobotanical investigation carried out in three Guinean regions, 74 traditional healers and 28 herbalists were interviewed and medicinal plants were collected. The most quoted plant species were evaluated for their antimicrobial activities against Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Candida albicans, and in addition against Plasmodium falciparum.

RESULTS

A total of 112 plant species belonging to 102 genera distributed over 42 botanical families were inventoried. Among the selected plant species, promising activities against C. albicans were obtained for the methanolic extracts of the stem bark of Terminalia albida (IC₅₀ 1.2 μg/ml), the leaves of Tetracera alnifolia (IC₅₀ 1.6 μg/ml) and the root bark of Swartzia madagascariensis (IC₅₀ 7.8 μg/ml). The highest activity against S. aureus was obtained for the dichloromethane extracts of the leaves of Pavetta crassipes (IC₅₀ 8.5 μg/ml) and the root of Swartzia madagascariensis (IC₅₀ 12.8 μg/ml). Twenty one extracts, obtained from twelve plant species, were strongly active against Plasmodium falciparum, including the dichloromethane extracts of the root and stem bark of Terminalia albida root (IC₅₀ 0.6 and 0.8 μg/ml), the leaves of Landolphia heudelotii (IC₅₀ 0.5 μg/ml), the stem bark of Combretum paniculatum (IC₅₀ 0.4 μg/ml) and the leaves of Gardenia ternifolia (IC₅₀ 1.3 μg/ml).

CONCLUSION

The present study provides a comprehensive overview of medicinal plants employed by Guinean traditional healers for the treatment of various microbial diseases, including urinary disorders, skin diseases and oral diseases. Some of the studied plant species showed promising antimicrobial activity and could be considered as a potential source for the development of new antifungal and/or antimalarial agents.

Antibacterial activity of plant species used for oral health against Porphyromonas gingivalis

Porphyromonas gingivalis is the keystone pathogen of periodontitis, a chronic inflammatory disease which causes tooth loss and deterioration of gingiva. Medicinal plants have been traditionally used for oral hygiene and health and might play a role as antibacterial agents against oral pathogens. In this work, we aimed to evaluate the antibacterial activity of plants used for oral hygiene or symptoms of periodontitis against P. gingivalis. We first reviewed the literature to identify plant species used for oral hygiene or symptoms of periodontitis. Then, we cross-checked this species list with our in-house library of plant extracts to select extracts for testing. Antibacterial activity tests were then performed for each plant extract against P. gingivalis, and their cytotoxicity was assessed on HaCaT cells. The selectivity index (SI) was then calculated. A total of 416 plant species belonging to 110 families and 305 genera were documented through our literature search, and 158 plant species were noted as being used by North American Native peoples Once cross-checked with the extracts contained in our library of natural products, 30 matches were identified and 21 were defined as high priority. Of the 109 extracts from 21 plant species selected and tested, 21 extracts from 11 plants had higher than 90% inhibition on P. gingivalis at 64 μg/mL and were further selected for MIC (Minimum Inhibitory Concentration) assays. Out of 21 plant extracts, 13 extracts (7 plant species) had a SI > 10. Pistacia lentiscus fruits showed the best MIC with value of 8 μg/mL, followed by Zanthoxylum armatum fruits/seeds with a MIC of 16 μg/mL. P. lentiscus fruits also showed the highest SI of 256. Most of the extracts tested present promising antibacterial activity and low cytotoxicity. Further testing for biofilm eradication and examination of activity against other dental pathogens and oral commensals should be performed to confirm the potential of these extracts as antibacterial agents. Future work will focus on application of a bioassay-guided fractionation approach to isolating and identifying the most active natural products in the top performing extracts. This study can serve as a basis for their future development as ingredients for oral hygiene products.

Phytochemical and Pharmacological Study of the Eysenhardtia Genus

The participation of natural products in health care has been remarkable, and today they continue to play a key role in the discovery and development of new treatments. Phytochemical studies together with pharmacological tests have managed to integrate bioactive agents as an alternative solution to reduce or regulate the problems caused by diseases. The Eysenhardtia genus is a family of plants that are rich in secondary metabolites, which have shown potential activity in the control and mitigation of urinary disorders, diabetes, oxidative stress, protein glycosylation, microbial infections, inflammation, pain or discomfort, muscle contractions, cytotoxicity, or as a cellular or neuronal signaling modulator. These conditions generally appear in comorbid diseases, which motivated the bibliographic review associated with the plant. This document presents the beneficial actions produced by Eysenhardtia extracts and/or bioactives to inhibit, control, or reduce the complications or discomfort of degenerative diseases and thus generate new therapeutic alternatives.

Traditional Herbal Medicine in Mesoamerica: Toward Its Evidence Base for Improving Universal Health Coverage

The quality of health care in Mesoamerica is influenced by its rich cultural diversity and characterized by social inequalities. Especially indigenous and rural communities confront diverse barriers to accessing formal health services, leading to often conflicting plurimedical systems. Fostering integrative medicine is a fundamental pillar for achieving universal health coverage (UHC) for marginalized populations. Recent developments toward health sovereignty in the region are concerned with assessing the role of traditional medicines, and particularly herbal medicines, to foster accessible and culturally pertinent healthcare provision models. In Mesoamerica, as in most regions of the world, a wealth of information on traditional and complementary medicine has been recorded. Yet these data are often scattered, making it difficult for policy makers to regulate and integrate traditionally used botanical products into primary health care. This critical review is based on a quantitative analysis of 28 survey papers focusing on the traditional use of botanical drugs in Mesoamerica used for the compilation of the "Mesoamerican Medicinal Plant Database" (MAMPDB), which includes a total of 12,537 use-records for 2188 plant taxa. Our approach presents a fundamental step toward UHC by presenting a pharmacological and toxicological review of the cross-culturally salient plant taxa and associated botanical drugs used in traditional medicine in Mesoamerica. Especially for native herbal drugs, data about safety and effectiveness are limited. Commonly used cross-culturally salient botanical drugs, which are considered safe but for which data on effectiveness is lacking constitute ideal candidates for treatment outcome studies.

Microbial Etiology and Prevention of Dental Caries: Exploiting Natural Products to Inhibit Cariogenic Biofilms

Dental caries is one of the most common microbe-mediated oral diseases in human beings. At present, the accepted etiology of caries is based on a four-factor theory that includes oral microorganisms, oral environment, host, and time. Excessive exposure to dietary carbohydrates leads to the accumulation of acid-producing and acid-resistant microorganisms in the mouth. Dental caries is driven by dysbiosis of the dental biofilm adherent to the enamel surface. Effective preventive methods include inhibiting the cariogenic microorganisms, treatment with an anti-biofilm agent, and sugar intake control. The goal is to reduce the total amount of biofilm or the levels of specific pathogens. Natural products could be recommended for preventing dental caries, since they may possess fewer side effects in comparison with synthetic antimicrobials. Herein, the mechanisms of oral microbial community development and functional specialization are discussed. We highlight the application of widely explored natural products in the last five years for their ability to inhibit cariogenic microorganisms.

Pomegranate as a source of bioactive constituents: a review on their characterization, properties and applications

Increasing awareness about the use of compounds obtained from natural sources exerting health-beneficial properties, including antimicrobial and antioxidant effects, led to increased number of research papers focusing on the study of functional properties of target compounds to be used as functional foods or in preventive medicine. Pomegranate has shown positive health properties due to the presence of bioactive constituents such as polyphenols, tannins, and anthocyanins. Punicalagin is the major antioxidant, abundantly found in pomegranate's peel. Research has shown that pomegranate polyphenols not only have a strong antioxidant capacity but they also inhibit the growth of pathogenic bacteria like V. cholera, P. aeruginosa and S. aureus, B. cereus, E. coli, and S. virulence factor, and inhibits fungi such as A. Ochraceus, and P. citrinum. Compounds of natural origin inhibit the growth of various pathogens by extending the shelf life of foodstuffs and assuring their safety. Therefore, the need to find compounds to be used in combination with antibiotics or as new antimicrobial sources, such as plant extracts. On the basis of the above discussion, this review focuses on the health benefits of pomegranate, by summarizing the current body of research focusing on pomegranate bioactive constituents and their therapeutic potential against some pathogenic microbes.

Comparative Antidiabetic Activity of Aqueous, Ethanol, and Methanol Leaf Extracts of Persea americana and Their Effectiveness in Type 2 Diabetic Rats

Native to Mexico, Persea americana Mill. (avocado) is a fruit tree whose different parts (leaf, bark, roots, and stone) are used in traditional medicine especially against diabetes mellitus. The aim of this study was to investigate the beneficial effects of 28-day treatment with aqueous, ethanolic, and methanolic leaf extracts on glucose homeostasis in type 2 diabetic mellitus using Wistar rats. Type 2 diabetes was induced with nicotinamide (120 mg/kg, i.p.) and streptozotocin (65 mg/kg, i.p.). After 28 days of treatment, histopathological examination of the pancreas, kidneys, liver, and muscle (tibialis anterior) were realized. Biochemical markers were determined and an intestinal absorption test of D-glucose was performed. All extracts (100 mg/kg/day, p.o.) significantly (p < 0.001) reduced blood glucose level at the 28^th day of treatment with a more pronounced effect for methanolic extract. The treatments were well tolerated and induced a restoration of T-CHOL and HDL-C levels compared to the control group. Methanolic extract reduced the AIP (atherogenic index of plasma) by 45%. Histopathological analyzes of the pancreas showed regeneration of islets of Langerhans. Methanolic extract was the most effective in preventing intestinal glucose uptake up to 60.90% in relation to metformin. These results justify the use of this plant in traditional medicine against type 2 diabetes. However, other complementary studies should be done to identify the molecules responsible for this activity and their signaling voice.

Chemical composition, antioxidant and gastrointestinal properties of Sedum dendroideum Moc & Sessé ex DC leaves tea infusion

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Sedum dendroideum Moc & Sessé ex DC (Crassulaceae) is a medicinal plant employed in Mexican and Brasilian folk medicine as juice or infusion, as remedy for the treatment of different diseases, including gastric disorders.

AIM OF THE STUDY

Although some studies carried out with Sedum dendroideum have demonstrated its gastroprotective effect, the purpose of this study was to elucidate the chemical constituents, antioxidant, cytotoxic and mechanisms underlying the gastrointestinal properties of Sedum dendroideum accordingly its traditional use, as fresh leaves tea infusion (SDI).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chemical constituents were analyzed using high performance liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry (HPLC-MS). Antioxidant and cytotoxicity were evaluated in in vitro assays. The efficacy of the SDI on macroscopic ulcer appearance, mucus and GSH maintenance on ethanol- and indomethacin-induced ulcer models, gastric acid secretion and gastrointestinal motility were investigated.

RESULTS

Phytochemical analysis by HPLC-MS revealed the presence of different flavonol glycosides, containing myricetin and quercetin, along with the kaempferol as aglycones. In vitro pharmacological investigation of SDI demonstrated potent antioxidant activity in DPPH assay (IC50: 13.25 ± 3.37 µg/mL) and absence of cytotoxicity in Caco-2 cells by MTT method. Oral administration of SDI (ED₅₀ of 191.00 ± 0.08 mg/kg) in rats promoted gastroprotection against ethanol or indomethacin in rats through reinforcement of gastric wall mucus, GSH content and nitric oxide release, without present antisecretory properties. The gastroprotective effect was maintained when SDI (19 mg/kg) was administrated by intraperitoneal route. Furthermore, SDI (150 mg/kg) unchanged the gastric emptying but increase small bowel transit in mice through cholinergic pathways.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, this study confirmed that Sedum dendroideum promotes gastroprotection through preventing of endogenous defense mechanisms, represented by mucus and GSH without changes gastric acid secretion. Sedum dendroideum tea infusion features a chemical profile that contributes to the antioxidant and gastric health-promoting effects, supporting the use in folk medicine for the treatment of gastrointestinal disorders.

A systematic review on black pepper (Piper nigrum L.): from folk uses to pharmacological applications

Considered as the "King of spices", black pepper (Piper nigrum L.) is a widely used spice which adds flavor of its own to dishes, and also enhances the taste of other ingredients. Piper nigrum has also been extensively explored for its biological properties and its bioactive phyto-compounds. There is, however, no updated compilation of these available data to provide a complete profile of the medicinal aspects of P. nigrum. This study endeavors to systematically review scientific data on the traditional uses, phytochemical composition, and pharmacological properties of P. nigrum. Information was obtained using a combination of keywords via recognized electronic databases (e.g., Science Direct and Google Scholar). Google search was also used. Books and online materials were also considered, and the literature search was restricted to the English language. The country with the highest number of traditional reports of P. nigrum for both human and veterinary medicine was India, mostly for menstrual and ear-nose-throat disorders in human and gastrointestinal disorders in livestock. The seeds and fruits were mostly used, and the preferred mode of preparation was in powdered form, pills or tablets, and paste. Piper nigrum and its bioactive compounds were also found to possess important pharmacological properties. Antimicrobial activity was recorded against a wide range of pathogens via inhibition of biofilm, bacterial efflux pumps, bacterial swarming, and swimming motilities. Studies also reported its antioxidant effects against a series of reactive oxygen and nitrogen species including the scavenging of superoxide anion, hydrogen peroxide, nitric oxide, DPPH, ABTS, and reducing effect against ferric and molybdenum (VI). Improvement of antioxidant enzymes in vivo has also been reported. Piper nigrum also exhibited anticancer effect against a number of cell lines from breast, colon, cervical, and prostate through different mechanisms including cytotoxicity, apoptosis, autophagy, and interference with signaling pathways. Its antidiabetic property has also been confirmed in vivo as well as hypolipidemic activity as evidenced by decrease in the level of cholesterol, triglycerides, and low-density lipoprotein and increase in high-density lipoprotein. Piper nigrum also has anti-inflammatory, analgesic, anticonvulsant, and neuroprotective effects. The major bioactive compound identified in P. nigrum is piperine although other compounds are also present including piperic acid, piperlonguminine, pellitorine, piperolein B, piperamide, piperettine, and (-)-kusunokinin, which also showed biological potency. Most pharmacological studies were conducted in vitro (n = 60) while only 21 in vivo and 1 clinical trial were performed. Hence, more in vivo experiments using a pharmacokinetic and pharmacokinetic approach would be beneficial. As a conclusive remark, P. nigrum should not only be regarded as "King of spices" but can also be considered as part of the kingdom of medicinal agents, comprising a panoply of bioactive compounds with potential nutraceutical and pharmaceutical applications.

Efficacy of Camellia sinensis extract against Candida species in patients with denture stomatitis

Background and Purpose:

Denture stomatitis is a chronic inflammation disease of the oral mucosa, which is specified by erythematous lesions mainly in the upper palate. Nystatin as a polyene, a class of antifungal agents, is one of the effective drugs to treat denture stomatitis. Considering the expansion of utilizing herbal drugs to cure many kinds of diseases, the present study was conducted to investigate the effects of Camellia sinensis (green tea), which has the most chemical and influence similarity with nystatin, against denture stomatitis.

Materials and Methods:

This study was conducted on 22 patients with a positive mycological evidence for denture stomatitis caused by Candida species. The study population was divided into two groups, namely green tea and nystatin, receiving green tea mouthwash 0.5% and nystatin suspension 100,000 U/ml, respectively. The lesion size and number of yeast colonies were measured before and after the treatment.

Results:

According to the results, both groups showed reduced lesion size, clinical improvement, and significant reduction of Candida colony count in both group of patients were showedafter the therapeutic. Based on the results of polymerase chain reaction, Candida albicans was the most common species isolated from denture stomatitis. There was no significant difference between the two study groups in terms of Candida species distribution (P=0.700).

Conclusion:

Green tea demonstrated a comparable anti-Candida activity with regard to nystatin; therefore, it could be recommended as an alternative treatment.

Ethnobotanic, phytochemical uses and ethnopharmacological profile of genus Cnidoscolus spp. (Euphorbiaceae): A comprehensive overview

The application of medicinal plants are the most important biotechnological alternative in the treatment of numerous diseases, especially in developing countries, such as Brazil. Among them, we specified some specimens of the genus Cnidoscolus used as phytotherapies, with healing properties, analgesic, anti-inflammatory, antibiotic and diuretic, anticancer, among others. Such effects are possibly associated with the presence of terpenoids, alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids phenolic compounds, among others. Thus, the objective of this work was to evaluate in the literature the studies on the phytochemical, ethnopharmacological and biotechnological applications of this genus, from 1998 to 2017. Among the sixty-one studies reported in this review, ten species are popularly utilized to pharmacological and/or biotechnological applications. Cnidoscolus aconitifolius and Cnidoscolus chayamansa are the most cited species, which were also supported by either animal or cellular investigations indicating some beneficial pharmacological actions like antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and potential cytotoxic activity. The plant parts of this genus under study are important as sources for the isolation and identification of bioactive molecules with biotechnological applications, among the many diseases treated with this phytotherapy. Given these verdicts, ethnopharmacological approaches are significant systematic tools in the determination of plant species that exhibit medicinal and nutritional purposes. The results presented here should further stimulate the development of validation studies to ensure the safe and effective use of these plant species.

Phytochemical and pharmacological aspects of Cnidoscolus Pohl species: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Cnidoscolus is a genus belonging to the Euphorbiaceae family, distributed in South American countries, such as Mexico and Brazil, which includes several species widely used in folk medicine. However, the genus is not sufficiently exploited from a chemical and pharmacological point of view.

HYPOTHESIS/PURPOSE

This paper aims to present a systematic review of known pharmacological and chemical aspects from Cnidoscolus, an important genus for South America research groups on medicinal plants. In this article, we highlight the importance of Cnidoscolus species in the search for new bioactive molecules.

STUDY DESIGN

A systematic review was conducted in order to collect chemical and pharmacological information on species of this genus in the last 25 years.

METHODS

Literature search was performed through specialized databases (PUBMED, LILACS, SCIELO, Science Direct and Web of Science) using different combinations of the following keywords: Cnidoscolus, phytochemistry, pharmacological activity. For the selection of the manuscripts, two independent investigators (RGOJ and CAAF) first selected the articles according to the title, then to the abstract and finally through an analysis of the full-text publication. All selected manuscripts were analyzed for year of publication, country where the research was performed, reported plant species, isolated chemical compounds and evaluated biological activities.

RESULTS

Most of the studies involving Cnidoscolus were conducted by research groups located in Brazil, Nigeria and Mexico. Regarding the annual evolution of the publications, a larger number of articles published in 2014 were observed. Flavonoids, triterpenes and diterpenes represent the main classes of secondary metabolites that have been isolated from Cnidoscolus. In terms of the pharmacological investigations, C. aconitifolius, C. chayamansa and C. quercifolius are considered the most studied species, with different pharmacological activities.

CONCLUSION

All findings indicate that Cnidoscolus is an important genus of the Euphorbiaceae family. However, considering its chemical and pharmacological importance, the studies developed with Cnidoscolus species are still limited, representing an opportunity to investigate new bioactive molecules.

Tagetes spp. Essential Oils and Other Extracts: Chemical Characterization and Biological Activity

Tagetes (marigold) is native to America, and its cultivation currently extends to other countries in Africa, Asia, and Europe. Many species of this genus, such as T. minuta, T. erecta, T. patula, and T. tenuifolia, are cultivated as ornamental plants and studied for their medicinal properties on the basis of their use in folk medicine. Different parts of the Tagetes species are used as remedies to treat various health problems, including dental, stomach, intestinal, emotional, and nervous disorders, as well as muscular pain, across the world. Furthermore, these plants are studied in the field of agriculture for their fungicidal, bactericidal, and insecticidal activities. The phytochemical composition of the extracts of different Tagetes species parts are reported in this work. These compounds exhibit antioxidant, antiinflammatory, and enzyme inhibitory properties. Cultivation and the factors affecting the chemical composition of Tagetes species are also covered. In the current work, available literature on Tagetes species in traditional medicine, their application as a food preservative, and their antimicrobial activities are reviewed.

Pharmacological and toxicological study of a chemical-standardized ethanol extract of the branches and leaves from Eysenhardtia polystachya (Ortega) Sarg. (Fabaceae)

Eysenhardtia polystachya is used for the empirical treatment of cancer, infections, diarrhea, inflammation, and pain. This study identified, using GC-MS, the main chemical components in an ethanol extract of E. polystachya branches and leaves (EPE) and tested its cytotoxic, antimicrobial, anti-diarrheal, anti-inflammatory, and antinociceptive effects. The in vitro and in vivo toxicity of EPE was evaluated using the comet assay in human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) and the acute toxicity test in mice, respectively. The cytotoxic and the antimicrobial effects were performed using the MTT assay and the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) test, respectively. The levels of pro-inflammatory mediators in LPS-stimulated macrophages were measured to evaluate the in vitro anti-inflammatory effects of EPE. The antidiarrheal (castor oil test, small intestine transit, and castor oil-induced enteropooling), and anti-inflammatory activities (TPA and carrageenan) of EPE were also performed. The antinociceptive actions of EPE were carried out with the following tests: acetic acid, formalin, and hot plate. The hypnotic and locomotor effects were analyzed using pentobarbital and a rotarod system, respectively. The main component in EPE was D-pinitol (26.93%). The antidiarrheal and antinociceptive effects of D-pinitol were also evaluated. EPE showed low in vitro toxicity (DNA damage in PBMC at concentrations higher than 200 µg/ml), and low in vivo toxicity (LD₅₀ > 2000 mg/kg i.p. and p.o.). Furthermore, EPE lacked cytotoxic activity (IC₅₀ > 300 µg/ml) on human cancer cells, but showed good antimicrobial effects in E. coli (MIC=1.56 µg/ml) and S. aureus (MIC = 0.78 µg/ml). In multi-drug resistant microorganisms, EPE showed MIC> 100 µg/ml. EPE exerted in vitro anti-inflammatory effects, mainly, by the decrease in the production of H₂O₂ (IC₅₀ = 43.9 ± 3.8 µg/ml), and IL-6 (73.3 ± 6.9 µg/ml). EPE (ED₅₀ =7.5 ± 0.9 mg/kg) and D-pinitol (ED₅₀ = 0.1 ± 0.03 mg/kg) showed antidiarrheal activity, and antinociceptive effects in the acetic acid test with ED₅₀ = 117 ± 14.5 mg/kg for EPE and 33 ± 3.2 mg/kg for D-pinitol. EPE showed also antinociceptive activity in the phase 2 of the formalin test (ED₅₀ = 48.9 ± 3.9 mg/kg), without inducing hypnotic effects or altering the locomotor activity in mice. The results here presented corroborate the folk medicinal use of Eysenhardtia polystachya in the treatment of infections, diarrhea, inflammation, and pain. D-pinitol, the main metabolite of EPE, showed antinociceptive and antidiarrheal effects with similar potency compared to standard drugs.

Spilanthol inhibits TNF‑α‑induced ICAM‑1 expression and pro‑inflammatory responses by inducing heme oxygenase‑1 expression and suppressing pJNK in HaCaT keratinocytes

Spilanthol has been reported to possess antioxidant, anti‑inflammatory, antimicrobial and antinociceptive properties. At present, the literature has reported the beneficial role of spilanthol on tumor necrosis factor‑α (TNF‑α)‑stimulated HaCaT cells. The present study investigated the effects of spilanthol on the expression of TNF‑α‑induced intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM‑1) and cyclooxygenase (COX)‑2 in the human keratinocyte cell line HaCaT. Cells were pretreated with various concentrations of spilanthol (10‑150 µM) followed by TNF‑α to induce inflammation. Pretreatment with spilanthol decreased TNF‑α‑induced COX‑2 expression by western blotting and suppressed the expression of pro‑inflammatory mediators, including interleukin (IL)‑6, IL‑8 and monocyte chemotactic protein 1 using ELISA. Spilanthol also decreased the expression of TNF‑α‑induced ICAM‑1 protein and mRNA assay by western blotting and RT‑qPCR, respectively, in addition to the monocyte adhesiveness of HaCaT cells. Furthermore, spilanthol significantly suppressed the phosphorylation of c‑Jun N‑terminal kinase (JNK), while pretreatment with spilanthol enhanced heme oxygenase (HO)‑1 protein expression by western blotting. These results demonstrated that spilanthol may exert its anti‑inflammatory activity by suppressing the TNF‑α‑induced expression of ICAM‑1, COX‑2 and pro‑inflammatory mediators by enhancing that of HO‑1, and inhibiting the activation of the phosphorylated JNK signaling pathway. It is hypothesized that spilanthol may be a natural anti‑inflammatory drug to attenuate skin inflammatory disease.

In vitro investigation of antimicrobial activities of ethnomedicinal plants against dental caries pathogens

The study aimed to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of medicinal plant extracts against the bacterial pathogens prominent in dental caries. A total of 20 plant species (herbs, shrubs and trees) belonging to 18 genera and 15 families were documented for dental caries. Antimicrobial activity of solvent extracts and essential oil from plants were determined by zone of inhibition on the growth of Streptococcus mutans (MTCC 497) and Lactobacillus acidophilus (MTCC 10307) using the agar well diffusion method. The results of in vitro antimicrobial assay prove that methanol is more successful in the extraction of phytochemicals from plant samples than aqueous solvent, as methanol extracts show higher antimicrobial activity than aqueous extracts against both the test pathogens. Methanol extracts of Nigella sativa, Psidium guajava and Syzygium aromaticum were the most effective among all 20 plant samples and have potent inhibitory activity against both dental caries pathogens with minimum inhibitory concentration of 0.2 mg mL^- 1. N. sativa seed methanol extract was more effective with 22.3 mm zone of inhibition at 0.2 mg mL^- 1 against S. mutans (MTCC 497), while L. acidophilus (MTCC 10307) was more sensitive to S. aromaticum bud methanol extract at 11.3 mm zone of inhibition at concentration 0.1 mg mL^- 1. Essential oil extracted from plants also possesses strong antimicrobial activity for both test pathogens, with a minimum inhibitory concentration range of 0.05-0.16 mg mL^- 1. Syzygium aromaticum bud essential oil at 0.05 mg mL^- 1 was most active against S. mutans (MTCC 497). Plant extracts viewing antimicrobial activity with minimum inhibitory concentration show the efficacy of the plant products that could be considered as a good indicator of prospective plants for discovering new antimicrobial agents against dental caries pathogens. The findings of this study provide a lead to further polyherbal formulations for the treatment of dental caries malaise.

Use of traditional herbal medicine as an alternative in dental treatment in Mexican dentistry: a review

CONTEXT

Herbal therapies are used worldwide to treat health conditions. In Mexico, generations have used them to treat gingivitis, periodontitis, mouth infections, and discoloured teeth. However, few studies have collected scientific evidence on their effects.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed at searching and compiling scientific evidence of alternative oral and dental treatments using medicinal herbs from Mexico.

METHODS

We collected various Mexican medicinal plants used in the dental treatment from the database of the Institute of Biology at the National Autonomous University of Mexico. To correlate with existing scientific evidence, we used the PubMed database with the key term '(scientific name) and (oral or dental)'.

RESULTS

Mexico has various medical herbs with antibacterial and antimicrobial properties, according to ancestral medicinal books and healers. Despite a paucity of experimental research demonstrating the antibacterial, antimicrobial, and antiplaque effects of these Mexican plants, they could still be useful as an alternative treatment of several periodontal diseases or as anticariogenic agents. However, the number of studies supporting their uses and effects remains insufficient.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

It is important for the health of consumers to scientifically demonstrate the real effects of natural medicine, as well as clarify and establish their possible therapeutic applications. Through this bibliographical revision, we found papers that testify or refute their ancestral uses, and conclude that the use of plants to treat oral conditions or to add to the dental pharmacological arsenal should be based on experimental studies verifying their suitability for dental treatments.

Exploratory studies of some Mexican medicinal plants: Cardiovascular effects in rats with and without hypertension

Background:

Papaveraceae Argemone mexicana L., Burseraceae Bursera simaruba (L.) Sarg., Acanthaceae Justicia spicigera Schltdl. and Selaginellaceae Selaginella lepidophylla (Hook. & Grev.) Spring., have been used in Mexican traditional medicine to treat hypertension. The objective of this study was to further characterize the cardiovascular effects of the methanol extracts of such plants.

Methods:

The medicinal plants were collected and taxonomically identified; the methanol extract of each explored plant were administrated to conscious and unconscious male Wistar rats with and without glucose-induced hypertension. The blood pressure (BP) and heart rate (HR) were evaluated before and after the extract administration. Vascular reactivity experiments were conducted in rat aortic rings obtained from rats with and without sugar-induced hypertension, a model widely used to study such effects with cardiovascular agents.

Results:

After oral administration in normotensive conscious rats all tested extracts decreased the HR, such effect was only observed in hypertensive conscious rats after the administration of B. simaruba; only A. mexicana and B. simaruba decreased the BP after oral administration. All extracts administrated by intravenous injection diminished the mean arterial pressure. Dose-response curves to cumulative concentrations of all the extracts promote vascular relaxation in precontracted aortas from rats with and without sugar-induced hypertension.

Conclusions:

The present study indicated that B. simaruba is worthy of further investigation as a potential phytotherapeutic agent for treating hypertension.

Antibacterial activities of medicinal plants used in Mexican traditional medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

We provide an extensive summary of the in vitro antibacterial properties of medicinal plants popularly used in Mexico to treat infections, and we discuss the ethnomedical information that has been published for these species.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We carried out a bibliographic investigation by analyzing local and international peer-reviewed papers selected by consulting internationally accepted scientific databases from 1995 to 2014. We provide specific information about the evaluated plant parts, the type of extracts, the tested bacterial strains, and the inhibitory concentrations for each one of the species. We recorded the ethnomedical information for the active species, as well as their popular names and local distribution. Information about the plant compounds that has been identified is included in the manuscript. This review also incorporates an extensive summary of the available toxicological reports on the recorded species, as well as the worldwide registries of plant patents used for treating bacterial infections. In addition, we provide a list with the top plant species with antibacterial activities in this review RESULTS: We documented the in vitro antibacterial activities of 343 plant species pertaining to 92 botanical families against 72 bacterial species, focusing particularly on Staphylococcus aureus, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. The plant families Asteraceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and Euphorbiaceae included the largest number of active species. Information related to popular uses reveals that the majority of the plants, in addition to treating infections, are used to treat other conditions. The distribution of Mexican plants extended from those that were reported to grow in just one state to those that grow in all 32 Mexican states. From 75 plant species, 225 compounds were identified. Out of the total plant species, only 140 (40.57%) had at least one report about their toxic effects. From 1994 to July 2014 a total of 11,836 worldwide antibacterial patents prepared from different sources were recorded; only 36 antibacterial patents from plants were registered over the same time period. We offered some insights on the most important findings regarding the antibacterial effects, current state of the art, and research perspectives of top plant species with antibacterial activities in vitro.

CONCLUSIONS

Studies of the antibacterial in vitro activity of medicinal plants popularly used in Mexico to treat infections indicate that both the selection of plant material and the investigation methodologies vary. Standardized experimental procedures as well as in vivo pharmacokinetic studies to document the effectiveness of plant extracts and compounds are necessary. This review presents extensive information about the medicinal plants possessing antibacterial activity that has been scientifically studied and are popularly used in Mexico. We anticipate that this review will be of use for future studies because it constitutes a valuable information tool for selecting the most significant plants and their potential antibacterial properties.

Mexican Arnica (Heterotheca inuloides Cass. Asteraceae: Astereae): Ethnomedical uses, chemical constituents and biological properties

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Heterotheca inuloides Cass. (Asteraceae) has been traditionally used to treat a wide range of diseases in Mexico in the treatment of rheumatism, topical skin inflammation, muscular pain colic, and other painful conditions associated with inflammatory processes, additionally has been used to treat dental diseases, and gastrointestinal disorders. This species has also been used for the treatment of cancer and diabetes. This review provides up-to-date information on the botanical characterization, traditional uses, chemical constituents, as well as the biolological activities of H. inuloides.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

A literature search was conducted by analyzing the published scientific material. Information related to H. inuloides was collected from various primary information sources, including books, published articles in peer-reviewed journals, monographs, theses and government survey reports. The electronic search of bibliographic information was gathered from accepted scientific databases such as Scienfinder, ISI Web of Science, Scielo, LILACS, Redalyc, Pubmed, SCOPUS and Google Scholar.

RESULTS

To date, more than 140 compounds have been identified from H. inuloides, including cadinane sesquiterpenes, flavonoids, phytosterols, triterpenes, benzoic acid derivatives, and other types of compounds. Many biological properties associated with H. inuloides. Many studies have shown that the extracts and some compounds isolated from this plant exhibit a broad spectrum of biological activities such as antioxidant, antitumor, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, and chelating activities, as well as insecticidal and phytotoxic activity. To date, reports on the toxicity of H. inuloides are limited.

CONCLUSIONS

A comprehensive analysis of the literature obtained through the above-mentioned sources confirmed that ethnomedical uses of H. inuloides have been recorded in Mexico to treat rheumatism, pain, and conditions associated with inflammatory processes. Pharmacological studies have demonstrated the activity of certain compounds associated with the traditional use of the plant such as the anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities of the species. The available literature showed that cadinene sesquiterpenes are the major bioactive components of H. inuloides with potential pharmacological activities. Further investigations are needed to fully understand the mode of action of the major active constituents.

Antifungal and Anticancer Potential of Argemone mexicana L

Background: Medicinal plants are widely used to treat infectious diseases, metabolic disorders and cancer. Argemone mexicana L. (A. mexicana), commonly found on desolate land of Marathwada (Maharashtra, India) has been used to treat oral cavity infections. Methods: In this study, cold aqueous and methanolic extracts were prepared from A. mexicana stem and leaves. These extracts were tested for their antifungal and anticancer activities. The antifungal activity was tested using the agar well diffusion method, while the anticancer activity against immortalized cell lines was assessed by trypan blue assay. Results: It was observed that both cold aqueous and methanolic extracts of A. mexicana stem and leaves inhibited the growth of Mucor indicus, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger and Penicillum notatum. Antifungal activity of the extract was comparable to that of Amphoterecin-B. A. mexicana extracts had a cytotoxic effect on A549, SiHa and KB immortalized cell lines that were similar to that of berberine. Conclusion: The A. mexicana leaf and stems exhibit strong antifungal and anticancer potential.

Punica granatum L. (Pomegranate) Extract: In Vivo Study of Antimicrobial Activity against Porphyromonas gingivalis in Galleria mellonella Model

Due to the increase of bacterial resistance, medicinal alternatives are being explored. Punica granatum L. is an effective herbal extract with broad spectrum of action and bactericidal, antifungal, anthelmintic potential and being able to modulate the immune response. The aim was to evaluate the antimicrobial activity of pomegranate glycolic extract (PGE) against the periodontal pathogen Porphyromonas gingivalis by using Galleria mellonella as in vivo model. Fifteen larvae were used per group. Injection of high concentration (200, 100, and 25 mg/mL) of PGE showed a toxic effect, leading them to death. A suspension of P. gingivalis (10⁶ cells/mL) was inoculated in the left last proleg and PGE (12.5, 6.25, 3.1, and 2.5 mg/mL) were injected into the right proleg. The larvae were then kept at 37°C under the dark. Injection of PGE at any dose statistically improved larvae survival rates. The data were analysed (log-rank test, Mantel-Cox, P < 0.05) and showed that all concentrations of PGE (12.5, 6.25, 3.1, and 2.5 mg/mL) presented higher larval survival rates, with significant statistical difference in relation to control group (P. gingivalis). In conclusion, the PGE had antimicrobial action against P. gingivalis in vivo model using G. mellonella.

Ixodicide activity of Eysenhardtia polystachya against Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus

The objective of this study was to evaluate the acaricidal effect of 2 compounds extracted from Eysenhardtia polystachya in vitro, namely coatlines and matlalines. Each extract was obtained by aqueous extraction in a nitrogen atmosphere. Engorged adult females of an amitraz-resistant strain of Rhipicephalus (Boophilus) microplus were used to produce larvae and to carry out the adult immersion test (AIT), while larvae were assayed using the larval packet test (LPT). After exposure to coatlines or matlalines, the mortality of larvae and engorged females, as well as the reproductive parameters of adult ticks were assessed. Coatlines were not lethal against larvae and did not decrease reproductive parameters. Conversely, matlalines showed a 90 to 100% efficacy against adults and larvae at all concentrations tested and a reduction of 76.41 to 80.64% oviposition and a 48.02 to 54.86% reduction in egg hatchability. Therefore, the acaricidal activity of matlalines was more efficient. Further studies are required to elucidate both the mode of action of matlalines as well the structure-activity relationships responsible for the observed differential efficacy between these 2 related isoflavans against the cattle tick.

Plants and other natural products used in the management of oral infections and improvement of oral health

Challenges of resistance to synthetic antimicrobials have opened new vistas in the search for natural products. This article rigorously reviews plants and other natural products used in oral health: Punica granatum L. (pomegranate), Matricaria recutita L. (chamomile), Camellia sinensis (L.) Kuntze (green tea), chewing sticks made from Diospyros mespiliformis Hochst. ex A.D.C., Diospyros lycioides Desf., and Salvadora persica L. (miswak), honey and propolis from the manuka tree (Leptospermum scoparium J.R. Forst. & G. Forst.), rhein from Rheum rhabarbarum L. (rhubarb), dried fruits of Vitis vinifera L. (raisins), essential oils, probiotics and mushrooms. Further, the review highlights plants from Africa, Asia, Brazil, Mexico, Europe, and the Middle East. Some of the plants' antimicrobial properties and chemical principles have been elucidated. While the use of natural products for oral health is prominent in resource-poor settings, antimicrobial testing is mainly conducted in the following countries (in decreasing order of magnitude): India, South Africa, Brazil, Japan, France, Egypt, Iran, Mexico, Kenya, Switzerland, Nigeria, Australia, Uganda, and the United Kingdom. While the review exposes a dire gap for more studies on clinical efficacy and toxicity, the following emerging trend was noted: basic research on plants for oral health is mainly done in Brazil, Europe and Australia. Brazil, China, India and New Zealand generally conduct value addition of natural products for fortification of toothpastes. African countries focus on bioprospecting and primary production of raw plants and other natural products with antimicrobial efficacies. The Middle East and Egypt predominantly research on plants used as chewing sticks. More research and funding are needed in the field of natural products for oral health, especially in Africa where oral diseases are fuelled by human immunodeficiency virus/acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS).

Ellagitannins modulate the inflammatory response of human neutrophils ex vivo

BACKGROUND

Tannin-rich plant materials are commonly used in the traditional medicine as external anti-inflammatory, antioxidant and antimicrobial agents. Plant extracts containing significant quantities of tannins are often used in the prevention and treatment of oral cavity diseases such as periodontosis or gingivitis. The contribution of pure ellagitannins to the observed anti-inflammatory activity of tannin-rich remedies is still not resolved.

PURPOSE

The aim of the present study the study was to establish if ellagitannins and their precursor - pentagalloylglucose (1) can modulate the inflammatory response of ex-vivo stimulated neutrophils.

METHODS

Human neutrophils were isolated from the buffy coats obtained from healthy volunteers. Neutrophils were cultivated with or without tested compounds. The influence of ellagitannins and 1 on the production and release of pro-inflammatory factors such as elastase, reactive oxygen species, interleukin-8, tumour necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α) and metalloproteinase-9 was evaluated using ELISA sets or chemical methods. The effect on surface expression of toll like receptor 4 (TLR-4) and apoptosis was also checked using flow cytometry.

RESULTS

The results showed that ellgitannins modulate the inflammatory response of human neutrophils by the inhibition of production and release of chosen cytokines and pro-inflammatory enzymes. By the induction of TNF-α ellagitannins enhance neutrophil apoptosis, which is of interest in the case of chronic inflammation within oral cavity. Ellagitannins also decrease the surface expression of TLR-4 in activated neutrophils.

CONCLUSION

The results support the traditional use of tannin-rich products in the prevention and treatment of oral cavity diseases. The present study proves the substantial contribution of ellagitannins to the anti-inflammatory activity of tannin-rich medicinal plant materials.

Persea americana Glycolic Extract: In Vitro Study of Antimicrobial Activity against Candida albicans Biofilm and Cytotoxicity Evaluation

This study evaluated the antifungal activity of Persea americana extract on Candida albicans biofilm and its cytotoxicity in macrophage culture (RAW 264.7). To determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), microdilution in broth (CLSI M27-S4 protocol) was performed. Thereafter, the concentrations of 12.5, 25, 50, 100, and 200 mg/mL (n = 10) with 5 min exposure were analyzed on mature biofilm in microplate wells for 48 h. Saline was used as control (n = 10). After treatment, biofilm cells were scraped off and dilutions were plated on Sabouraud dextrose agar. After incubation (37°C/48 h), the values of colony forming units per milliliter (CFU/mL) were converted to log10 and analyzed (ANOVA and Tukey test, 5%). The cytotoxicity of the P. americana extract was evaluated on macrophages by MTT assay. The MIC of the extract was 6.25 mg/mL and with 12.5 mg/mL there was elimination of 100% of planktonic cultures. Regarding the biofilms, a significant reduction (P < 0.001) of the biofilm at concentrations of 50 (0.580 ± 0.209 log10), 100 (0.998 ± 0.508 log10), and 200 mg/mL (1.093 ± 0.462 log10) was observed. The concentrations of 200 and 100 mg/mL were cytotoxic for macrophages, while the concentrations of 50, 25, and 12.5 mg/mL showed viability higher than 55%.

In Vitro Antimicrobial and Antiproliferative Activity of Amphipterygium adstringens

Amphipterygium adstringens is a plant widely used in Mexican traditional medicine for its known anti-inflammatory and antiulcer properties. In this work, we evaluated the in vitro antimicrobial and antiproliferative activities of the methanolic extract of A. adstringens against oral pathogens such as Streptococcus mutans, Porphyromonas gingivalis, Aggregatibacter actinomycetemcomitans, Candida albicans, and Candida dubliniensis, using microdilution (MIC) and agar diffusion methods (MBC), and the antiproliferative activity evaluating total growth inhibition (TGI) by staining the protein content with sulforhodamine B (SRB), using nine human cancer cell lines. Crude extract (CE) of A. adstringens showed some degree of activity against one or more of the strains with a MIC from 0.125 mg/mL to 63 mg/mL and MBC from 1.6 to 6.3 mg/mL and cytotoxic activity, particularly against NCI-ADR/RES, an ovarian cell line expressing multiple resistance drugs phenotype. The CE is a complex mixture of possible multitarget metabolites that could be responsible for both antimicrobial and antiproliferative activities, and further investigation is required to elucidate the identity of active compounds. Nevertheless the CE itself is useful in the development of new antimicrobial treatment based on natural products to prevent oral diseases and as alternative natural source for cancer treatment and prevention.

Bactericidal effect of extracts and metabolites of Robinia pseudoacacia L. on Streptococcus mutans and Porphyromonas gingivalis causing dental plaque and periodontal inflammatory diseases

The mouth cavity hosts many types of anaerobic bacteria, including Streptococcusmutans and Porphyromonas gingivalis, which cause periodontal inflammatory diseases and dental caries. The present study was conducted to evaluate the antibacterial potential of extracts of Robinia pseudoacacia and its different fractions, as well as some of its natural compounds against oral pathogens and a nonpathogenic reference bacteria, Escherichia coli. The antibacterial activity of the crude extract and the solvent fractions (hexane, chloroform, ethyl acetate and butanol) of R. pseudoacacia were evaluated against S.mutans, P. gingivalis and E. coliDH5α by standard micro-assay procedure using conventional sterile polystyrene microplates. The results showed that the crude extract was more active against P. gingivalis (100% growth inhibition) than against S. mutans (73% growth inhibition) at 1.8 mg/mL. The chloroform and hexane fractions were active against P. gingivalis, with 91 and 97% growth inhibition, respectively, at 0.2 mg/mL. None of seven natural compounds found in R. pseudoacacia exerted an antibacterial effect on P. gingivalis; however, fisetin and myricetin at 8 µg/mL inhibited the growth of S. mutans by 81% and 86%, respectively. The crude extract of R. pseudoacacia possesses bioactive compounds that could completely control the growth of P. gingivalis. The antibiotic activities of the hexane and chloroform fractions suggest that the active compounds are hydrophobic in nature. The results indicate the effectiveness of the plant in clinical applications for the treatment of dental plaque and periodontal inflammatory diseases and its potential use as disinfectant for various surgical and orthodontic appliances.

Hydroethanolic extract of the inner stem bark of Cedrela odorata has low toxicity and reduces hyperglycemia induced by an overload of sucrose and glucose

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cedrela odorata L. (Meliaceae) is a native plant of the Amazon region and its inner stem bark is used in the treatment of diabetes in the form of maceration in Brazilian popular medicine. Until now, there is no scientific study on this activity. The present study was aimed at evaluating the anti-hyperglycemic activity, anti-diabetic, toxicity, antioxidant and potential mechanism of action of hydroethanolic extract of the inner stem bark of Cedrela odorata.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The inner stem bark extract of Cedrela odorata was prepared by maceration in 70% ethanol for 7 days to obtain hydroethanolic extract of Cedrela odorata (HeECo). The preliminary phytochemical analysis was performed according to procedures described in the literature. Selected secondary metabolites detected were quantified by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC). Acute toxicity of HeECo was investigated in male and female mice with oral administration of graded doses of HeECo from 10 to 5000 mg/kg. Subchronic oral toxicity study was done by oral administration of HeECo (500 mg/kg) and vehicle for 30 days to both sexes of Wistar rats. Clinical observations and toxicological related parameters were determined. Blood was collected for biochemical and hematological analyses, while histological examinations were performed on selected organs. Anti-hiperglycemic and antidiabetic effects were evaluated in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats. In acute evaluation, the animals received pretreatment with 250 and 500 mg/kg of HeECo, before carbohydrate overload. For subchronic effect, the antidiabetic activity of HeECo was evaluated using the same doses for 21 days. At the end of the treatments, the levels of triacylglycerols, malondialdehyde, total antioxidant status, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase activities were evaluated in the plasma.

RESULTS

The extract showed low acute toxicity. HeECo exhibited inhibitory activity against α-glucosidase and caused a lowering in the peak levels of blood glucose in animals that received glucose overload by 36.7% and 24.1% in the area under the glucose curve (AUC). When the overload was sucrose, HeECo reduced the blood glucose level by 44.4% without affecting AUC. Treatment with HeECo of the blood glucose of the diabetic animals for 21 days did not lead to improvement in weight gain and regularization of the blood glucose level, but reduced the triacylglycerol and malondialdehyde levels by 36.6% and 48.1%, respectively. The activity of the antioxidant enzymes, superoxide dismutase and glutathione peroxidase were significantly increased when compared to diabetic control rats. HPLC analysis showed the presence of polyphenols, such as gallic acid, (-)- gallocatechin and (+)- catechin, the latter is present in higher quantity.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, these data showed that HeECo could blunt the postprandial glycemic surge in rats; possibly through inhibition of alpha-glucosidase and positive modulation of antioxidant enzymes. Our findings confirmed the anti-hiperglycemic activity of HeECo in STZ- diabetic rats. Cedrela odorata is effective in diminishing glucose levels in vitro and in vivo and in ameliorating oxidative damage that occurs in diabetes and/or due to hyperglycemia in rats. According to our results, the efficacy of Cedrela odorata preparation could be due to the presence of active principles with different mode of actions at the molecular level, including α-glycosidases and glucose transporter inhibitors and antioxidant property.

Ethnopharmacological surveys and pharmacological studies of plants used in traditional medicine in the treatment of HIV/AIDS opportunistic diseases in Gabon

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Ethnopharmacological surveys were conducted in two regions of Gabon. This led to highlighting some of the medicinal plants used by local populations in the management of HIV/AIDS opportunistic diseases. Two regions with the highest occurrence of HIV/AIDS cases were visited and ethnopharmarcological data was gathered. These regions were the Estuaire Province (Libreville and its neighborhood) and the Haut-Ogooué Province (Franceville and its neighborhood). The opportunistic diseases and symptomatic conditions considered during this study were: diarrhea, respiratory tract infections, cough, tuberculosis, abscesses, stomach ache, skin rashes, venereal diseases, typhoid fever, anemia, general tiredness, hepatitis and vomiting.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The reported species were evaluated through three parameters: specificity, reliability and frequency. Plant parts of relevant species were harvested and extracted with an aqueous alcohol solution (ethanol/water: 1/1). The extracts obtained were submitted to phytochemical screening and in vitro microbiological assays on some clinical isolates and ATCC strains, involved in HIV/AIDS opportunistic diseases through the Agar well diffusion and Microbroth dilution methods.

RESULTS

Among the 52 species identified during this survey, Coelocaryon klainei Pierre ex Heckel (Myristicaceae), Dacryodes klaineana (Pierre) H.J. Lam (Bursecaceae), Phyllanthus diandrus Pax (Euphorbiaceae), Saccoglotys gabonensis (Baill.) Urb. (Humiriaceae) and Tetrorchidium didymostemon (Baill.) Pax & K. Hoffm. (Euphorbiaceae) were submitted to in vitro microbiological assays. Phyllanthus diandrus bark and leaves show best antibacterial activities against Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Klebsiella pneumoniae with MIC value of 0.25 respectively. Phytochemical screening revealed the presence in all the plant parts extracts of potentially bioactive molecules, including polyphenols, especially flavonoids and tannins.

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that some of these plants might be submitted to further scientific studies, including the identification and isolation of bioactive principles, that could be developed to drugs for the treatment of HIV/AIDS opportunistic diseases.

Inhibitory effects of lupene-derived pentacyclic triterpenoids from Bursera simaruba on HSV-1 and HSV-2 in vitro replication

The cytotoxicity and antiviral properties of Bursera simaruba against herpes simplex viruses (HSV-1 and HSV-2) were investigated through a bioactivity-guided isolation protocol. The plant material was fractionated using solvent-solvent partitioning, size-exclusion and thin-layer chromatography. The antiviral compounds present in the most active fractions were identified by means of LC-MS and NMR. Three different methods were compared during the evaluation of antiviral activity of samples. Four lupene-related pentacyclic triterpenes were found to be responsible for the anti-herpesvirus effects of B. simaruba and were isolated from this species for the first time. The selective indexes (SI) of B. simaruba-derived samples ranged from 7.7 to 201.9.

In vitro activity of 'Mexican Arnica' Heterotheca inuloides Cass natural products and some derivatives against Giardia intestinalis

Giardiasis is a gastrointestinal disease that affects humans and other animals caused by parasitic protists of the genus Giardia. Giardia intestinalis (Syn. Giardia lamblia; Giardia duodenalis) infections can cause acute or chronic diarrhoea, dehydration, abdominal discomfort and weight loss. Metronidazole is the most widely used drug for treating giardiasis. Although effective, metronidazol has undesirable secondary effects. Plants used in traditional medicine as antidiarrhoeals or antiparasitics may represent alternative sources for new compounds to treat giardiasis. Heterotheca inuloides Cass. (Asteraceae/Compositae) plant is widely used in Mexican traditional medicine. The following secondary metabolites were isolated from H. inuloides flowers: 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalene (1), 7-hydroxycadalene (2), 3,7-dihydroxy-3(4H)-isocadalen-4-one (3), 1R,4R-hydroxy-1,2,3,4-tetrahydrocadalen-15-oic acid (4), quercetin (5), quercetin-3,7,3'-trimethyl ether (6), quercetin-3,7,3',4'-tetramethyl ether (7) and eriodictyol-7,4'-dimethyl ether (8). The activity of these compounds against Giardia intestinalis trophozoites was assessed in vitro as was the activity of the semisynthetic compounds 7-acetoxy-3,4-dihydrocadalene (9), 7-benzoxy-3,4-dihydrocadalene (10), 7-acetoxycadalene (11), 7-benzoxycadalene (12), quercetin pentaacetate (13) and 7-hydroxycalamenene (14). Among these, 7-hydroxy-3,4-dihydrocadalene (1) and 7-hydroxycalamenene (14) were the most active, whereas the remaining compounds showed moderate or no activity. The G. intestinalis trophozoites exposed to compound 1 showed marked changes in cellular architecture along with ultrastructural disorganization. The aim of this study was to evaluate the giardicidal activity of selected H. inuloides metabolites and some semisynthetic derivatives using an in vitro experimental model of giardiasis.

Antibacterial effect of crude extract and metabolites of Phytolacca americana on pathogens responsible for periodontal inflammatory diseases and dental caries

Background

The oral cavity is the store house of different species of microorganisms that are continuously engaged in causing diseases in the mouth. The present study was conducted to evaluate the antibacterial potential of crude extracts of the aerial parts of Phytolacca americana and its natural compounds against two oral pathogens, Porphyromonas gingivalis and Streptococcus mutans, which are primarily responsible for periodontal inflammatory diseases and dental caries, as well as a nonpathogenic Escherichia coli.

Methods

Crude extract and fractions from the aerial parts of P. americana (0.008–1.8 mg/mL) were evaluated for their potential antibacterial activity against two oral disease causing microorganisms by micro-assays. The standard natural compounds present in P. americana, kaempferol, quercetin, quercetin 3-glucoside, isoqueritrin and ferulic acid, were also tested for their antibacterial activity against the pathogens at 1–8 μg/mL.

Results

The crude extract was highly active against P. gingivalis (100% growth inhibition) and moderately active against S. mutans (44% growth inhibition) at 1.8 mg/mL. The chloroform and hexane fraction controlled the growth of P. gingivalis with 91% and 92% growth inhibition at a concentration of 0.2 mg/mL, respectively. Kaempferol exerted antibacterial activity against both the pathogens, whereas quercetin showed potent growth inhibition activity against only S. mutans in a concentration dependent manner.

Conclusion

The crude extract, chloroform fraction, and hexane fraction of P. americana possesses active natural compounds that can inhibit the growth of oral disease causing bacteria. Thus, these extracts have the potential for use in the preparation of toothpaste and other drugs related to various oral diseases.

Evaluation of an Anti-Plaque Gel for Daily Toothbrushing

An anti-plaque gel, containing no pharmaceutical chemicals, alcohol, xylitol, artificial or synthetic ingredients, with clinically proven plaque reducing efficacy was evaluated as a toothpaste together with toothbrushing. The study was designed to achieve an optimal level of homecare and an effective degree of plaque reduction following professional periodontal therapy to aid in the management of periodontal disease. The study consisted of two blinded trials (medium/large dogs and small breed dogs) of 4-weeks duration, each of which included 45 dogs divided equally among a test group, a positive control group, and a negative control group. Significant reductions in both plaque (p < 0.001) and gingivitis (p < 0.001) were observed in the test group in comparison to both the negative and positive control groups. This study also demonstrated that plaque was significantly reduced in the gingival segment (p < 0.001) in addition to the whole tooth score (p < 0.001). No adverse effects were noted and brushing was well tolerated by all dogs. This study establishes a highly effective method for achieving plaque reduction in dogs.

Anti-Trypanosoma cruzi activity of 10 medicinal plants used in northeast Mexico

The aim of this study was to screen the trypanocidal activity of plants used in traditional Mexican medicine for the treatment of various diseases related to parasitic infections. Cultured Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes were incubated for 96h with different concentrations of methanolic extracts obtained from Artemisia mexicana, Castela texana, Cymbopogon citratus, Eryngium heterophyllum, Haematoxylum brasiletto, Lippia graveolens, Marrubium vulgare, Persea americana, Ruta chalepensis and Schinus molle. The inhibitory concentration (IC50) was determined for each extract via a colorimetric method. Among the evaluated species, the methanolic extracts of E. heterophyllum, H. brasiletto, M. vulgare and S. molle exhibited the highest trypanocidal activity, showing percentages of growth inhibition between 88 and 100% at a concentration of 150μg/ml. These medicinal plants may represent a valuable source of new bioactive compounds for the therapeutic treatment of trypanosomiasis.