Oral chronic toxicity study of geniposide in rats

Geniposide dosage and administration time: Balancing therapeutic benefits and adverse reactions in liver disease treatment

Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, a staple in herbal medicine, has long been esteemed for its purported hepatoprotective properties. Its primary bioactive constituent, geniposide, has attracted considerable scientific interest owing to its multifaceted therapeutic benefits across various health conditions. However, recent investigations have unveiled potential adverse effects associated with its metabolite, genipin, particularly at higher doses and prolonged durations of administration, leading to hepatic injury. Determining the optimal dosage and duration of geniposide administration while elucidating its pharmacological and toxicological mechanisms is imperative for safe and effective clinical application. This study aimed to evaluate the safe dosage and administration duration of geniposide in mice and investigate its toxicological mechanisms within a comprehensive dosage-duration-efficacy/toxicity model. Four distinct mouse models were employed, including wild-type mice, cholestasis-induced mice, globally farnesoid X-activated receptor (FXR) knock out mice, and high-fat diet-induced (HFD) NAFLD mice. Various administration protocols, spanning one or four weeks and comprising two or three oral doses, were tailored to each model's requirements. Geniposide has positive effects on bile acid and lipid metabolism at doses below 220 mg/kg/day without causing liver injury in normal mice. However, in mice with NAFLD, this dosage is less effective in improving liver function, lipid profiles, and bile acid metabolism compared to lower doses. In cholestasis-induced mice, prolonged use of geniposide at 220 mg/kg/day worsened liver damage. Additionally, in NAFLD mice, this dosage of geniposide for four weeks led to intestinal pyroptosis and liver inflammation. These results highlight the lipid-lowering and bile acid regulatory effects of geniposide, but also warn of potential negative impacts on intestinal epithelial cells, particularly with higher doses and longer treatment durations. Therefore, achieving optimal therapeutic results requires a decrease in treatment duration as the dosage increases, in order to maintain a balanced approach to the use of geniposide in clinical settings.

Geniposide for treating atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease: a systematic review on its biological characteristics, pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and toxicology

In recent years, the prevalence and fatality rates of atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease have not only shown a consistent rise that cannot be ignored, but have also become a pressing social health problem that requires urgent attention. While interventional surgery and drug therapy offer significant therapeutic results, they often come with common side effects. Geniposide, an active component extracted from the Chinese medicine Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, shows promise in the management of cardiac conditions. This review comprehensively outlines the underlying pharmacological mechanisms by which geniposide exerts its effects on atherosclerosis. Geniposide exhibits a range of beneficial effects including alleviating inflammation, inhibiting the development of macrophage foam cells, improving lipid metabolism, and preventing platelet aggregation and thrombosis. It also demonstrates mitochondrial preservation, anti-apoptotic effects, and modulation of autophagy. Moreover, geniposide shows potential in improving oxidative stress and endoplasmic reticulum stress by maintaining the body's antioxidant and oxidative balance. Additionally, this review comprehensively details the biological properties of geniposide, including methods of extraction and purification, as well as its pharmacokinetics and toxicological characteristics. It further discusses the clinical applications of related biopharmaceuticals, emphasizing the potential of geniposide in the prevention and treatment of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Furthermore, it highlights the limitations of current research, aiming to provide insights for future studies.

The potential application and molecular mechanisms of natural products in the treatment of allergic rhinitis: A review

BACKGROUNDS

Allergic rhinitis (AR) is a non-infectious chronic inflammation of the nasal mucosa mainly mediated by immunoglobulin E (IgE) in atopic individuals after exposure to allergens. The application of AR guideline-recommended pharmacotherapies can rapidly relieve symptoms of AR but with poor long-term efficacy, and many of these therapies have side effects. Many natural products and their derivatives have shown potential therapeutic effects on AR with fewer side effects.

OBJECTIVES

This review aims to expand understanding of the roles and mechanisms of natural compounds in the treatment of AR and to highlight the importance of utilizing natural products in the treatment of AR.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

We conducted a systematic literature search using PubMed, Web of Science, Google Scholar, and Clinical Trials. The search was performed using keywords including natural products, natural compounds, bioproducts, plant extracts, naturally derived products, natural resources, allergic rhinitis, hay fever, pollinosis, nasal allergy. Comprehensive research and compilation of existing literature were conducted.

RESULTS

This article provided a comprehensive review of the potential therapeutic effects and mechanisms of natural compounds in the treatment of AR. We emphasized that natural products primarily exert their effects by modulating signalling pathways such as NF-κB, MAPKs, STAT3/ROR-γt/Foxp3, and GATA3/T-bet, thereby inhibiting the activation and expansion of allergic inflammation. We also discussed their toxicity and clinical applications in AR therapy.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, natural products exhibit great potential in the treatment of AR. This review is also expected to facilitate the application of natural products as candidates for treating AR. Furthermore, drug discovery based on natural products has a promising prospect in AR treatment.

Pharmacological mechanism of natural antidepressants: The role of mitochondrial quality control

BACKGROUND

Depression is a mental illness characterized by persistent sadness and a reduced capacity for pleasure. In clinical practice, SSRIs and other medications are commonly used for therapy, despite their various side effects. Natural products present distinct advantages, including synergistic interactions among multiple components and targeting multiple pathways, suggesting their tremendous potential in depression treatment. Imbalance in mitochondrial quality control (MQC) plays a significant role in the pathology of depression, emphasizing the importance of regulating MQC as a potential intervention strategy in addressing the onset and progression of depression. However, the role and mechanism through which natural products regulate MQC in depression treatments still need to be comprehensively elucidated, particularly in clinical and preclinical settings.

PURPOSE

This review was aimed to summarize the findings of recent studies and outline the pharmacological mechanisms by which natural products modulate MQC to exert antidepressant effects. Additionally, it evaluated current research limitations and proposed new strategies for future preclinical and clinical applications in the depression domain.

METHODS

To study the main pharmacological mechanisms underlying the regulation of MQC by natural products in the treatment of depression, we conducted a thorough search across databases such as PubMed, Web of Science, and ScienceDirect databases to classify and summarize the relationship between MQC and depression, as well as the regulatory mechanisms of natural products.

RESULTS

Numerous studies have shown that irregularities in the MQC system play an important role in the pathology of depression, and the regulation of the MQC system is involved in antidepressant treatments. Natural products mainly regulate the MQC system to induce antidepressant effects by alleviating oxidative stress, balancing ATP levels, promoting mitophagy, maintaining calcium homeostasis, optimizing mitochondrial dynamics, regulating mitochondrial membrane potential, and enhancing mitochondrial biogenesis.

CONCLUSIONS

We comprehensively summarized the regulation of natural products on the MQC system in antidepressants, providing a unique perspective for the application of natural products within antidepressant therapy. However, extensive efforts are imperative in clinical and preclinical investigations to delve deeper into the mechanisms underlying how antidepressant medications impact MQC, which is crucial for the development of effective antidepressant treatments.

A Review on the Traditional Applications, Phytochemistry, and Pharmacology of the Genus Physochlaina G. Don

Physochlaina is a genus of flowering plants belonging to the family Solanaceae and consists of 10 species distributed in various Asian countries. The species of the genus have been traditionally used to cure a variety of illnesses due to their highly valuable medicinal properties, including cancer, asthma, cough, weakness, stomachache, diarrhea, swelling, spasms, toothache, boils, ulcers, rheumatic pain, chronic bronchitis, gastric problems, abdominal pain, palpitation, and insomnia. The species have gained significant attention due to their remarkable ethnopharmacological and ethnomedicinal significance. The researchers have isolated so far 71 biologically active secondary metabolites from different Physochlaina species, which include flavonoids, alkaloids, coumarins, phenolic acids, iridoids, and sterols. These compounds exhibit diverse biological activities, such as antibacterial, anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory, cytotoxic, and anticancer properties. The present review has been compiled with the intention of providing a comprehensive overview of the botany, distribution, traditional uses, phytochemical profile, and biological activities of the genus Physochlaina for future exploration of plant-based drugs and therapeutic approaches. The present review contributes to understanding the significant pharmacological potential of Physochlaina species and unraveling their chemical composition, highlighting their relevance in developing therapeutic agents. Till date, numerous pharmacological properties and isolated phytochemicals of Physochlaina species that support the species traditional and ethnobotanical history have been documented in a number of scientific publications. However, greater emphasis should be paid to in vivo investigations on various extracts and their phytoconstituents as well as mechanistic analysis to help drug developers better understand how to use Physochlaina species as significant therapeutic resources for herbal formulations using various techniques.

Genipin, a natural blue colorant precursor: Source, extraction, properties, and applications

Natural cross-linkers are extensively employed due to their low toxicity and biocompatibility benefits. Genipin acts as a precursor for producing blue colorants. The formation of these colorants involves the cross-linking reaction between genipin and primary amines present in amino acids, peptides, and proteins. Genipin is extracted from Gardenia jasminoides and Genipa americana. This article explains the cross-linking mechanism of genipin with proteins/polysaccharides to provide an overall understanding of its properties. Furthermore, it explores new sources of genipin and innovative methodologies to make the genipin recovery process efficient. Genipin increases food products' texture, gel strength, stability, and shelf life. The antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidant properties of chitosan, gelatin, alginate, and hyaluronic acid increased after genipin cross-linking. Lastly, drawbacks, toxicity, and directions regarding the genipin cross-linking have also been addressed. The review article covers how to recover and cross-link genipin with biopolymers for industrial applications.

A comprehensive review of ethnopharmacology, chemical constituents, pharmacological effects, pharmacokinetics, toxicology, and quality control of gardeniae fructus

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gardeniae Fructus (GF), the desiccative mature fruitage of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis (G. jasminoides), belongs to the Rubiaceae family. It has abundant medicinal value, such as purging fire and eliminating annoyance, clearing heat and diuresis, cooling blood, and detoxifying. GF is usually used in combination with other drugs to treat diseases such as fever and jaundice in damp heat syndrome in traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) clinical practice.

THE AIM OF THE REVIEW

This review comprehensively summarizes the research progress in botany, traditional medical use, processing method, phytochemistry, pharmacological activity, quality control, pharmacokinetics, and toxicology, which aims to provide a scientific basis for the rational application and future research of GF.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ScienceDirect, PubMed, Web of Science, China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI), Embase, Scopus etc. databases were retrieved to gain the comprehensive information of GF.

RESULTS

At present, more than 215 compounds were isolated and identified from GF, including iridoids, diterpenes, triterpenoids, flavonoids, organic esters, and so on. The traditional application of GF mainly focused on clearing heat and detoxification. Pharmacological studies proved that GF had anti-inflammatory, antioxidation, antifatigue, antithrombotic, liver and gallbladder protection, and other pharmacological effects. In addition, many improved processing methods can alleviate the side effects and toxic reactions caused by long-term use of GF, so controlling its quality through multi-component content measurement has become an important means of research.

CONCLUSION

GF has a wide range of applications, the mechanisms by which some effective substances exert their pharmacological effects have not been clearly explained due to the complexity and diversity of its components. This review systematically elaborates on the traditional medical use, processing method, phytochemistry, pharmacological activity, quality control, and toxicology of GF, and it is expected to become a candidate drug for treating diseases, such as depression, pancreatitis, alcoholic or non-alcoholic fatty liver.

Discovery of the toxicity-related quality markers and mechanisms of Zhi-Zi-Hou-Po decoction based on Chinmedomics combined with differentially absorbed components and network pharmacology

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Zhi-Zi-Hou-Po decoction (ZZHPD), as a representative traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) formula for the treatment of depression, has frequently triggered hepatorenal toxicity in recent years. However, its toxic effect, material basis, and underlying mechanisms have not been fully elucidated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To explore the hepatorenal toxicity-material basis-quality markers (Q-markers) and multiple mechanisms of ZZHPD.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

ZZHPD-induced rat model of toxicity was evaluated by behavioral indicators, biochemical parameters, and histopathological sections. Then, UHPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap-MS combined with multivariate data analysis was utilized to identify the endogenous differential metabolites and the prototype components of ZZHPD in the plasma. A comprehensive strategy integrating in-house library, diagnostic ions, Compound Discover software, and network databases was constructed to identify the chemical constituents of ZZHPD. Additionally, the differentially absorbed components of ZZHPD were screened out based on the spectrum-effect relationship (toxic state and normal state), feature extraction of exogenous components, and variable influence on projection (VIP). Further, Chinmedomics and network pharmacology oriented by differentially absorbed components were performed to predict toxicity-related Q-markers and core targets, as well as relevant pathways. Finally, the binding ability between components and targets was predicted using molecular docking, and the mRNA expression of core target genes was determined by real-time qPCR experiment.

RESULTS

ZZHPD exerted significant hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity in rats accompanied by body weight loss, abnormal biochemical indicators, and pathologic characteristics with mild inflammation and cell damage. The results of plasma metabolomics indicated that 22 differential metabolites interfered by ZZHPD mainly involved in primary bile acid biosynthesis, arginine and proline metabolism, phenylalanine metabolism and biosynthesis, sphingolipid metabolism, pyrimidine and purine metabolism. Firstly, 106 chemical substances of ZZHPD were identified, 44 of them were absorbed into the blood, mainly including 7 iridoid glycosides, 15 flavonoids, 5 lignans, and others. Then, the correlation analysis results suggested that 12 of 19 differentially absorbed constituents were highly correlated with 22 differential metabolites and recognized as potential Q-markers. Finally, 9 toxicity-related Q-markers were predicted and confirmed with better binding ability to 5 core targets (PTGS2, CASP3, TNF, PPARG, HMOX1), including 3 flavonoids (naringin, hesperidin, and neohesperidin), 2 iridoid glycosides (geniposide and genipin-1-β-D-gentiobioside), 2 lignans (honokiol and magnolol), organic acid (chlorogenic acid), and crocin (crocetin). The real-time qPCR results showed that the mRNA levels of CASP3, TNF-α, and PPARG significantly increased in the damaged liver. Combining metabolomics and network pharmacology results, the multiple mechanisms of toxicity might involve in oxidative damage, inflammation, and apoptosis pathways.

CONCLUSION

Taken together, the toxicity-related Q-markers of ZZHPD screened for the first time in this work were reliable, and the holistic intervention for hepatorenal toxicity further revealed the multi-component, multi-target, and multi-pathway features in TCM. The integrated approach provides a novel perspective for the discovery of toxicity/efficacy-related substances and mechanistic studies in TCM.

Gardenia extract protects against intrahepatic cholestasis by regulating bile acid enterohepatic circulation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Cholestasis is the main manifestation of cholestatic liver disease, which has a risk of progression to end-stage liver disease. Gardeniae Fructus is the dried fruit of Gardeniae jasminoides Ellis, a plant of the Rubiaceae family. Gardeniae Fructus has shown therapeutic potential in cholestasis-related liver diseases and it is generally believed that Gardeniae Fructus ameliorates cholestasis, which could be related to its influence on bile acids (BAs) metabolism. However, the specific targets of Gardeniae Fructus and its impact on enterohepatic circulation of BAs have not yet been fully elucidated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To systematically elucidate the mechanism by which Gardenia extract (GE, total iridoids in Gardeniae Fructus, which contains the predominant and characteristic phytoconstituents of Gardeniae Fructus) ameliorates alpha-naphthylisothiocyanate (ANIT)-induced cholestatic liver injury.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats were orally administered water, obeticholic acid (OCA, 2 mg/kg), or GE (21 and 42 mg/kg) once daily for five days. On the third day, the model was established by administration of a single dose of ANIT (40 mg/kg) by oral gavage. Biochemical and pathological analyses, BA metabolomics, transcriptomics, and qRT-PCR were performed.

RESULTS

The profile of BAs in serum and liver confirmed that GE attenuated ANIT-induced acute cholestasis by affecting BA metabolism in a dose-dependent manner. Liver transcriptomic analysis indicated that GE mainly influenced the primary bile acid (PBA) biosynthesis and bile secretion pathways. GE mainly affected PBA biosynthesis in liver by upregulating Cyp8b1 gene expression, thereby significantly reducing the level of total bile acids (TBA). GE mainly promoted PBA excretion from liver into duodenum by upregulating Fxr and Oatp1 gene expression, thereby increasing the excretion of PBA in feces, and inhibiting PBA in liver entering the blood by alternative routes to reduce TBA levels in serum and urine and improve the enterohepatic circulation of BAs.

CONCLUSION

GE attenuated ANIT-induced hepatotoxicity and cholestasis in rats by upregulating Cyp8b1 expression to inhibit BA synthesis in the liver, while also promoting BA excretion via the intestinal-fecal route, and improving enterohepatic circulation of BAs.

Geniposide alleviated hydrogen peroxide-induced apoptosis of human hepatocytes via altering DNA methylation

Geniposide (GP) is the homology of medicine and food with bioactive effects of antioxidation and resistance to apoptosis in the liver. It's of great significance to explore the biosafety exposure limits and action mechanisms of GP. This study detected the global DNA methylation microenvironment and the regulation of specific genes in GP against cellular apoptosis induced by hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) of human hepatocyte L-02 cells. The half inhibitory concentration (IC50) of GP on normal L-02 cells was 57.7 mg/mL. GP exerted new epigenetic activity, increased DNMT1, decreased TET1 and TET2 expression, and reversed the demethylation effect to some extent, thereby increasing the overall genomic DNA methylation level at the concentration of 900 μg/mL. GP pretreatment could also adjust the level of P53, Bcl-2 and AKT altered by H2O2, reducing their specific DNA methylation levels in the promoter regions of AKT and Bcl-2 to inhibit apoptosis. Taken together, GP regulates the global DNA methylation level and controls the expression changes of P53, Bcl-2 and AKT, jointly inhibiting the occurrence of apoptosis in human hepatocytes and providing the newly theoretical references for its safety evaluation.

The neuroprotective effect of traditional Chinese medicinal plants-A critical review

Neurodegenerative and neuropsychiatric diseases are increasingly affecting individuals' quality of life, thus increasing their cost to social and health systems. These diseases have overlapping mechanisms, such as oxidative stress, protein aggregation, neuroinflammation, neurotransmission impairment, mitochondrial dysfunction, and excitotoxicity. Currently, there is no cure for neurodegenerative diseases, and the available therapies have adverse effects and low efficacy. For neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression, the current therapies are not adequate to one-third of the patients, the so-called treatment-resistant patients. So, searching for new treatments is fundamental. Medicinal plants appear as a strong alternative and complement towards new treatment protocols, as they have been used for health purposes for thousands of years. Thus, the main goal of this review is to revisit the neuroprotective potential of some of the most predominant medicinal plants (and one fungus) used in traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), focusing on their proven mechanisms of action and their chemical compositions, to give clues on how they can be useful against neurodegeneration progression.

Investigation on the potential adverse outcome pathway of the sensitive endpoint for nephrotoxicity induced by gardenia yellow based on an integrated strategy using bioinformatics analysis and in vitro testing validation

To explore the potential the adverse outcome pathway of Gardenia Yellow (GY)-induced sensitive endpoint for nephrotoxicity, an integrated strategy was applied in the present study. Using bioinformatic analysis, based on the constructed Protein-protein interaction networks, Gene Ontology function and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes pathway enrichment analysis on the core target network were performed to illustrate the potential gene targets and signal pathways. Then, the most enriched pathway was validated with Cell counting kit-8 assays and Western blot analysis in embryonic kidney epithelial 293 cell models. According to the findings, GY may interact with 321 targets related to the endpoint. The five targets on the top ranking in the PPI network were STAT3, SRC, HRAS, AKT1, EP300. Among them, PI3K/Akt was the most enriched pathway. In vitro testing showed that GY exerted a proliferative effect on the cell variability in a dose-dependent manner. GY at concentration of 1000 μg/ml and stimulation for 30 min can significantly enhance the expression of phosphorylated Akt. Thus, after the quantitative weight of evidence evaluation, Akt phosphorylation induced PI3K/Akt activation was speculated as a molecular initiating event leading to a proliferative and inflammatory response in renal tubular epithelial cells.

Jasminoidin and ursodeoxycholic acid exert synergistic effect against cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury via Dectin-1-induced NF-κB activation pathway

BACKGROUND

Jasminoidin (JA) and ursodeoxycholic acid (UA) were shown to act synergistically against ischemic stroke (IS) in our previous studies.

PURPOSE

To investigate the holistic synergistic mechanism of JA and UA on cerebral ischemia.

METHODS

Middle cerebral artery obstruction reperfusion (MCAO/R) mice were used to evaluate the efficacy of JA, UA, and JA combined with UA (JU) using neurological function testing and infarct volume examination. High-throughput RNA-seq combined with computational prediction and function-integrated analysis was conducted to gain insight into the comprehensive mechanism of synergy. The core mechanism was validated using western blotting.

RESULTS

JA and UA synergistically reduced cerebral infarct volume and alleviated neurological deficits and pathological changes in MCAO/R mice. A total of 1437, 396, 1080, and 987 differentially expressed genes were identified in the vehicle, JA, UA, and JU groups, respectively. A strong synergistic effect between JA and UA was predicted using chemical similarity analysis, target profile comparison, and semantic similarity analysis. As the 'long-tail' drugs, the top 20 gene ontology (GO) biological processes of JA, UA, and JU groups primarily reflected inflammatory response and regulation of cytokine production, with specific GO terms of JU revealing enhanced regulation on immune response and tumor necrosis factor superfamily cytokine production. Comparably, the Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) signaling of common targets of JA, UA, and JU focused on extracellular matrix organization and signaling by interleukins, immune system, phagosomes, and lysosomes, which interlock and interweave to produce the synergistic effects of JU. The characteristic signaling pathway identified for JU highlighted the crosstalk between autophagy activation and inflammatory pathways, especially the Dectin-1-induced NF-κB activation pathway, which was validated by in vivo experiments.

CONCLUSIONS

JA and UA can synergistically protect cerebral ischemia-reperfusion injury by attenuating Dectin-1-induced NF-κB activation. The strategy integrating high throughput data with computational models enables ever-finer mapping of 'long-tail' drugs to dynamic variations in condition-specific omics to clarify synergistic mechanisms.

Study on the difference and correlation between the contents and toxicity of aristolochic acid analogues in Aristolochia plants

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

The nephrotoxicity and carcinogenicity induced by traditional Chinese medicines (TCMs) containing aristolochic acids (AAs) and related compound preparations have greatly limited their clinical application. While the toxicity of AA-I and AA-II is relatively clear, there are marked differences in the toxic effects of different types of aristolochic acid analogues (AAAs). Thus, the toxicity of TCMs containing AAAs cannot be evaluated based on the toxicity of a single compound.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To systematically investigate the toxicity induced by Zhushalian (ZSL), Madouling (MDL) and Tianxianteng (TXT) as representative TCMs derived from Aristolochia.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

AAA contents in ZSL, MDL and TXT were determined using HPLC. Subsequently, mice were treated for 2 weeks with high (H) and low (L) dosages of TCMs containing total AAA contents of 3 mg/kg and 1.5 mg/kg, respectively. Toxicity was evaluated using biochemical and pathological examination and was based on organ indices. Correlations between AAA contents and induced toxicity were analysed using multiple methods.

RESULTS

Of the total AAA content, ZSL contained mainly AA-I and AA-II (>90%, of which AA-I accounted for 49.55%). AA-I accounted for 35.45% in MDL. TXT mainly contained AA-IVa (76.84%) and other AAAs accounted for <10%. Short-term toxicity tests indicated that ZSL and high-dose MDL induced obvious renal interstitial fibrosis and gastric injury, whereas TXT (high and low dosages) caused only slight toxicity. Correlation analysis suggested that AA-I might be the critical hazard factor for toxicity.

CONCLUSIONS

The toxicity of TCMs containing AAAs cannot be generalised. The toxicity of TXT is relatively low compared with those of ZSL and MDL. The toxicity of Aristolochia depends mainly on the AA-I content; therefore, control of AA-I levels in TCMs and related compound preparations is required to reduce the risk of toxicity associated with the use of Aristolochia herbs in clinical settings.

Biochemical and histopathological analysis after sub-chronic administration of oxyresveratrol in Wistar rats

Oxyresveratrol (OXY) is a naturally occurring phenolic compound; however, there are no toxicity studies reported on its long term use. The aim of our work was to demonstrate the evaluation of acute and sub-chronic toxicity of oxyresveratrol in rats to assess its safety profile. To evaluate the LD₅₀ value, 2000 mg/kg of oxyresveratrol was administered to Wistar rats by oral gavage. For sub-chronic toxicity assessment, 80 Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups (10 animal/sex/group) and oxyresveratrol administered at a dose of 50, 100, 150 mg/kg/day by oral gavage. Bodyweight, food, and water consumption were monitored every week. At the end of the experiments, biochemical and hematological parameters were analyzed. Gross and microscopic organ analyses were also carried out. LD₅₀ of oxyresveratrol was greater than 2000 mg/kg sub-chronic administration of oxyresveratrol did not influence any mortality. Doses of 50 and 100 mg/kg of oxyresveratrol did not produce any sign of toxicity. However, the 150 mg/kg oxyresveratrol group depicted changes in multiple biochemical and hematological parameters with changes in the pathology of cardiac, hepatic, and renal tissues when compared with control. Therefore, no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) of oxyresveratrol was observed to be 100 mg/kg per day for both male and female rats.

Toxicological safety evaluation of Qin-Zhi-Zhu-Dan formula in rats during the treatment and recovery periods

Background: Qinzhi Zhudan Formula (QZZD), optimized from Angong Niuhuang Wan, consists of Radix Scutellariae, Fructus Gardeniae and Pulvis Fellis Suis. We had investigated the neuroprotective effects of QZZD and its active components, and demonstrated that it could treat cerebral ischemia and dementia through multiple pathways and mechanisms. Nevertheless, toxicological data on this formula still remains limited. In the study, we sought to examine the toxicological effects of QZZD during the treatment and recovery periods.

Methods: We investigated potential toxicities of QZZD in Sprague-Dawley (SD) rats via 28-day gavage administration. SD rats were randomly divided into control group and treatment groups of A (0.5 g/kg/d QZZD), B (1.5 g/kg/d QZZD), and C (5.0 g/kg/d QZZD). The 56-day course includes treatment period (administration with water or QZZD once a day for 28 consecutive days) and recovery period (28 days). The rats received daily monitoring of general signs of toxicity and mortality, as well as weekly determination of body weight and food consumption. Moreover, the complete blood cell count, biochemistry, coagulation, and urine indicators, organ weights, and histopathological report were analyzed respectively at the end of the treatment and recovery periods.

Results: There was no death related to the active pharmaceutical ingredients of QZZD during the treatment period. The maximum no observed adverse effect level (NOAEL) was 0.5 g/kg/d, which is approximately 16.7 times of the equivalent dose of clinical dose in rats. In group TB (1.5 g/kg/d QZZD) and TC (5.0 g/kg/d QZZD), there were adverse effects of blue coloring of tail skin, weight loss, a significant increase of total bilirubin (TBIL), blackening of liver and kidney in gross examination, hyperplasia of bile duct and karyomegaly of hepatocytes in histopathological examination. Besides, in females rats, the food consumption was reduced, while in male rats, there was decrease in triglycerides (TG) and slight increase in white blood cell (WBC) count and neutrophils. In group TC (5.0 g/kg/d QZZD), the indicators of red blood cell (RBC) count, hemoglobin (HGB) and hematocrit (HCT) were decreased slightly, while the platelet count (PLT) was increased. However, these changes were not considered to be toxicologically significant because they resolved during the recovery period.

Conclusion: Overall, QZZD exhibited a good safety profile. The maximum no observed adverse effect level was 0.5 g/kg/d, and no target organs toxicity were identified. The present findings might confirm the safety of QZZD in clinical practices.

Updated Pharmacological Effects, Molecular Mechanisms, and Therapeutic Potential of Natural Product Geniposide

At present, the potential of natural products in new drug development has attracted more and more scientists' attention, and natural products have become an important source for the treatment of various diseases or important lead compounds. Geniposide, as a novel iridoid glycoside compound, is an active natural product isolated from the herb Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (GJ) for the first time; it is also the main active component of GJ. Recent studies have found that geniposide has multiple pharmacological effects and biological activities, including hepatoprotective activity, an anti-osteoporosis effect, an antitumor effect, an anti-diabetic effect, ananti-myocardial dysfunction effect, a neuroprotective effect, and other protective effects. In this study, the latest research progress of the natural product geniposide is systematically described, and the pharmacological effects, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of geniposide are also summarized and discussed comprehensively. We also emphasize the major pathways modulated by geniposide, offering new insights into the pharmacological effects of geniposide as a promising drug candidate for multiple disorders.

A review of the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicology of Fructus Gardeniae (Zhi-zi)

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fructus Gardeniae (FG) is the dried fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (GjE), which belongs to the family Rubiaceae. FG has a long history of use as a herb, and was originally recorded in Sheng Nong's herbal classic. FG has also been widely used as both medicine and food.

AIM OF STUDY

This review aimed to provide a systematic and comprehensive analysis of the current research progress of FG in terms of ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry, pharmacology and toxicity, to provide new insights and extensive field of view for subsequent studies.

METHODS

Scientific databases, including CNKI, VIP (Chinese literature), PubMed, Science Direct, Elsevier and Google Scholar (English literatures) were searched to gather data about FG and its main active ingredients such as geniposide and genipin (only regarding toxicity).

RESULTS

Many chemical constituents have been identified from the fruit of GjE, including iridoids, terpenoids, flavonoids, organic acids, volatile oils and others. The constituents of different parts of FG and processed FG are different from those of whole FG. FG extract and its main active constituents have been reported to have pharmacological properties such as hepatoprotective, choleretic, anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, neuroprotective, anti-diabetic, anti-apoptotic and antitumor activities. However, an increasing number of studies have shown that FG induces multiple organ injury, especially causing hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity, which could increase the risk during clinical use. The available literature shows that geniposide, a major active component of FG and a critical marker for its quality, is associated with the pharmacology and toxicity of FG.

CONCLUSION

Although a large number of studies examining FG have been published, issues remain. In the aspect of FG's pharmacology, the traditional efficacy and modern pharmacological effects of FG should be combined, which to broadens clinical application prospects. In addition, few studies have assessed the toxicity of FG. Toxicity assessment of FG should tackle various aspects, including compatibility, processing and the symptom-based prescription theory, in addition to over-dosage or long-term use, for a reasonable clinical use.

Quality Evaluation of Decoction Pieces of Gardeniae Fructus Based on Qualitative Analysis of the HPLC Fingerprint and Triple-Q-TOF-MS/MS Combined with Quantitative Analysis of 12 Representative Components

In this study, quality evaluation (QE) of 40 batches of decoction pieces of Gardeniae Fructus (GF) produced by different manufacturers of herbal pieces was performed by qualitative analysis of the HPLC fingerprint and ultra-fast liquid chromatography (UFLC)-triple-Q-TOF-MS/MS combined with quantitative analysis of multiple components, which we established previously for QE of traditional medicine. First, HPLC fingerprints of 40 samples were determined, and the common peaks in the reference fingerprint were assigned. Second, the components of the common peaks in the HPLC fingerprints were identified by UFLC-triple-Q-TOF-MS/MS. Finally, the contents of the components confirmed by reference substances were measured. The results showed that there were 28 common peaks in the HPLC fingerprints of 40 samples. The components of these 28 common peaks were identified as 13 iridoids, 4 crocins, 7 monocyclic monoterpenoids, 3 organic acids, and 1 flavonoid. Of these, a total of 12 components, including 7 iridoids of geniposide, shanzhiside, geniposidic acid, deacetyl asperulosidic acid methyl ester, gardenoside, scandoside methyl ester, and genipin gentiobioside, 2 crocins such as crocin I and crocin II, 1 monocyclic monoterpenoid of jasminoside B, 1 organic acid of chlorogenic acid, and 1 flavonoid of rutin, were unambiguously identified by comparison with reference substances. There were certain differences in the contents of these 12 components among 40 samples. The geniposide content ranged from 37.917 to 72.216 mg/g, and the total content of the 7 iridoids ranged from 59.931 to 94.314 mg/g.

Study on the potential nephrotoxicity and mutagenicity of aristolochic acid IVa and its mechanism

Previous reports demonstrated that aristolochic acids (AAs) exposure-induced nephrotoxicity, mutations, and tumorigenesis are mainly due to aristolochic acid I (AAI). Notably, the chemical structure of aristolochic acid IVa (AAIVa), which exists at higher levels in many Aristolochiaceae herbs, is extremely similar to AAI. In lack of toxicological data, it is unknown whether AAIVa exposure leads to aristolochic acid nephropathy (AAN), mutations, and tumorigenesis as of AAI. To answer these questions, mice were administered AAIVa by single or repeated long-term gavage, while AAI was used as a positive control. We found that single gavage of 40 mg/kg of AAIVa exhibited no obvious toxicity. Also, there were no tumors or death in mice administrated with 1 and 10 mg/kg of AAIVa for 6 months followed by a 12-month recovery time. There were no noteworthy alterations in gene mutation frequency in the kidney, liver, and stomach between the AAIVa and control mice. Fascinatingly, AA-associated mutational signatures, adenine-to-thymine (A>T) transversions, were absent in AAIVa-treated mice. Nonetheless, 10 mg/kg of AAIVa triggered lymphocytic infiltration and slight fibrous hyperplasia in the kidney at the 6^th month; however, these were alleviated at the 12^th and 18^th months. On the contrary, AAI (positive control) caused severe diffuse fibrosis, tubular atrophy, necrosis, tumors in the forestomach and kidney, and death after the 6^th month. It seems that long-term AAIVa exposure induced mild renal lesions could be due to the activation of the canonical or noncanonical transforming growth factor-β (TGFβ) pathway. Overall, these findings suggest that the mutagenicity and carcinogenic risk of AAIVa are very low.

The emerging possibility of the use of geniposide in the treatment of cerebral diseases: a review

With the advanced discoveries in the field of pathogenesis, a series of cerebral diseases, such as cerebral ischaemia, Alzheimer's disease, and depression, have been found to have multiple signalling targets in the microenvironment. Only a few existing agents have been shown to have curative effects due to this specific circumstance. In recent decades, active ingredients isolated from natural plants have been shown to be crucial for original drug development. Geniposide, mainly extracted from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis, is representative of these natural products. Geniposide demonstrates various biological activities in the treatment of cerebral, cardiovascular, hepatic, tumorous, and other diseases. The multiple protective effects of geniposide on the brain have especially drawn increasing attention. Thus, this article specifically reviews the characteristics of current models of cerebral ischaemia and illustrates the possible effects of geniposide and its pathogenetic mechanisms on these models. Geniposide has been shown to significantly reduce the area of cerebral infarction and alleviate neuronal damage and necrosis mainly by inhibiting inflammatory signals, including NLRP3, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β. Neuronal protection was also involved in activating the PI3K/Akt and Wnt/catenin pathways. Geniposide was able to increase autophagy and inhibit apoptosis by regulating the function of mTOR in treating Alzheimer's disease. Geniposide has also been shown to act as a glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor (GLP-1R) agonist to reduce amyloid plaques and inhibit oxidative stress to alleviate memory impairment as well as synaptic loss. Moreover, geniposide has been shown to exert antidepressant effects primarily by regulating the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis. Detailed explorations have shown that the biological activities of inhibiting inflammatory cytokine secretion, alleviating oxidative stress, and suppressing mitochondrial damage are also involved in the mechanism of action of geniposide. Therefore, geniposide is a promising agent awaiting further exploration for the treatment of cerebral diseases via various phenotypes or signalling pathways.

Properties and molecular mechanisms underlying geniposide-mediated therapeutic effects in chronic inflammatory diseases

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Geniposide (GE) is ubiquitous in nearly 40 species of plants, among which Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis has the highest content, and has been used ethnopharmacologically to treat chronic inflammatory diseases. As a traditional Chinese medicine, Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis has a long history of usage in detumescence and sedation, liver protection and cholestasis, hypotension and hemostasis. It is commonly used in the treatment of diabetes, hypertension, jaundice hepatitis, sprain and contusion. As a type of iridoid glycosides extracted from Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis, GE has many pharmacological effects, such as anti-inflammatory, anti-angiogenesic, anti-oxidative, etc. AIM OF THE REVIEW: In this article, we reviewed the sources, traditional usage, pharmacokinetics, toxicity and therapeutic effect of GE on chronic inflammatory diseases, and discussed its potential regulatory mechanisms and clinical application.

RESULTS

GE is a common iridoid glycoside in medicinal plants, which has strong activity in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases. A large number of in vivo and in vitro experiments confirmed that GE has certain therapeutic value for a variety of chronic inflammation disease. Its mechanism of function is mainly based on its anti-inflammatory, anti-oxidant, neuroprotective properties, as well as regulation of apoptotsis. GE plays a role in the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases by regulating cell proliferation and apoptosis, realizing the dynamic balance of pro/anti-inflammatory factors, improving the state of oxidative stress, and restoring abnormally expressed inflammation-related pathways.

CONCLUSION

According to its extensive pharmacological effects, GE is a promising drug for the treatment of chronic inflammatory diseases.

Metabolomics based comprehensive investigation of Gardeniae Fructus induced hepatotoxicity

Gardeniae Fructus (Zhizi in Chinese, ZZ in brief), a commonly used herbal medicine, has aroused wide concern for hepatotoxicity, but the mechanism remains to be investigated. This study was aimed at investigating the mechanism of ZZ-induced liver injury in vivo and in vitro based on metabolomics and evaluating the hepatotoxicity prediction ability of the in vitro model. SD rats were administered with extracted ZZ and HepG2 cells were treated with genipin, the major hepatotoxic metabolite of ZZ. Liver, plasma, intracellular and extracellular samples were obtained for metabolomics analysis. As a result, ZZ caused plasma biochemical and liver histopathological alterations in rats, and induced purine and amino acid metabolism disorder in the liver and pyrimidine, primary bile acids, amino acid metabolism and pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis disorder in the plasma. Pyrimidine, purine, amino acid metabolism and pantothenate and CoA biosynthesis were also found to be disturbed in the genipin-treated HepG2 cells, which exhibited similarity with the result in vivo. This study comprehensively illustrates the underlying mechanism involved in ZZ-related hepatotoxicity from the aspect of metabolome, and provides evidence that identifying hepatotoxicity can be achieved in cells, representing a non-animal alternative for systemic toxicology.

Genipin induces developmental toxicity through oxidative stress and apoptosis in zebrafish

Genipin, an iridoid substance, is mainly derived from Gardenia jasminoides Ellis of the traditional Chinese medicine and is widely used in raw materials for the food additive gardenia blue and biological materials. The developmental toxicity of genipin has not been investigated, and its underlying mechanism is unclear. Therefore, in this study we attempt to investigate the potential developmental toxicity of genipin in zebrafish embryos/larvae. The results showed zebrafish embryos treated with 50 μg/ml dose of genipin display inhibited hatching rates and body length. The pericardial edema was observed. It was also found that genipin could induce cardio-toxicity, hepatotoxicity and nephrotoxicity in zebrafish larvae. After genipin treatment, the suppression of antioxidant capacity and increase of oxidative stress were showed for the triggered generation of ROS and MDA, and decreased activity of SOD. Compared with the 0.5% DMSO group, a number of apoptotic cells in zebrafish were increased after genipin exposure. By measuring marker gene expression with the using of qRT-PCR, we proposed that developmental toxicity after genipin treatment might be associated with oxidative stress and apoptosis increase. Our research offers a better understanding for developmental toxicity of genipin.

Safety evaluation of Eucommia ulmoides extract

Eucommia ulmoides Oliver is native to China and frequently used in traditional Chinese medicine formulations. However, studies show that Eucommia ulmoides extract (EUE) are potentially genotoxic and nephrotoxic. To evaluate its safety, the Ames test, bone marrow micronucleus assay and chromosomal aberration assay, along with acute (24 h) and sub-chronic (13 weeks) toxicity were conducted. EUE was non-genotoxic within the dose ranges of 0.0352-22 mg/plate (raw plant equivalent as below), 22-88 g/kg body weight and 2-20 mg/mL. The maximum tolerated dose of EUE was not less than 168 g/kg, which is 1260 times that of clinical doses in human adults. Long-term (13 weeks) administration led to dose-dependent increase in nephrotoxicity-related indices, and pathological changes in renal tissues. These changes were alleviated 5 weeks after ceasing the low dosage of 11.2 g/kg but persisted at the high dosage of 56 g/kg. Conclusively, EUE is non-genotoxic, and do not result in acute toxicity. However, long-term and high-dose administration can lead to partly reversible nephrotoxicity.

Effects of Long-Term Administration of Gardeniae Fructus on Intra-Abdominal Organs of Rats

Many recent reports have suggested a possible association between Japanese traditional (Kampo) medicines containing Gardeniae Fructus (GF, the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides J. Ellis) and the mesenteric phlebosclerosis (MP). MP is a chronic orphan disease characterized by venous calcification extending from the colonic wall to the mesentery, usually developing in the proximal colon. In the present study, we administered GF to Wistar/ST female rats as 1% and 2% feed in the diet for 11 months to evaluate any calcification and/or fibrosis of veins in the colonic wall and mesentery. The reversibility of GF's effects was examined by feeding a normal diet for an additional 3 months. A significant decrease in body weight gain and food consumption occurred in the 2% GF group. Pigmentation of the liver, kidney, and spleen in macroscopic or histopathological examination was observed after 11-month administration, which disappeared after the 3-month recovery period. Histopathological findings such as fibrous thickening and calcification of vein walls, characteristic of human MP, were not observed. Fibrosis in the colonic lamina propria was observed in the 2% GF group but not in the 1% GF group during the treatment period, but the incidence as well as grade of this type of fibrosis decreased in the recovery period, suggesting that the effects of GF were reversible. In the present study, chronic GF administration did not result in any venous pathological changes but induced pigmentation in the liver, kidneys, and spleen and moderate fibrosis in the colonic lamina propria, all of which being reversible. Further studies are required to determine the association between GF and MP.

Monoterpenes modulating autophagy: A review study

From the beginning of the 21st century, much attention has been made towards the medicinal herbs due to their low side effects and valuable biological activities. Among them, terpenes comprise a large group of naturally occurring chemical compounds that are considered as main components of flavours, antifeedants and pheromones. Monoterpenes have demonstrated a favourable profile as compounds that have antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, anti-diabetic, hepatoprotective and anti-tumour activities. On the other hand, autophagy is a 'self-digestion' mechanism which plays a remarkable role in a number of pathological conditions such as cancer, ageing, metabolic disorders and infection. Also, autophagy is considered as a stress adaptor that may lead to apoptotic cell death under severe and sustained stress. Autophagy modulation is a promising strategy in cancer treatment, and a variety of drugs have been designed in line with this strategy. In the present MiniReview, we discuss the effects of monoterpenes on autophagy and its relationship with therapeutic impacts of monoterpenes.

Screening of the Hepatotoxic Components in Fructus Gardeniae and Their Effects on Rat Liver BRL-3A Cells

Fructus Gardeniae (FG) is a common Chinese medicine and food. However, the toxicity of FG has drawn increasing concern, especially its hepatotoxicity. The purpose of this study was to screen the hepatotoxic components of FG and evaluate their effects on rat liver BRL-3A cells. The chemical composition of FG was determined by HPLC-ESI-MS. CCK-8 assay was used to evaluate the cytotoxicity of ten chemical components from FG, and then the toxic components with significant inhibitory activity were selected for further study. The results showed that geniposide, genipin, genipin-1-gentiobioside, gardenoside, and shanzhiside all suppress cells viability. Apoptosis assays further indicated that geniposide and its metabolite genipin are the main hepatotoxic components of FG. Pretreatment of cells with geniposide or genipin increased the levels of aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), and alkaline phosphatase (ALP). The activities of superoxide dismutase (SOD) and glutathione (GSH) were decreased, while the malondialdehyde (MDA) level was increased. The cell contents of tumor necrosis factor (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), and nitric oxide (NO) were also increased. Molecular docking simulations were used to investigate the mechanism of FG-induced hepatotoxicity, revealing that geniposide and genipin bind strongly to the pro-inflammatory factor TNFR1 receptor of the NF-κB and MAPK signaling pathways. The obtained results strongly indicate that the hepatotoxicity of FG is caused by iridoids compounds. Genipin had the most significant hepatotoxic effect. These toxic substances destroy the cell antioxidant defense system, increasing inflammatory injury to the liver cells and leading to apoptosis and even necrosis. Thus, this study lays a foundation for toxicology research into FG and its rational application.

Fructus Gardeniae-induced gastrointestinal injury was associated with the inflammatory response mediated by the disturbance of vitamin B6, phenylalanine, arachidonic acid, taurine and hypotaurine metabolism

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Fructus Gardenia (FG) is a widely used bitter and cold herb for clearing heat and detoxicating. Currently, toxicity of FG and its relative formula has been reported in many clinical and animal studies. However, no systematic research has been carried out on FG-related gastrointestinal (GI) injury which has been emphasized in China since the Ming Dynasty.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The purpose of this article is to investigate whether FG could damage GI and explore the mechanisms involved.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

FG was given to male mice by 7-day intragastric administration at average doses of 0.90 g (L group), 1.50 g (M group), and 3.00 g (H group) crude drug/kg FG. Comprehensive understanding of changes in weight, diarrhea degree, stool routine, histomorphology and inflammatory factors of stomach, small intestine, and colon for evaluating the effect of different doses of FG on GI injury. Moreover, metabolomics-based mechanisms exploration of FG on GI injury was carried out via HPLC-Q-TOF/MS analysis on mice urine.

RESULTS

High dose FG caused GI injury with serious diarrhea, decreased weight, abnormal stool routine, sever alteration in histomorphology of small intestine and colon (mild change in stomach), and significant change in inflammatory factors. The results of metabolomics suggested that 55 endogenous metabolites dispersed in 21 significantly altered metabolic pathways in 3.00 g/kg crude FG treated mice. The hub metabolites of GI injury were mainly related with vitamin B6 metabolism, phenylalanine metabolism, arachidonic acid metabolism, and taurine and hypotaurine metabolism via correlated network analysis.

CONCLUSION

FG affected the normal functions of GI via the regulating a variety of metabolic pathways to an abnormal state, and our results provided a research paradigm for the GI-injury of the relative bitter and cold traditional Chinese medicines.

Diverse Pharmacological Activities and Potential Medicinal Benefits of Geniposide

Geniposide is a well-known iridoid glycoside compound and is an essential component of a wide variety of traditional phytomedicines, for example, Gardenia jasminoides Elli (Zhizi in Chinese), Eucommia ulmoides Oliv. (Duzhong in Chinese), Rehmannia glutinosa Libosch. (Dihuang in Chinese), and Achyranthes bidentata Bl. (Niuxi in Chinese). It is also the main bioactive component of Gardeniae Fructus, the dried ripe fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis. Increasing pharmacological evidence supports multiple medicinal properties of geniposide including neuroprotective, antidiabetic, hepatoprotective, anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antidepressant-like, cardioprotective, antioxidant, immune-regulatory, antithrombotic, and antitumoral effects. It has been proposed that geniposide may be a drug or lead compound for the prophylaxis and treatment of several diseases, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, diabetes and diabetic complications, ischemia and reperfusion injury, and hepatic disorders. The aim of the present review is to give a comprehensive summary and analysis of the pharmacological properties of geniposide, supporting its use as a medicinal agent.

Antioxidative Property and Molecular Mechanisms Underlying Geniposide-Mediated Therapeutic Effects in Diabetes Mellitus and Cardiovascular Disease

Geniposide, an iridoid glucoside, is a major component in the fruit of Gardenia jasminoides Ellis (Gardenia fruits). Geniposide has been experimentally proved to possess multiple pharmacological actions involving antioxidative stress, anti-inflammatory, antiapoptosis, antiangiogenesis, antiendoplasmic reticulum stress (ERS), etc. In vitro and in vivo studies have further identified the value of geniposide in a spectrum of preclinical models of diabetes mellitus (DM) and cardiovascular disorders. The antioxidative property of geniposide should be attributed to the result of either the inhibition of numerous pathological processes or the activation of various proteins associated with cell survival or a combination of both. In this review, we will summarize the available knowledge on the antioxidative property and protective effects of geniposide in DM and cardiovascular disease in the literature and discuss antioxidant mechanisms as well as its potential applications in clinic.

Evaluation of the Hepatotoxicity of the Zhi-Zi-Hou-Po Decoction by Combining UPLC-Q-Exactive-MS-Based Metabolomics and HPLC-MS/MS-Based Geniposide Tissue Distribution

With traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) becoming widespread globally, its safety has increasingly become a concern, especially its hepatoxicity. For example, Gardenia jasminoides Ellis is a key ingredient in the Zhi-Zi-Hou-Po decoction (ZZHPD), which is a commonly-used clinically combined prescription of TCM that may induce hepatoxicity. However, the underlying toxicity mechanism of ZZHPD is not fully understood. In this study, a plasma metabolomics strategy was used to investigate the mechanism of ZZHPD-induced hepatotoxicity through profiling entire endogenous metabolites. Twenty-four Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned into four groups, which were orally administered with 0.9% saline, as well as 2.7 g/kg/day, 8.1 g/kg/day, or 27 g/kg/day of ZZHPD for 30 consecutive days, respectively. Biochemical assay and metabolomics assay were used to detect serum and plasma samples, whilst histopathological assay was used for detecting liver tissues, and the geniposide distribution in tissues was simultaneously measured. The results showed that the concentration of 20 metabolites linked to amino acid, lipid, and bile acid metabolism had significant changes in the ZZHPD-treated rats. Moreover, toxic effects were aggravated with serum biochemical and histopathological examines in liver tissues as the dosage increased, which may be associated with the accumulation of geniposide in the liver as the dosage increased. Notably, our findings also demonstrated that the combined metabolomics strategy with tissue distribution had significant potential for elucidating the mechanistic complexity of the toxicity of TCM.

Data on the sub-chronic toxicity in rats after 30 days of oral realgar administration and the accumulation and distribution of arsenic species

These data are related to the research “The accumulation and distribution of arsenic species and association with arsenic toxicity in rats after 30 days of oral realgar administration” (Yi et al., 2019) [1]. These data include the rat body weights, haematology, electrolytes, coagulation and biochemical parameters, and relative organ weights after 30 days of oral administration of realgar, which was consistent with the current OECD guideline “Repeated Dose 28-Day oral Toxicity Study in Rodents”. The data also include the content of arsenite (As(III)), arsenate (As(V)), dimethylarsinic acid (DMA), monomethylarsonic acid (MMAV), arsenic betaine (AsB) and arsenic chrome (AsC) in rat blood, liver, kidneys, brain and urine after single-dose and 30-day oral administration of realgar.

The provided data are intended to demonstrate whether realgar has short-term toxicity and the role of accumulated arsenic species in realgar toxicity.

28-Day Oral Chronic Toxicity Study of Arctigenin in Rats

Arctium lappa (burdock) is the most popular daily edible vegetable in China and Japan because of its general health tonic effects. Previous studies focused on the beneficial role of Arctigenin but neglected its potential side-effects and toxicities. In the present study, the sub-chronic toxicity profile of Arctigenin following 28 days of consecutive exposure was investigated in rats. The results showed that during the drug exposure period, Arctigenin-12 mg/kg administration resulted in focal necrosis and lymphocytes infiltration of heart ventricular septal muscle cells. In the kidney cortical zone, the renal tubular epithelial cells were swollen, mineralized, and lymphocyte infiltrated. In the liver, the partial hepatocyte cytoplasm showed vacuolation and fatty changes, focal necrosis, and interstitial lymphocyte infiltration. In the rats that underwent 36 mg/kg/day administration, there was bilateral testis and epididymis atrophy. In the lung and primary bronchus, erythrocytes and edema fluid were observed. Changes of proestrus or estrus were observed in the uterus, cervix, and vagina intimal epithelial cells. Lymphocytic focal infiltration occurred in the prostate mesenchyme. The high dosage of Arctigenin only decreased the body weight at day 4. At the end of the recovery period, histopathological changes were irreversible, even after withdrawal of the drug for 28 days. Focal necrosis still existed in the heart ventricular septal muscle cells and hepatocytes. Lymphocyte infiltrations were observed in the heart, renal cortex, hepatocyte, and pancreas exocrine gland. Meanwhile, atrophy occurred in the testicles and pancreas. In addition, in the Arctigenin-12 mg/kg group, creatinine (CREA) and brain weight were both significantly increased. The toxicokinetical study demonstrated that Arctigenin accumulated in the organs of rats. The food consumption, hematological, and biochemical parameters were not associated with the above results. These contradictory results might result from the lesions induced by Arctigenin, which were not sufficiently serious to change the parameters. These results suggest that Arctium lappa should be consumed daily with caution because of the potential toxicity induced by Arctigenin. According to all results, the lowest observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) was induced by 12 mg/kg daily exposure to Arctigenin, and the No-observed-adverse-effect-level (NOAEL) should be lower than 12 mg/kg.