Mineral elements content of wild growing edible mushrooms from the southeast of Spain

GIS-based Visualization of Elemental Distribution in Neoboletus Luridiformis Fruiting Body

The fruiting body of Neoboletus luridiformis (Scarletina bolete) mushroom was used to determine the level of bioconcentration and subsequent distribution of seventeen elements (Ag, Al, Ba, Ca, Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Mn, Na, Ni, Pb, Se, Sr, and Zn). A two-centimeter-thick vertical section of the entire fruit body was divided into 101 partial sub-samples where the contents of the studied elements were determined using ICP OES. The actual distribution of the elements in the fruiting body profile was visualized using a GIS interpolation method resulting in distribution maps. The study provides valuable insights into the distribution patterns of 17 elements within the fruiting body of N. luridiformis. Based on the visualization of the elemental content, the determined elements can be divided into three categories. Elements accumulated primarily (i) in the cap (Al, Ag, Ca, Cd, Cu, Fe, K, Mg, Ni, and Zn), (ii) in the stipe (Ba, Mn, Na, Pb, and Se), and (iii) elements with non-specific distribution (Cr and Sr). Since such detailed information supported by graphical visualization has not been published to date, the information in this study will help to better understand the accumulation and distribution of elements within the fruiting bodies of wild as well as cultivated mushroom species.

Application of Diffusive Gradients in Thin-films (DGT) for assessing the heavy metals mobility in soil and prediction of their transfer to Russula virescens

Although edible mushrooms are considered a source of many beneficial nutrients for human, they can also represent a risk to health due to their capacity to accumulate heavy metals. In this study, the total dissolved in soil solution and labile concentrations of heavy metals (Cd, Pb, Cu, Zn, Co, Cr, Mn, Ni, and Fe) in soil were measured and correlated with their concentrations accumulated in Russula virescens wild mushrooms. The diffusive gradient in thin films (DGT) technique was used to measure the labile metals content in the soil (CDGT), and corroborated with the metals concentrations in soil solution (Csoln) was used to calculate an R-value, which can estimate the metals resupply from soil solid phase when they are uptake by mushroom. The DGT-labile metal concentrations decreased in the order Mn > Fe > Zn > Cu > Co > Ni > Cd ≅ Pb > Cr. The R-values, calculated as the ratio between CDGT and Csoln decreased in the order: Cd (0.50) > Zn (0.37) > Pb (0.33) > Cu (0.24) ≅ Ni (0.24) ≅ Co (0.23) > Mn (0.16) > Fe (0.12) > Cr (0.04). For the first time, we compared the R-values with the bioaccumulation factors (BAFs) in mushrooms, and it was observed that, a similar increasing trend of BAFs with the R-values exists, thus the capacity of the soil solid phase to fast re-supply metals to soil solution increases BAFs. Although the soil samples were not contaminated with heavy metals above the legislative limits, the concentrations of heavy metals accumulated in mushrooms were high enough to pose risks for humans, mainly for children, due to their Cu content.

Nutritional Assessment of Lactarius drassinus and L. controversus from the Cold Desert Region of the Northwest Himalayas for Their Potential as Food Supplements

Kargil is a cold desert with hostile ecological conditions such as low temperature and precipitation, as well as difficult terrains. However, several wild mushrooms thrive well under such an extreme environment. Despite their abundance, the chemical composition of indigenous mushrooms has not been explored. This study aimed to assess the potential of two wild edible mushrooms from Kargil, Lactarius drassinus and Lactarius controversus, as food supplements by evaluating their nutritional and nutraceutical properties. Nutritional attributes such as total protein, available carbohydrates, soluble sugars, and vitamins were found to be high in the mushroom species. Furthermore, high mineral accumulation and relatively lower antinutrient concentrations resulted in higher bioavailabilities of Zn, Fe, Ca, and Mg. Gas-chromatography-mass-spectrometry-based metabolite profiling revealed that although the two mushroom species showed similar metabolite compositions, their relative concentrations differed. Sugars were the predominant compounds identified in both the species, with sugar alcohols being the major contributor. The second most abundant class of compound in L. drassinus was amino acids, with 5-oxoproline as the major contributor. On the other hand, fatty acids were the second most abundant compounds in L. controversus, with high oleic and linoleic acid concentrations. In the ultra-performance-liquid-chromatography-based quantification of phenolic compounds, chlorogenic acid was found to be highest in in terms of its concentration in both the mushrooms studied, followed by quercetin dihydrate and gallic acid in L. drassinus and L. controversus, respectively. Moreover, high antioxidant activities attributable to their high phenol, flavonoid, and carotenoid concentrations were observed. Overall, the two mushrooms offer well-balanced sources of nutritional and nutraceutical compounds, making them healthy foods.

Antioxidant Compounds from Edible Mushrooms as Potential Candidates for Treating Age-Related Neurodegenerative Diseases

The last century has seen an increase in our life expectancy. As a result, various age-related diseases, such as neurodegenerative diseases (NDs), have emerged, representing new challenges to society. Oxidative stress (OS), a condition of redox imbalance resulting from excessive production of reactive oxygen species, represents a common feature that characterizes the brains of elderly people, thus contributing to NDs. Consequently, antioxidant supplementation or dietary intake of antioxidant-containing foods could represent an effective preventive and therapeutic intervention to maintain the integrity and survival of neurons and to counteract the neurodegenerative pathologies associated with aging. Food contains numerous bioactive molecules with beneficial actions for human health. To this purpose, a wide range of edible mushrooms have been reported to produce different antioxidant compounds such as phenolics, flavonoids, polysaccharides, vitamins, carotenoids, ergothioneine, and others, which might be used for dietary supplementation to enhance antioxidant defenses and, consequently, the prevention of age-related neurological diseases. In this review, we summarized the role of oxidative stress in age-related NDs, focusing on the current knowledge of the antioxidant compounds present in edible mushrooms, and highlighting their potential to preserve healthy aging by counteracting age-associated NDs.

Essential Mineral Content (Fe, Mg, P, Mn, K, Ca, and Na) in Five Wild Edible Species of Lactarius Mushrooms from Southern Spain and Northern Morocco: Reference to Daily Intake

Mushroom consumption has increased in recent years due to their beneficial properties to the proper functioning of the body. Within this framework, the high potential of mushrooms as a source of essential elements has been reported. Therefore, the present study aims to determine the mineral content of seven essential metals, Fe, Mg, Mn, P, K, Ca, and Na, in twenty samples of mushrooms of the genus Lactarius collected from various locations in southern Spain and northern Morocco, by FAAS, UV-Vis spectroscopy, and ICP-OES after acid digestion. Statistics showed that K was the macronutrient found at the highest levels in all mushrooms studied. ANOVA showed that there were statistically significant differences among the species for K, P, and Na. The multivariate study suggested that there were differences between the accumulation of the elements according to the geographic location and species. Furthermore, the intake of 300 g of fresh mushrooms of each sample covers a high percentage of the RDI, but does not meet the recommended daily intake (RDI) for any of the metals studied, except for Fe. Even considering these benefits, the consumption of mushrooms should be moderated due to the presence of toxic metals, which may pose health risks.

Mineral Profiling of Twenty Wild and Cultivated Aromatic and Medicinal Plants Growing in Morocco

Aromatic and medicinal plants (AMPs) have attracted a considerable attention owing to their medicinal and nutritional value. The main research focus in AMPs is devoted to bioactive compounds and related biological activities; however, little is known about their mineral profiling, hence the novelty of this work, which aims at investigating the mineral composition of 20 species of AMPs belonging to 10 botanical families growing in Morocco. Mineral profiling was determined using an inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer in various plant parts depending on each species. Wide variations were found in mineral content among the studied plants. Major elements were K (3987.49 ± 319.01-36,707.01 ± 2936.56 mg/kg), Ca (862.54 ± 69.86-32,836.15 ± 2626.89 mg/kg), P (1065.77 ± 86.33-6328.83 ± 506.32 mg/kg), Mg (986.96 ± 79.66-4935.41 ± 394.82 mg/kg), and Na (28.21 ± 2.23-5792.26 ± 463.38 mg/kg). Fe (62.09 ± 4.96-1636.24 ± 130.89 mg/kg), Mn (10.63 ± 0.85-124.72 ± 9.85 mg/kg), B (5.64 ± 0.45-71.33 ± 5.71 mg/kg), Zn (8.94 ± 0.72-47.01 ± 3.76 mg/kg), and Cu (2.06 ± 0.14-15.12 ± 1.20 mg/kg) were detected at minor levels. Most of the investigated plants were shown to be good sources of minerals. Important correlations were found among different minerals. These outcomes were confirmed by principal component analysis, which separate among studied plants and minerals through the first two principal components. According to obtained results, the studied plants could provide a new promising source of necessary minerals for human diet as well as other various applications.

Antioxidant Potential of the Sweet Whey-Based Beverage Colada after the Digestive Process and Relationships with the Lipid and Protein Fractions

Whey-based beverages could be an effective way of reusing a by-product of th cheese industry, mitigating environmental hazards and, at the same time, profiting a useful food with high nutritional and antioxidant properties. In this study, a traditional Ecuadorian beverage (Colada) was prepared combining sweet whey, Maracuyá and barley. Antioxidant properties before and after an in vitro digestion using the INFOGEST method were determined, and relationships with intestinal transformations of the lipid and protein fractions were analyzed. The digestive process had a positive effect on antioxidant properties based on increased values of ABTS and FRAP located in the bioaccessible fraction (BF), together with strong increments of total polyphenols. Moreover, pretreatment of Caco-2 cells with the BF of Colada significantly reduced ROS generation (p < 0.001) measured by the dichlorofluorescein assay. Substantial changes of the fatty acid profile occurred during digestion, such as a fall of saturated fatty acids and a rise of polyunsaturated. The protein profile, examined by SDS-PAGE and exclusion molecular chromatography in the BF, showed that the major part of the proteins were digested in the intestinal phase. Analysis of NanoLC-MS/MS revealed 18 antioxidant peptides originated from whey proteins, but also 16 peptides from barley with potential antioxidant properties. In conclusion, combining sweet whey with Maracuyá and barley constitutes an excellent nutritional beverage with a strong antioxidant potential.

Scrutinizing the Nutritional Aspects of Asian Mushrooms, Its Commercialization and Scope for Value-Added Products

Mushrooms are the gifts of the non-green revolution; they are not limited by land demand or specific growth requirements. Nearly 14,000 species of mushrooms are on record thus far; of these, only 2200 species are deemed edible. Only 650 species from this list have been cultivated and consumed. Farmed on waste, mushrooms are rich reservoirs of proteins, polysaccharides, metabolites, minerals and vitamins. In the following review, various edible mushrooms have been listed and their nutritional aspects and their associated contributions have been discussed. Furthermore, the commercial mushroom-based products that are on the market have been surveyed. The challenges facing the use of mushroom and mushroom products as foods, functional foods and nutraceuticals have been presented. The need to seek options to troubleshoot the current limitations has also been discussed.

Barbero G. Exposure to Essential and Toxic Elements via Consumption of Agaricaceae, Amanitaceae, Boletaceae, and Russulaceae Mushrooms from Southern Spain and Northern Morocco

The demand and interest in mushrooms, both cultivated and wild, has increased among consumers in recent years due to a better understanding of the benefits of this food. However, the ability of wild edible mushrooms to accumulate essential and toxic elements is well documented. In this study, a total of eight metallic elements and metalloids (chromium (Cr), arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), and selenium (Se)) were determined by ICP-MS in five wild edible mushroom species (Agaricus silvicola, Amanita caesarea, Boletus aereus, Boletus edulis, and Russula cyanoxantha) collected in southern Spain and northern Morocco. Overall, Zn was found to be the predominant element among the studied species, followed by Cu and Se. The multivariate analysis suggested that considerable differences exist in the uptake of the essential and toxic elements determined, linked to species-intrinsic factors. Furthermore, the highest Estimated Daily Intake of Metals (EDIM) values obtained were observed for Zn. The Health Risk Index (HRI) assessment for all the mushroom species studied showed a Hg-related cause of concern due to the frequent consumption of around 300 g of fresh mushrooms per day during the mushrooming season.

Mercury in Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer and Its Underlying Substrate-Environmental and Health Risks Assessment

Wild-growing edible mushrooms are valuable food with a high content of proteins, fibers, antioxidants, and they are characterized by their specific taste and flavor. However, from an ecotoxicological point of view, they are a risk commodity because of their extremely high bioaccumulative capacity to accumulate the risk elements and contaminants from the environment. In the present study, we examined mercury (Hg) contamination in 230 fruiting bodies of Macrolepiota procera (Scop.) Singer and 230 soil/substrate samples, which were collected in foraging seasons 2015-2019 from 22 different locations in Slovakia. Total mercury content was determined by cold-vapor AAS analyzer AMA 254. The level of contamination and environmental risks were assessed by contamination factor (Cf), index of geoaccumulation (Igeo), and potential environmental risk index (PER). Bioaccumulation factor (BAF) was calculated for individual anatomical parts of M. procera. Mercury content in the soil/substrate samples varied between 0.02 and 0.89 mg kg-1 DW, and in mushroom samples between 0.03 and 2.83 mg kg-1 DW (stems), and between 0.04 and 6.29 mg kg-1 DW (caps). The obtained results were compared with the provisional tolerable weekly intake for Hg defined by WHO to determine a health risk resulting from regular and long-term consumption of M. procera.

A New Biotechnology Method of Bioelements' Accumulation Monitoring in In Vitro Culture of Agaricus bisporus

Agaricus bisporus (J.E. Lange) Imbach is one the most popular species of edible mushrooms in the world because of its taste and nutritional properties. In the research, repeatability of accumulation of bioelements and biomass yield in experimentally chosen in vitro culture medium, was confirmed. The in vitro cultures were conducted on the modified Oddoux medium enriched with bioelements (Mg, Zn, Cu, Fe). The aim of the study was to create an effective method of sampling, which enabled non-invasive monitoring of metals concentrations changes in the medium, during increase of biomass in in vitro cultures. The first, indirect method of sampling was applied. The non-invasive probe (a dipper) for in vitro culture was used; hence, the highest biomass increase and metals accumulation were gained. The method also guaranteed culture sterility. The second method, a direct one, interfered the in vitro culture conditions and growth of mycelium, and as a consequence the lower biomass increase and metals' accumulation were observed. Few cases of contaminations of mycelium in in vitro cultures were observed. The proposed method of non-invasive sampling of the medium can be used to monitor changes in the concentrations of metals in the medium and their accumulation in the mycelium in natural environment. Changes in concentrations of the selected metals over time, determined by the method of atomic absorption spectrometry, made it possible to correlate the obtained results with the specific stages of A. bisporus mycelium development and to attempt to explain the mechanism of sampling metals from the liquid substrate.

Toxicological risks and nutritional value of wild edible mushroom species -a half-century monitoring study

The content of major- and trace elements in wild-growing mushrooms has been subject to numerous studies, but the data on long-term trends in this regard are scarce. The aim of research was to determine the content of 34 elements in four edible mushroom species Boletus edulis, Imleria badia, Leccinum scabrum and Macrolepiota procera, and associated soil collected from Polish forests between 1974 and 2019. As initially hypothesized, the element concentration in the studied soil revealed an increasing trend and was positively correlated with their levels found in fruit bodies. Bioconcentrafion Factor values exceeding 1 were documented for all mushroom species for K, P, Ag, Cd, Cu, Hg, and Zn. When compared to the Adequate Intakes, all the mushroom species were found to be a good dietary source of K, P, and Zn (range of 6260-8690, 6260-8690 and 97-135 mg kg^-1 dry weight (dw), respectively), and B. edulis and I. badia a moderate source of Fe (mean 71.5 and 76.5 mg kg^-1 dw, respectively), B. edulis of Mn and Mo (mean 20.0 and 0.42 mg kg^-1 dw, respectively), while L. scabrum and M. procera a source of Cu. Consumption of the studied mushrooms would not lead to significant exposure to Al, As, Cr, or Ni. Considering that wild mushrooms will continue to be collected in Poland, one should bear in mind that they are a limited source of minerals in the human diet while their frequent, regular consumption, associated with exposure to selected toxic elements, should not be recommended.

UV induced conversion during drying of ergosterol to vitamin D in various mushrooms: Effect of different drying conditions

BACKGROUND

Mushrooms are increasingly popular around the world as a nutritional food which is an excellent source of vitamin D2. Although natural mushrooms often contain very little vitamin D2 as many are grown in the dark, they are rich in ergosterol, a precursor to vitamin D2. Ergosterol can be converted to vitamin D2 under ultraviolet radiation. Due to the high water content of fresh mushroom, its quality deteriorates rapidly after harvest, and drying is the most commonly used technology to extend the shelf life. The vitamin D2 content of dried mushrooms depends on the drying conditions used.

SCOPE AND APPROACH

In this review, the chemistry of the photo-conversion process of ergosterol to vitamin D2 under ultraviolet radiation is introduced. The ergosterol and vitamin D contents in different mushroom varieties are discussed. The effects of several drying methods and the influence of different drying conditions are reviewed.Key findings and conclusions: Thermal drying in the presence of UV has been proven to convert ergosterol into vitamin D and enhance the nutritional content of all types of edible mushrooms. Solar drying, hot air drying, freeze drying, microwave drying and infrared drying can be used for mushrooms drying under selected operating conditions. A critical evaluation of published literature demonstrates the importance of applying appropriate drying methodology to maximize the nutritional value of various types of edible mushrooms.