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Rasheduzzaman M, O'Connell B, Krometis LA, Brown T, Cohen A. Point-of-use chlorine residuals and disinfection byproduct occurrences in rural households served by public water utilities in Appalachian Virginia. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2024; 22:1064-1074. [PMID: 38935457 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2024.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2024] [Accepted: 05/10/2024] [Indexed: 06/29/2024]
Abstract
We characterized concentrations of trihalomethanes (THMs), a measure of disinfection byproducts (DBPs), in tap water samples collected from households with utility-supplied water in two rural counties in Appalachian Virginia, and assessed associations with pH, free chlorine, and metal ions which can impact THM formation. Free chlorine concentrations in all samples (n = 27 homes) complied with EPA drinking water guidelines, though 7% (n = 2) of first draw samples and 11% (n = 3) of 5-min flushed-tap water samples exceeded the US Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA) maximum contaminant level (MCL) for THM (80 ppb). Regression analyses showed that free chlorine and pH were positively associated with the formation of THM levels above SDWA MCLs (OR = 1.04, p = 0.97 and OR = 1.74, p = 0.79, respectively), while temperature was negatively associated (OR = 0.78, p = 0.38). Of the eight utilities serving study households, samples from water served by three different utilities exceeded the EPA MCL for THM. Overall, these findings do not indicate substantial exposures to DBPs for rural households with utility-supplied water in this region of southwest Virginia. However, given the observed variability in THM concentrations between and across utilities, and established adverse health impacts associated with chronic and acute DBP exposure, more research on DBPs in rural Central Appalachia is warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Md Rasheduzzaman
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA
| | - Bethesda O'Connell
- Department of Community and Behavioral Health, East Tennessee State University (ETSU), Johnson City, TN 37614, USA
| | - Leigh-Anne Krometis
- Department of Biological Systems Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24060, USA
| | - Teresa Brown
- Department of Natural Sciences, University of Virginia's College at Wise, Wise, VA 24293, USA
| | - Alasdair Cohen
- Department of Population Health Sciences, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA; Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA 24061, USA E-mail:
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2
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Moreno-Merino L, Aguilera H, de la Losa Román A. Are bottled mineral waters and groundwater for human supply different? THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2022; 835:155554. [PMID: 35489491 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2022.155554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2022] [Revised: 04/21/2022] [Accepted: 04/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Increasingly, bottled natural mineral water (NMW) is proposed as a healthy and safe alternative to supply water. However, tap supply water often comes from aquifers (TGW), even from the same aquifers as NMW, sharing the exact formation mechanisms and mineralization processes. Therefore, it is hypothesized that NMW and TGW cannot be distinguished. The chemical composition of TGW and NMW samples in Spain has been compared using five criteria: expert judgment, hydrochemistry, legal regulations, statistical analysis, and machine learning (ML). Hydrochemical criteria included all the NMW samples in the TGW group, as did the legal criterion, whereas classical statistical analysis could not find significant differences between the two groups. Although experts could correctly differentiate a small subsample of both types of water with an accuracy of 0.67, ML-based classification with Extreme Gradient Boosting yielded a balanced accuracy of 0.92 on an extremely imbalanced data set. Shapley Additive Explanations (SHAP) analysis identified pH, SiO2, E, K+, Ca2+, K+/Na+ and NO3- as the most relevant variables for water type discrimination. The overall consistency and generalization ability of the ML classifier has been proven by the spatial distribution of hits and misses, where the few cases of indistinguishable waters seem to be related to proximity to nature reserves (i.e., land use) more than to geological characteristics. Therefore, it can be concluded that NMW and TGW are indeed different and that only ML could find the hidden structure in the chemical data that determines the differences. This structure originates in how the market and consumers decide which water is ultimately bottled. The results can help on future choices of TGW and NMW in a context of water scarcity.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Moreno-Merino
- Instituto Geologico y Minero de España (IGME), CSIC, Ríos Rosas, 23, 28003 Madrid, Spain.
| | - H Aguilera
- Instituto Geologico y Minero de España (IGME), CSIC, Ríos Rosas, 23, 28003 Madrid, Spain.
| | - A de la Losa Román
- Instituto Geologico y Minero de España (IGME), CSIC, Ríos Rosas, 23, 28003 Madrid, Spain.
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Villanueva CM, Garfí M, Milà C, Olmos S, Ferrer I, Tonne C. Health and environmental impacts of drinking water choices in Barcelona, Spain: A modelling study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2021; 795:148884. [PMID: 34247071 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2021.148884] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2021] [Revised: 06/16/2021] [Accepted: 07/03/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Quantitative evidence of health and environmental tradeoffs between individuals' drinking water choices is needed to inform decision-making. We evaluated health and environmental impacts of drinking water choices using health impact and life cycle assessment (HIA, LCA) methodologies applied to data from Barcelona, Spain. We estimated the health and environmental impacts of four drinking water scenarios for the Barcelona population: 1) currently observed drinking water sources; a complete shift to 2) tap water; 3) bottled water; or 4) filtered tap water. We estimated the local bladder cancer incidence attributable to trihalomethane (THM) exposure, based on survey data on drinking water sources, THM levels, published exposure-response functions, and disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) from the Global Burden of Disease 2017. We estimated the environmental impacts (species lost/year, and resources use) from waste generation and disposal, use of electricity, chemicals, and plastic to produce tap or bottled drinking water using LCA. The scenario where the entire population consumed tap water yielded the lowest environmental impact on ecosystems and resources, while the scenario where the entire population drank bottled water yielded the highest impacts (1400 and 3500 times higher for species lost and resource use, respectively). Meeting drinking water needs using bottled or filtered tap water led to the lowest bladder cancer DALYs (respectively, 140 and 9 times lower than using tap water) in the Barcelona population. Our study provides the first attempt to integrate HIA and LCA to compare health and environmental impacts of individual water consumption choices. Our results suggest that the sustainability gain from consuming water from public supply relative to bottled water may exceed the reduced risk of bladder cancer due to THM exposure from consuming bottled water in Barcelona. Our analysis highlights several critical data gaps and methodological challenges in quantifying integrated health and environmental impacts of drinking water choices.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina M Villanueva
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain; IMIM (Hospital del Mar Medical Research Institute), Barcelona, Spain.
| | - Marianna Garfí
- GEMMA-Group of Environmental Engineering and Microbiology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya·BarcelonaTech, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Carles Milà
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Sergio Olmos
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ivet Ferrer
- GEMMA-Group of Environmental Engineering and Microbiology, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya·BarcelonaTech, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Cathryn Tonne
- ISGlobal, Barcelona, Spain; CIBER Epidemiología y Salud Pública (CIBERESP), Madrid, Spain; Universitat Pompeu Fabra (UPF), Barcelona, Spain
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Badaró JPM, Campos VP, da Rocha FOC, Santos CL. Multivariate analysis of the distribution and formation of trihalomethanes in treated water for human consumption. Food Chem 2021; 365:130469. [PMID: 34243123 DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2021.130469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 06/03/2021] [Accepted: 06/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
The disinfection of water for human consumption with chlorine or other compounds produces secondary reactions with the organic matter, generating undesirable disinfection by-products (DBPs). Among these are trihalomethanes (THMs), identified as carcinogenic compounds. This work determined the trihalomethanes concentration, both speciated and total, in treated water distributed and stored in tanks of residential condominiums of different social classes. THMs were quantified using static manual Headspace as preconcentration technique, injecting the vapor phase collected in a GC/FID. The results show that the water distributed to the homes already contains THMs, trichloromethane being the major compound. The Principal Components Analysis (PCA) and Hierarchical Cluster Analysis (HCA) with 60 water samples showed that there is no significant distinction among samples of treated water distributed water and water stored in tanks. This study warns to the importance of controlling the formation of trihalomethanes in water throughout treatment and distribution for users.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Vânia Palmeira Campos
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, 40170-270 Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
| | | | - Camila Lima Santos
- Departamento de Química Analítica, Instituto de Química, Universidade Federal da Bahia, 40170-270 Salvador, Bahia, Brazil
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Mosaferi M, Asadi M, Aslani H, Mohammadi A, Abedi S, Nemati Mansour S, Maleki S. Temporospatial variation and health risk assessment of trihalomethanes (THMs) in drinking water (northwest Iran). ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2021; 28:8168-8180. [PMID: 33052571 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-11063-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/30/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Trihalomethanes (THMs) are one of the most common classes of disinfection by-products. In this study, the temporospatial trends and health risks due to exposure to THMs in the Tabriz water distribution network were investigated. THM series were analyzed using gas chromatography equipped with electron capture detector. The non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks due to exposure to THMs were calculated using Monte Carlo simulations. Mean concentrations of THMs in winter and spring were 10.2 ± 9.3 μg/l and 252 ± 185.9 μg/l, respectively. More than 80% of THMs identified were bromodichloromethane. The mean values of lifetime cancer risk (LTCR) of THMs were calculated as 4.23E-06 and 2.38E-04 for winter and spring, respectively. This study showed that there were noticeable levels of THMs in Tabriz water distribution network, especially in the center of the city. Although the non-cancer risk through THMs was below permissible recommended levels, the cancer risk likely remains due to high levels of THMs in some locations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohammad Mosaferi
- Health and Environment Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
- Tabriz Health Services Management Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
| | - Mehrdad Asadi
- School of Engineering and the Built Environment, Anglia Ruskin University, Chelmsford, United Kingdom
| | - Hassan Aslani
- Health and Environment Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Amir Mohammadi
- Department of Public Health, Maragheh University of Medical Sciences, Maragheh, Iran
| | - Sanaz Abedi
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
| | - Sepideh Nemati Mansour
- Department of Environmental Health Engineering, School of Health, Student Research Committee, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran
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Fortunato MS, González AJ, Tellechea MF, Reynoso MH, Vallejos F, Donaire AN, Korol SE, Gallego A. Evaluation of bottled water quality by determining nitrate concentration. JOURNAL OF WATER AND HEALTH 2020; 18:681-691. [PMID: 33095192 DOI: 10.2166/wh.2020.125] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
The presence of nitrate in sources of drinking water is a matter of concern because of its potential risk for human health. In many countries like Argentina, an increasing proportion of the population chooses to consume bottled water, among other reasons, for lack of water access. The present study was conducted (a) to evaluate the quality of bottled waters by determining nitrate concentration, (b) to relate bottled water quality with water access, (c) to analyze public awareness about bottled water quality and consumption habits of the population in the urban area of Buenos Aires. Two locations were selected, Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires (C.A.B.A.) and Malvinas Argentinas in Buenos Aires Province (PBA), with percentages of water access of 99.6% and 8.8%, respectively. Random samples from both locations (n = 100) were analyzed. A survey was conducted in order to inquire about perception of population on bottled water quality and their consumption habits. In C.A.B.A., no sample exceeded the 45 mg/L limit value in force in Argentina, while in Malvinas Argentinas, 34% of the brands analyzed showed values above it. The survey revealed that 71.7% of people consume bottled water. While people in C.A.B.A. do so mainly out of habit, safety is the priority in PBA.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Susana Fortunato
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Salud Pública e Higiene Ambiental, Junín 956 (1113), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina E-mail:
| | - Ana Julieta González
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Salud Pública e Higiene Ambiental, Junín 956 (1113), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina E-mail:
| | - María Florencia Tellechea
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Salud Pública e Higiene Ambiental, Junín 956 (1113), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina E-mail:
| | - Mariano Humberto Reynoso
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Salud Pública e Higiene Ambiental, Junín 956 (1113), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina E-mail:
| | - Favia Vallejos
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Salud Pública e Higiene Ambiental, Junín 956 (1113), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina E-mail:
| | - Andrea Natalia Donaire
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Salud Pública e Higiene Ambiental, Junín 956 (1113), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina E-mail:
| | - Sonia Edith Korol
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Salud Pública e Higiene Ambiental, Junín 956 (1113), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina E-mail:
| | - Alfredo Gallego
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Farmacia y Bioquímica, Cátedra de Salud Pública e Higiene Ambiental, Junín 956 (1113), Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires, Argentina E-mail:
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Delpla I, Legay C, Proulx F, Rodriguez MJ. Perception of tap water quality: Assessment of the factors modifying the links between satisfaction and water consumption behavior. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2020; 722:137786. [PMID: 32208246 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.137786] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2020] [Revised: 03/03/2020] [Accepted: 03/05/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Perception of tap water is subject to a wide range of factors and interactions. These include risk perception, tap water quality and organoleptic perceptions, microbiological and chemical quality, prior experiences, information sources, trust in water companies and other groups, and perceived control and contextual factors, among others. The objective of this study is to assess the factors that influence and determine citizen behavior regarding drinking water. A phone survey was conducted among 1014 citizens living in the city of Québec, Canada. Five different domestic water consumption profiles were elaborated according to the citizens' preferences and behavior. Descriptive statistics and mediation analyses were carried out to analyse the survey results and assess the factors modifying the links between satisfaction and water consumption behavior. Results show that drinking water quality could be loosely linked with overall satisfaction with tap water. The water consumption profile was strongly linked with satisfaction levels related to the taste, odor and color of tap water. We observed that the association between an individual's tap water satisfaction and water consumption behavior was mediated by the water treatment strategies applied at home (filtering, cooling), knowledge about drinking water quality and its production, and risk perception. The mediating effects were shown to be significant mainly among bottled-water-only and tap-water-only consumers. Future interventions that aim to encourage the population's use of tap water as a primary source should prioritize cooling and filtering tap water in their messaging, in order to improve population satisfaction. The reduction of risk perception through targeted information campaigns is also of primary importance for decreasing the number of citizens who exclusively drink bottled water.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ianis Delpla
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada.
| | - Christelle Legay
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - François Proulx
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
| | - Manuel J Rodriguez
- École supérieure d'aménagement du territoire et de développement régional (ESAD), Université Laval, Pavillon F-A. Savard, 2325, rue des Bibliothèques, local 1612, Québec, QC G1V 0A6, Canada
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8
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Tap Water, Bottled Water or In-Home Water Treatment Systems: Insights on Household Perceptions and Choices. WATER 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/w12051310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
This article addresses household strategies for coping with perceived tap water quality issues. By using a household survey (n = 581) in Catalonia (Spain) and three models, this article analyses the drivers and motivations behind the installation of in-home water treatment systems, and the use of bottled water for drinking and cooking. The main explanatory factors of the higher consumption of bottled water were the perception of poor tap water quality, the lack of in-home treatment systems, and the presence of children at home. Income did not appear as a significant variable explaining the use of bottled water, unlike in other studies. The presence of in-home treatment systems is related to factors, such as perceived bad water quality, larger households, and single-family housing. Income and housing tenure appeared as explanatory variables only when considering systems requiring some kind of installation: lower incomes or renting a multi-family house reduce the probability of having an in-home water treatment that required installation because of important investments and operating costs, and the space needed in the housing units. In-house water treatment systems may become a solid alternative to bottled water when tap water raises problematic perceptions related to bad taste, odor, or lime presence.
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Geerts R, Vandermoere F, Van Winckel T, Halet D, Joos P, Van Den Steen K, Van Meenen E, Blust R, Borregán-Ochando E, Vlaeminck SE. Bottle or tap? Toward an integrated approach to water type consumption. WATER RESEARCH 2020; 173:115578. [PMID: 32058152 DOI: 10.1016/j.watres.2020.115578] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2019] [Revised: 01/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
While in many countries, people have access to cheap and safe potable tap water, the global consumption of bottled water is rising. Flanders, Belgium, where this study is located, has an exceptionally high consumption of bottled water per capita. However, in the interest of resource efficiency and global environmental challenges, the consumption of tap water is preferable. To our knowledge, an integrated analysis of the main reasons why people consume tap and bottled water is absent in Flanders, Belgium. Using Flemish survey data (N = 2309), we first compared tap and bottled water consumers through bivariate correlation analysis. Subsequently, path modelling techniques were used to further investigate these correlations. Our results show that bottled water consumption in Flanders is widespread despite environmental and financial considerations. For a large part, this is caused by negative perceptions about tap water. Many consumers consider it unhealthy, unsafe and prefer the taste of bottled water. Furthermore, we found that the broader social context often inhibits the consumption of tap water. On the one hand, improper infrastructures (e.g. lead piping) can limit access to potable tap water. On the other hand, social norms exist that promote bottled water. Lastly, results suggest that the consumption of bottled water is most common among men, older people and less educated groups. We conclude that future research and policy measures will benefit from an approach that integrates all behavioural aspects associated with water type consumption. This will enable both governments and tap water companies to devise more effective policies to manage and support tap water supply networks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robbe Geerts
- Department of Sociology, University of Antwerp, Sint-Jacobstraat 2, 2000, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Frédéric Vandermoere
- Department of Sociology, University of Antwerp, Sint-Jacobstraat 2, 2000, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Tim Van Winckel
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | - Dirk Halet
- Flanders Knowledge Center Water (VLAKWA), Flemish Institute for Technological Research (VITO), Graaf Karel de Goedelaan 34, 8500, Kortrijk, Belgium.
| | - Pieter Joos
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, Antwerp, Belgium; Water-link, Mechelsesteenweg 111, 2840, Rumst, Belgium.
| | | | | | - Ronny Blust
- Department of Biology, University of Antwerp, Middelheimlaan 1, 2020, Antwerp, Belgium.
| | | | - Siegfried E Vlaeminck
- Department of Bioscience Engineering, University of Antwerp, Groenenborgerlaan 171, Antwerp, Belgium.
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