Extraction, identification, and structure–activity relationship of antioxidative and α-amylase inhibitory peptides from cumin seeds (Cuminum cyminum)

Predicting Antidiabetic Peptide Activity: A Machine Learning Perspective on Type 1 and Type 2 Diabetes

Diabetes mellitus (DM) presents a critical global health challenge, characterized by persistent hyperglycemia and associated with substantial economic and health-related burdens. This study employs advanced machine-learning techniques to improve the prediction and classification of antidiabetic peptides, with a particular focus on differentiating those effective against T1DM from those targeting T2DM. We integrate feature selection with analysis methods, including logistic regression, support vector machines (SVM), and adaptive boosting (AdaBoost), to classify antidiabetic peptides based on key features. Feature selection through the Lasso-penalized method identifies critical peptide characteristics that significantly influence antidiabetic activity, thereby establishing a robust foundation for future peptide design. A comprehensive evaluation of logistic regression, SVM, and AdaBoost shows that AdaBoost consistently outperforms the other methods, making it the most effective approach for classifying antidiabetic peptides. This research underscores the potential of machine learning in the systematic evaluation of bioactive peptides, contributing to the advancement of peptide-based therapies for diabetes management.

Physicochemical properties, antioxidant and antidiabetic activities of different hydrolysates of goat milk protein

There is growing interest in the origin, preparation, and application of bioactive peptides. This study investigated the impact of 6 enzymes on the structural, physicochemical properties, antioxidant activities, and antidiabetic potential of defatted fresh goat milk. Structural and functional changes resulting from enzymatic hydrolysis were assessed using gel electrophoresis, laser particle size analysis, multi-spectroscopy, and evaluations of foaming and emulsification properties. Antioxidant capacity was determined through free radical scavenging, Fe2+ chelation, and reducing ability experiments. Additionally, the inhibitory effects of the hydrolysates on α-glucosidase and α-amylase were measured to evaluate antidiabetic activity. Results showed that enzymatic hydrolysis disrupted the spatial structure of goat milk protein and reduced its molecular weight. Papain hydrolysate exhibited the highest degree of hydrolysis (32.87 ± 0.11%) and smallest particle size (294.75 ± 3.33 nm), followed by alcalase hydrolysate (29.12 ± 0.09%, 302.03 ± 7.28 nm). Alcalase hydrolysate showed the best foaming properties, while papain hydrolysate demonstrated the strongest DPPH and hydroxyl radical scavenging activity, Fe2+ chelation, and antidiabetic potential. These findings provide solid theoretical basis for utilizing defatted goat milk as functional ingredients or excipients in the food, medical, and cosmetic industries.

A Convenient Synthesis of Short α-/β-Mixed Peptides as Potential α-Amylase Inhibitors

Over the last decades, the increased incidence of metabolic disorders, such as type two diabetes and obesity, has motivated researchers to investigate new enzyme inhibitors. Inhibition of the α-amylase enzyme is one therapeutic approach in lowering glucose levels in the blood to manage diabetes mellitus. The objective of this study was to synthesize short α-/β-mixed peptides in the solution phase. The Boc-protected α-L-leucine was converted to β-analogue by using Arndt-Eistert synthesis with the advantage of no racemization and retention of configuration. Three novel short peptides were successfully synthesized: N(Boc)-Gly-β-Leu-OCH3(14), N(Boc)-O(Bz)α-Ser-β-Leu-OCH3(16), and N(Boc)-O(Bz)-α-Tyr-α-Gly-β-Leu-OCH3(17), characterized by FTIR and 1H NMR analysis. The synthesized peptide 16 showed highest inhibitory activity (45.22%) followed by peptide 14 (18.51%) and peptide 17 (17.05%), respectively. Intriguingly, peptide 16 showed higher inhibition on α-amylase compared with other α-/β-mixed peptides.

Anti-obesity and anti-diabetic bioactive peptides: A comprehensive review of their sources, properties, and techno-functional challenges

The scourge of obesity arising from obesogens and poor dieting still ravages our planet as half of the global population may be overweight and obese by 2035. This metabolic disorder is intertwined with type 2 diabetes (T2D), both of which warrant alternative therapeutic options other than clinically approved drugs like orlistat with their tendency of abuse and side effects. In this review, we comprehensively describe the global obesity problem and its connection to T2D. Obesity, overconsumption of fats, the mechanism of fat digestion, obesogenic gut microbiota, inhibition of fat digestion, and natural anti-obesity compounds are discussed. Similar discussions are made for diabetes with regard to glucose regulation, the diabetic gut microbiota, and insulinotropic compounds. The sources and production of anti-obesity bioactive peptides (AOBPs) and anti-diabetic bioactive peptides (ADBPs) are also described while explaining their structure-function relationships, gastrointestinal behaviors, and action mechanisms. Finally, the techno-functional applications of AOBPs and ADBPs are highlighted.

Production and characterization of anti-hypertensive and anti-diabetic peptides from fermented sheep milk with anti-inflammatory activity: in vitro and molecular docking studies

BACKGROUND

The present study aimed to evaluate the anti-hypertensive and anti-diabetic activities from biologically active peptides produced by fermented sheep milk with Lacticaseibacillus paracasei M11 (MG027695), as well as to purify and characterize the angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory and anti-diabetic peptides produced from fermented sheep milk.

RESULTS

After 48 h of fermentation at 37 °C, sheep milk demonstrated significant changes in anti-diabetic effects and ACE-I effects, with inhibition percentages observed for ACE inhibition (76.32%), α-amylase (70.13%), α-glucosidase (70.11%) and lipase inhibition (68.22%). The highest level of peptides (9.77 mg mL-1) was produced by optimizing the growth conditions, which included an inoculation rate of 2.5% and a 48 h of incubation period. The comparison of molecular weight distributions among protein fractions was conducted through sodium dodecyl-sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis analysis, whereas spots were separated using 2D gel electrophoresis according to both the molecular weight and pH. Peptide characterization with ultra-filtration membranes at 3 and 10 kDa allowed the study to assess molecular weight-based separation. Nitric oxide generated by lipopolysaccharide and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines in RAW 264.7 immune cells were both inhibited by sheep milk fermented with M11. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy was employed to assess changes in functional groups after fermentation, providing insights into the structural changes occurring during fermentation.

CONCLUSION

The present study demonstrates that fermentation with L. paracasei (M11) led to significant changes in fermented sheep milk, enhancing its bioactive properties, notably in terms of ACE inhibition and anti-diabetic activities, and the generation of peptides with bioactive properties has potential health benefits. © 2024 Society of Chemical Industry.

Molecular docking studies on α-amylase inhibitory peptides from milk of different farm animals

Milk-derived peptides have emerged as a popular mean to manage various lifestyle disorders such as diabetes. Fermentation is being explored as one of the faster and efficient way of producing peptides with antidiabetic potential. Therefore, in this study, an attempt was made to comparatively investigate the pancreatic α-amylase (PAA) inhibitory properties of peptides derived from milk of different farm animals through probiotic fermentation. Peptide's identification was carried out using liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry and inhibition mechanisms were characterized by molecular docking. Results obtained showed a PAA-IC50 value (the amount of protein equivalent needed to inhibit 50% of enzymes) between 2.39 and 36.1 µg protein equivalent for different fermented samples. Overall, Pediococcus pentosaceus MF000957-derived fermented milk from all animals indicated higher PAA inhibition than other probiotic derived fermented milk (PAA-IC50 values of 6.01, 3.53, 15.6, and 10.8 µg protein equivalent for bovine, camel, goat, and sheep fermented milk). Further, molecular docking analysis indicated that camel milk-derived peptide IMEQQQTEDEQQDK and goat milk-derived peptide DQHQKAMKPWTQPK were the most potent PAA inhibitory peptides. Overall, the study concluded that fermentation derived peptides may prove useful in for managing diabetes via inhibition of carbohydrate digesting enzyme PAA.

Peptidomics-based identification of antihypertensive and antidiabetic peptides from sheep milk fermented using Limosilactobacillus fermentum KGL4 MTCC 25515 with anti-inflammatory activity: in silico, in vitro, and molecular docking studies

This study investigated the synthesis of bioactive peptides from sheep milk through fermentation with Limosilactobacillus fermentum KGL4 MTCC 25515 strain and assessed lipase inhibition, ACE inhibition, α-glucosidase inhibition, and α-amylase inhibition activities during the fermentation process. The study observed the highest activities, reaching 74.82%, 70.02%, 72.19%, and 67.08% (lipase inhibition, ACE inhibition, α-glucosidase inhibition, and α-amylase inhibition) after 48 h at 37°C, respectively. Growth optimization experiments revealed that a 2.5% inoculation rate after 48 h of fermentation time resulted in the highest proteolytic activity at 9.88 mg/mL. Additionally, fractions with less than 3 kDa of molecular weight exhibited superior ACE-inhibition and anti-diabetic activities compared to other fractions. Fermentation of sheep milk with KGL4 led to a significant reduction in the excessive production of NO, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β produced in RAW 267.4 cells upon treatment with LPS. Peptides were purified utilizing SDS-PAGE and electrophoresis on 2D gels, identifying a maximum number of proteins bands ranging 10-70 kDa. Peptide sequences were cross-referenced with AHTPDB and BIOPEP databases, confirming potential antihypertensive and antidiabetic properties. Notably, the peptide (GPFPILV) exhibited the highest HPEPDOCK score against both α-amylase and ACE.

Identification and in vitro Characterization of Novel Antidiabetic Peptides Released Enzymatically from Peanut Protein

Bioactive peptides derived from proteins found in various foods provide significant health benefits, including regulating blood sugar levels by inhibiting carbohydrate-hydrolyzing enzymes. Hydrolysates of peanut protein were prepared using alcalase (AH) or trypsin (TH) to generate antidiabetic peptides with high activity against α-amylase (IC50 of 6.46 and 5.71 mg/mL) and α-glucosidase (IC50 of 6.30 and 5.57 mg/mL), as well as antiradical activity to scavenge DPPH• (IC50 of 4.18 and 3.12 mg/mL) and ABTS•+ (IC50 of 2.87 and 2.56 mg/mL), respectively. The bioactivities of hydrolysates were greatest in the ultrafiltration-generated F3 fraction (< 3 kDa). The most active fraction was TH-F3, which was purified by gel filtration chromatography to generate sub-fractions (SF). With IC50 values of 1.05 and 0.69 mg/mL, the F3-SF8 fraction was the most effective at inhibiting the activity of α-amylase and α-glucosidase, respectively. This fraction was further purified using RP-HPLC to generate sub-subfractions (SSF), the most active of which were F3-SF8-SSF9 and SSF10. The peptide sequences F3-SF8-SSF9 and SSF10 were determined using LC-MS/MS. Two novel antidiabetic peptides with the potential to inhibit α-amylase and α-glucosidase were identified, with the sequences Asp-Trp-Arg (476.22 Da, IC50 of 0.78, and 0.35 mg/mL) and Phe-Tyr (329.15 Da, IC50 of 0.91, and 0.41 mg/mL). These results suggest that peptides derived from peanut protein are attractive natural ingredients for diabetes management applications.

Impact of In Vitro Digestion on the Digestibility, Amino Acid Release, and Antioxidant Activity of Amaranth (Amaranthus cruentus L.) and Cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen) Proteins in Caco-2 and HepG2 Cells

This study evaluated the impact of in vitro gastrointestinal digestion on the digestibility, amino acid release, and antioxidant activity of proteins from amaranth (Amarantus cruentus L.) and cañihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule Aellen). Antioxidant activity was assessed using ORAC, ABTS, DPPH, and cellular antioxidant activity (CAA) assays in human intestinal Caco-2 and hepatic Hep-G2 cell lines. The results showed that amaranth had higher protein digestibility (79.19%) than cañihua (71.22%). In addition, intestinal digestion promoted the release of essential amino acids, such as leucine, lysine, and phenylalanine, in both protein concentrates. Concentrations of amaranth and cañihua proteins, ranging from 0.125 to 1.0 mg mL-1, were non-cytotoxic in both cell lines. At a concentration of 0.750 mg mL-1, simulated gastrointestinal digestion enhanced cellular antioxidant activity. Intestinal digest fractions containing peptides >5 kDa were the principal contributors to CAA in both cell lines. Notably, cañihua proteins exhibited high CAA, reaching values of 85.55% and 82.57% in Caco-2 and HepG2 cells, respectively, compared to amaranth proteins, which reached 84.68% in Caco-2 and 81.06% in HepG2 cells. In conclusion, both amaranth and cañihua proteins, after simulated gastrointestinal digestion, showcased high digestibility and released peptides and amino acids with potent antioxidant properties, underscoring their potential health benefits.

Characterization of the structure, antioxidant activity and hypoglycemic activity of soy (Glycine max L.) protein hydrolysates

This study aimed to hydrolyze soy isolate protein (SPI) using five enzymes (alcalase, pepsin, trypsin, papain, and bromelain) in order to obtain five enzymatic hydrolysates and to elucidate the effect of enzymes on structural and biological activities of the resulting hydrolysates. The antioxidant and hypoglycemic activities of the soy protein isolate hydrolysates (SPIEHs) were evaluated through in silico analysis, revealing that the alcalase hydrolysate exhibited the highest potential, followed by the papain and bromelain hydrolysates. Subsequently, the degree of hydrolysis (DH), molecular weight distribution (MWD), amino acid composition, structure, antioxidant activities, and hypoglycemic activity in vitro of SPIEHs were analyzed. After enzymatic treatment, the particle size, polymer dispersity index (PDI), ζ-potentials, β-sheet content and α-helix content of SPIEHs was decreased, and the maximum emission wavelength of all SPIEHs exhibited red-shifted, which all suggesting the structure of SPIEHs was unfolded. More total amino acids (TAAs), aromatic amino acids (AAAs), and hydrophobic amino acids (HAAs) were found in alcalase hydrolysate. For 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical scavenging activity, metal ion chelating activity, α-glucosidase inhibitory activity and α-amylase inhibitory activity, alcalase hydrolysate had the lowest IC50; alcalase hydrolysate and papain hydrolysate had the lowest IC50 for hydroxyl radical scavenging activity. Physiological activity of SPIEHs was evaluated thoroughly by 5-Axe cobweb charts, and the results revealed that alcalase hydrolysate exhibited the greatest biological activities.

Production and Characterization of ACE Inhibitory and Anti-Diabetic Peptides from Buffalo and Camel Milk Fermented with Lactobacillus and Yeast: A Comparative Analysis with In Vitro, In Silico, and Molecular Interaction Study

The investigation aimed at assessing a comparative study on the production and characterization of ACE inhibitory, anti-diabetic, and anti-inflammatory activities, along with the production of ACE inhibitory and anti-diabetic peptides through the fermentation of buffalo and camel milk by Limosilactobacillus fermentum (KGL4) and Saccharomyces cerevisiae (WBS2A). The angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitory and anti-diabetic properties were evaluated at particular time intervals (12, 24, 36, and 48 h) at 37 °C, and we discovered maximum activity at 37 °C after 48 h of incubation. The maximum ACE inhibitory, lipase inhibitory activities, alpha-glucosidase inhibitory, and alpha-amylase inhibitory activities were found in the fermented camel milk (77.96 ± 2.61, 73.85 ± 1.19, 85.37 ± 2.15, and 70.86 ± 1.02), as compared to the fermented buffalo milk (FBM) (75.25 ± 1.72, 61.79 ± 2.14, 80.09 ± 0.51, and 67.29 ± 1.75). Proteolytic activity was measured with different inoculation rates (1.5%, 2.0%, and 2.5%) and incubation times (12, 24, 36, and 48 h) to optimize the growth conditions. Maximum proteolysis was found at a 2.5% inoculation rate and at a 48 h incubation period in both fermented buffalo (9.14 ± 0.06) and camel milk (9.10 ± 0.17). SDS-PAGE and 2D gel electrophoresis were conducted for protein purification. The camel and buffalo milk that had not been fermented revealed protein bands ranging from 10 to 100 kDa and 10 to 75 kDa, respectively, whereas all the fermented samples showed bands ranging from 10 to 75 kDa. There were no visible protein bands in the permeates on SDS-PAGE. When fermented buffalo and camel milk were electrophoresed in 2D gel, 15 and 20 protein spots were detected, respectively. The protein spots in the 2D gel electrophoresis ranged in size from 20 to 75 kDa. To distinguish between different peptide fractions, water-soluble extract (WSE) fractions of ultrafiltration (3 and 10 kDa retentate and permeate) of fermented camel and buffalo milk were employed in RP-HPLC (reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography). The impact of fermented buffalo and camel milk on inflammation induced by LPS (lipopolysaccharide) was also investigated in the RAW 264.7 cell line. Novel peptide sequences with ACE inhibitory and anti-diabetic properties were also analyzed on the anti-hypertensive database (AHTDB) and bioactive peptide (BIOPEP) database. We found the sequences SCQAQPTTMTR, EMPFPK, TTMPLW, HPHPHLSFMAIPPK, FFNDKIAK, ALPMHIR, IPAVFK, LDQWLCEK, and AVPYPQR from the fermented buffalo milk and the sequences TDVMPQWW, EKTFLLYSCPHR, SSHPYLEQLY, IDSGLYLGSNYITAIR, and FDEFLSQSCAPGSDPR from the fermented camel milk.

Antimicrobial Activity of Spices Popularly Used in Mexico against Urinary Tract Infections

Urinary tract infections (UTIs) are the most common infectious diseases worldwide. These infections are common in all people; however, they are more prevalent in women than in men. The main microorganism that causes 80-90% of UTIs is Escherichia coli. However, other bacteria such as Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, and Klebsiella pneumoniae cause UTIs, and antibiotics are required to treat them. However, UTI treatment can be complicated by antibiotic resistance and biofilm formation. Therefore, medicinal plants, such as spices generally added to foods, can be a therapeutic alternative due to the variety of phytochemicals such as polyphenols, saponins, alkaloids, and terpenes present in their extracts that exert antimicrobial activity. Essential oils extracted from spices have been used to demonstrate their antimicrobial efficacy against strains of pathogens isolated from UTI patients and their synergistic effect with antibiotics. This article summarizes relevant findings on the antimicrobial activity of cinnamon, clove, cumin, oregano, pepper, and rosemary, spices popularly used in Mexico against the uropathogens responsible for UTIs.

Exploring the potential of Lacticaseibacillus paracasei M11 on antidiabetic, anti-inflammatory, and ACE inhibitory effects of fermented dromedary camel milk (Camelus dromedaries) and the release of antidiabetic and anti-hypertensive peptides

The goal of this investigation was to find antidiabetic peptides and inhibit angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) in Lacticaseibacillus paracasei (M11) fermented dromedary camel milk (Camelus dromedaries). According to the findings, the rate of antidiabetic activity increased along with the incubation periods and reached its peak after 48 hr of fermentation. The inhibitions of α-amylase, α-glucosidase, and lipase were 80.75, 59.62, and 65.46%, respectively. The inhibitory activity of ACE was 78.33%, and the proteolytic activity was 8.90 mg/mL. M11 at 0.25 mg/mL effectively suppressed LPS-induced pro-inflammatory cytokines and their mediators such as NO, TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β in RAW 264.7 cells. The rate of inoculum in the optimization phase was 1.5-2.5%, and the greatest proteolytic activity was observed after 48 hr of fermentation. The investigation of the above property in the ultrafiltered fermented milk exhibited the highest antidiabetic and ACE inhibition activities in the 3 kDa than 10 kDa fractions. The molecular weight was determined employing SDS-PAGE, and the six-peptide sequences were identified using 2D gel electrophoresis. Due to its high proteolytic activity, the L. paracasei strain has been reported to be useful in the production of ACE-inhibitory and antidiabetic peptides. Amino acid sequences such from ɑ1, ɑ2, and β-caseins have been identified within fermented camel milk by searching on online databases, including BIOPEP (for antidiabetic peptides) and AHTPDB (for hypertension peptides) to validate the antidiabetic and ACE-inhibitory actions of several peptides. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: The study aims to identify antidiabetic peptides and inhibit ACE in dromedary camel milk fermented with Lacticaseibacillus paracasei M11. Maximum antidiabetic and ACE-inhibitory actions of the fermented camel milk were observed in 3 kDa permeate fractions. Fermented camel milk significantly reduced the excessive TNF-α, IL-6, and IL-1β production in LPS-activated RAW 264.7 cells. RP-LC/MS was used to identify 6 bioactive peptides from dromedary fermented camel milk. This fermented camel milk could be used for the management of hypertension and diabetic related problems.

Nanoliposomal peptides derived from Spirulina platensis protein accelerate full-thickness wound healing

Spirulina platensis is a type of blue-green algae that contains large amounts of protein with therapeutic effects. The present study was performed to investigate the effects of encapsulated Spirulina protein hydrolysates (SPH) with nanoliposomes (NLPs) in reducing wound healing period. SPH-loaded NLPs showed the size and zeta potential of 158 nm and -48 mV, respectively; as well as a uniform non-aggregated morphology. In-vitro MTT toxicity studies on the Human Foreskin Fibroblast (HFFF-2) cell line exhibited that the hydrolyzed peptides had no toxic effect and increased cell growth. The scratch test confirmed the MTT results. For in-vivo study, 162 mice were divided into nine groups, including the mice groups treated with blank gel, blank NLPs, and those treated with 2.5, 5, and 10 % SPH and SPH-loaded NLPs. The histopathological assessment was done to investigate rate of fibroblast proliferation and epithelialization. Immunofluorescence staining for bFGF, CD31, COL1A was conducted. The results showed that the mice group treated with SPH-NLPs showed higher wound contraction, epithelization, fibroblast proliferation, and higher expressions for bFGF, CD31, COL1A compared with blanks and other groups. In conclusion, the derived and encapsulated peptides showed significant effects in accelerating wound healing via angiogenesis and collagen production.

Purification and Characterization of Novel Antihypertensive and Antioxidative Peptides From Whey Protein Fermentate: In Vitro, In Silico, and Molecular Interactions Studies

OBJECTIVE

The goal of this research was to purify and characterize the novel angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory and antioxidant peptides from fermented whey protein concentrate produced by Lactobacillus paracasei and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in a co-fermentation system.

METHOD

Whey protein fermented with lactic acid bacteria and yeast culture was analyzed for antioxidative, ACE inhibition, as well as anti-inflammatory activity followed by SDS-PAGE, isoelectric focusing, and 2-dimensional (2D) analysis. Anti-inflammatory activity of whey protein fermentate was also studied on the RAW 264.7 cell line. The bioactive peptides were separated from the whey protein fermentate using reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC) and reverse-phase liquid chromatography mass spectrometry (RPLC/MS), and thus identification and characterization of purified bioactive peptide was performed.

RESULTS

Whey protein fermentate samples' bioactivity was analyzed at specific time intervals at 12, 24, 36, and 48 hours at 37 °C for M11 and at 25 °C for WBS2A. The development settings (incubation time [12, 24, 36, and 48 hours) and inoculation rates [1.5%, 2.0%, and 2.5%]) were optimized for peptide synthesis via the o-phthaldialdehyde (OPA) method (proteolytic activity). Maximum proteolytic activity was observed at 37 °C for M11 (6.50 mg/mL) and at 25 °C for WBS2A (8.59 mg/mL) for 48 hours of incubation. Protein profiling was carried out using SDS-PAGE and 2D gel electrophoresis, in which Sodium dodecyl-sulfate (SDS) exhibited protein bands in the 10- to 55-kDa range, while 2D showed protein bands varying from 10 to 70 kDa. Every spot from 2D was digested by trypsin and identified by RPLC/MS. Protein fractionations (3- and 10-kDa permeates) were carried out employing RP-HPLC. Whey protein fermentate has anti-inflammatory action in RAW 264.7 macrophages that have been exposed to lipopolysaccharide. A molecular docking system was also used to investigate the interactions of peptides (AFLDSRTR, ILGAFIQIITFR) with human myeloperoxidase enzyme.

CONCLUSIONS

The antihypertensive and antioxidative peptides discovered from whey protein fermentate may be helpful in the design of pharmacologically active healthy ingredients in the upcoming years.

Purification and characterization of antioxidative and antimicrobial peptides from lactic-fermented sheep milk

This study aims to identify antioxidant and antimicrobial peptides from sheep milk produced using Lactobacillus plantarum (KGL3A). It was inferred that antioxidative and antimicrobial activities increased with increasing incubation time, and antioxidative properties (ABTS assay, superoxide free radical & hydroxyl free radical scavenging activity were 34.5, 34.7, and 29.2% respectively) and antimicrobial properties against Escherichia coli, S. typhimurium, E. faecalis, & B. cereus were 11.3, 12.7, 13.3, & 12.3 mm. However, inoculation of culture at a level of 2.5% and 48 h fermentation give the highest proteolysis activities. Fermented sheep milk fractions of 3 & 10 kDa were analysed for antioxidative and antimicrobial activity, and the 10 kDa permeate showed the highest ABTS assay. The hydroxyl free radical scavenging activity was greatest in 10 kDa retentate and superoxide free radical scavenging activity was observed in 3 kDa permeate (34.7, 43.4, and 34.6%, respectively). Antimicrobial activity of 10 kDa retentate against B. cereus & E. coli (13.3 mm) was greater than 3 and 10 kDa retentate against S. typhimurium (13 mm) and 3 kDa retentate against E. faecalis (13.7 mm). The molecular weight of the protein was estimated using SDS-PAGE. On electrophoresis on a 2-D gel, 6 peptides were identified using RP-LC/MS. BIOPEP, a database for antioxidative and antimicrobial peptides, validated the antioxidative & antimicrobial activities of several peptides in sheep's milk that has been fermented. Sheep milk fermented using Lactobacillus could be considered a novel source of antioxidative and antimicrobial proteins.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s13197-022-05493-2.

In-Silico Analysis and Antidiabetic Effect of α-Amylase and α-Glucosidase Inhibitory Peptides from Lupin Protein Hydrolysate: Enzyme-Peptide Interaction Study Using Molecular Docking Approach

The use of natural ingredients for managing diabetes is becoming more popular in recent times due to the several adverse effects associated with synthetic antidiabetic medications. In this study, we investigated the in vitro antidiabetic potential (through inhibition of α-glucosidase (AG) and α-amylase (AA)) of hydrolysates from lupin proteins pretreated with ultrasound and hydrolyzed using alcalase (ACT) and flavourzyme (FCT). We further fractionated ACT and FCT into three molecular weight fractions. Unfractionated ACT and FCT showed significantly (p < 0.05) higher AG (IC50 value = 1.65 mg/mL and 1.91 mg/mL) and AA (IC50 value = 1.66 mg/mL and 1.98 mg/mL) inhibitory activities than their ultrafiltrated fractions, where lower IC50 values indicate higher inhibitory activities. Then, ACT and FCT were subjected to peptide sequencing using LC-MS-QTOF to identify the potential AG and AA inhibitors. Molecular docking was performed on peptides with the highest number of hotspots and PeptideRanker score to study their interactions with AG and AA enzymes. Among the peptides identified, SPRRF, FE, and RR were predicted to be the most active peptides against AG, while AA inhibitors were predicted to be RPR, PPGIP, and LRP. Overall, hydrolysates prepared from lupin proteins using alcalase and flavourzyme may be useful in formulating functional food for managing diabetics.

A Treatment to Cure Diabetes Using Plant-Based Drug Discovery

The field of peptides and proteins has opened up new doors for plant-based medication development because of analytical breakthroughs. Enzymatic breakdown of plant-specific proteins yields bioactive peptides. These plant-based proteins and peptides, in addition to their in vitro and vivo outcomes for diabetes treatment, are discussed in this study. The secondary metabolites of vegetation can interfere with the extraction, separation, characterization, and commercialization of plant proteins through the pharmaceutical industry. Glucose-lowering diabetic peptides are a hot commodity. For a wide range of illnesses, bioactive peptides from flora can offer up new avenues for the development of cost-effective therapy options.

A comprehensive review on the glucoregulatory properties of food-derived bioactive peptides

Diabetes mellitus, a group of metabolic disorders characterized by persistent hyperglycemia, affects millions of people worldwide and is on the rise. Dietary proteins, from a wide range of food sources, are rich in bioactive peptides with antidiabetic properties. Notable examples include AGFAGDDAPR, a black tea-derived peptide, VRIRLLQRFNKRS, a β-conglycinin-derived peptide, and milk-derived peptide VPP, which have shown antidiabetic effects in diabetic rodent models through variety of pathways including improving beta-cells function, suppression of alpha-cells proliferation, inhibiting food intake, increasing portal cholecystokinin concentration, enhancing insulin signaling and glucose uptake, and ameliorating adipose tissue inflammation. Despite the immense research on glucoregulatory properties of bioactive peptides, incorporation of these bioactive peptides in functional foods or nutraceuticals is widely limited due to the existence of several challenges in the field of peptide research and commercialization. Ongoing research in this field, however, is fundamental to pave the road for this purpose.

Bioactive Peptides as Potential Nutraceuticals for Diabetes Therapy: A Comprehensive Review

Diabetes mellitus is a major public health concern associated with high mortality and reduced life expectancy. The alarming rise in the prevalence of diabetes is linked to several factors including sedentary lifestyle and unhealthy diet. Nutritional intervention and increased physical activity could significantly contribute to bringing this under control. Food-derived bioactive peptides and protein hydrolysates have been associated with a number health benefits. Several peptides with antidiabetic potential have been identified that could decrease blood glucose level, improve insulin uptake and inhibit key enzymes involved in the development and progression of diabetes. Dietary proteins, from a wide range of food, are rich sources of antidiabetic peptides. Thus, there are a number of benefits in studying peptides obtained from food sources to develop nutraceuticals. A deeper understanding of the underlying molecular mechanisms of these peptides will assist in the development of new peptide-based therapeutics. Despite this, a comprehensive analysis of the antidiabetic properties of bioactive peptides derived from various food sources is still lacking. Here, we review the recent literature on food-derived bioactive peptides possessing antidiabetic activity. The focus is on the effectiveness of these peptides as evidenced by in vitro and in vivo studies. Finally, we discuss future prospects of peptide-based drugs for the treatment of diabetes.

Plant-derived peptides improving lipid and glucose metabolism

Plant protein-derived peptides, focusing especially on soybean protein-derived peptides have considerable effects on metabolic regulation and modulation such as cholesterol lowering, triglyceride lowering, anti-obesity, inhibition of fatty acid synthase, and antidiabetic effects. The molecules targeted to study the metabolic regulatory functions of the peptides included the following: intestinal cholesterol micelle, cholesterol metabolism-related genes for cholesterol lowering, triglyceride metabolism-related genes for triglyceride lowering and anti-obesity, dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV), α-amylase, α-glucosidase, or glucose metabolism-related genes for lowering blood glucose levels. This review article outlines the physiological functions of plant protein-derived peptides for the improvement of lipid and glucose metabolism in vitro or in vivo.

Bioactive Peptides Originating from Gastrointestinal Endogenous Proteins in the Growing Pig: In Vivo Identification

BACKGROUND

Recent in silico and in vitro studies have shown that gastrointestinal endogenous proteins (GEP) are a source of bioactive peptides. To date, however, the presence of such peptides in the lumen of the digestive tract has not been demonstrated.

OBJECTIVE

We investigated the generation of GEP-derived bioactive peptides in the growing pig fed a proteinfree diet.

METHODS

Stomach chyme (SC) and jejunal digesta (JD) fractions from 6 growing pigs (two sampling times) were assessed for their angiotensin-I-converting enzyme (ACE-I; EC 3.4.15.1) inhibition, and antioxidant activity using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) inhibition, ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) and microsomal lipid peroxidation (MLP) inhibition assays.

RESULTS

Two of the fractions prepared from JD samples inhibited ACE-I and DPPH by 81 (± 2.80)% and 94 (±0.66)%. SC fractions were found to inhibit MLP between 15-39 (±3.52-1.40)%. The study identified over 180 novel peptide sequences that were related to the determined bioactivities, including a porcine serum albuminderived peptide (FAKTCVADESAENCDKS), corresponding to f(7-23) of the human serum albumin peptide LVNEVTEFAKTCVADESAENCDKSLHTLF that was previously identified from the digests of the latter GEP.

CONCLUSION

This study provides the first in vivo evidence for GEP as a source of bioactive peptides. These new findings help advance our knowledge of the latent bioactive role of GEP-derived peptides in mammalian nutrition and health and their potential pharmaceutical applications.

Antioxidant, pancreatic lipase, and α-amylase inhibitory properties of oat bran hydrolyzed proteins and peptides

This work aimed to determine the antioxidant properties of identified hydrolyzed oat proteins and peptides, and their capacity to inhibit lipase and α-amylase. The protein hydrolysates retarded the oxidation of peanut oil by reducing peroxide values (up to 2.5-fold), relative to the control oil. Of the five tested peptides, P1 (YFDEQNEQFR), P3 (SPFWNINAH), and P4 (NINAHSVVY) significantly reduced the oxidation of linoleic acid. In the enzyme assays, P3 was the best lipase inhibitor (IC₅₀ 85.4 ± 3 µM) while P1 was the most potent inhibitor of α-amylase (IC₅₀ 37.5 ± 1.1 µM). The structure-activity relationship assessed using the CABS-dock computational model predicted that interactions between peptides and pancreatic lipase residues of Ser¹⁵³ , His²⁶⁴ , and Asp¹⁷⁷ were important for the inhibition. In the case of α-amylase, interactions with residues of the active sites (Asp¹⁹⁷ , Glu²³³ , and Asp³⁰⁰ ), but not those of calcium- or chloride-binding domains, were important for the inhibition. PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS: In recent years, there have been many studies focussing on isolating multifunctional peptides from food and food waste with antioxidant and bioactivity potential to promote human health. Some of these antioxidant peptides have been found to be effective to prevent diseases and complications such as hypertension, cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, and obesity. The peptides studied in this work showed a great potential to prevent oxidation in a lipid system and demonstrated a significant ability to reduce the enzymatic activity of lipase and α-amylase. These enzymes contribute to the digestion of fat and carbohydrate, and their inhibition can reduce the absorption of these macronutrients and make them a great target for designing antioxidant and anti-obesity compounds. With the multifunctional activity of oat bran-derived peptides, it is proposed that these peptides can be used in food formulations due to their antioxidant and potential anti-obesity properties.

A review on traditional uses, phytochemistry, pharmacology, and clinical research of dietary spice Cuminum cyminum L

Cuminum cyminum L. is a versatile spice belonging to family Apiaceae. Though the plant has pan-tropical distribution but it is indigenous to Egypt, the Mediterranean, and South Asian countries. It exhibits numerous culinary, traditional, and pharmacological attributes. Its traditional uses also validate its immense pharmacological potential. Cuminum cyminum is the hub of numerous bioactives such as alkaloids, flavonoids, terpenoids, and so forth. Cuminaldehyde is the major bioactive, rendered to most of its pharmacological as well as clinical significance. The present study comprised of current knowledge on its taxonomy, nutritional, traditional, phytochemistry, pharmacology (antimicrobial, antioxidant, anti-inflammation, antidiabetic, wound healing, anticancer, etc.), toxicology, and clinical attributes. Besides, the mechanism of action is also well explained. The present study provides a rationale for further bioprospection of this wonder plant. Future studies are needed to fill the research gaps, particularly on relevant phytocompound isolation, their pre-clinical and clinical characterization, evaluation, and structure-activity relationship. Moreover, well-designed and highly appropriate clinical and placebo trials are still needed to demonstrate the trustworthy role of cumin on human health.

Antioxidant properties of Klunzinger's mullet (Liza klunzingeri) protein hydrolysates prepared with enzymatic hydrolysis using a commercial protease and microbial hydrolysis with Bacillus licheniformis

Antioxidant activity of Klunzinger's mullet (Liza klunzingeri) muscle hydrolysates obtained using Bacillus licheniformis fermentation and enzymatic hydrolysis was determined. Hydrolysates obtained after 6 days of fermentation with B. licheniformis showed the highest free radical scavenging activity, metal chelating ability and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) (P ≤ 0.05). Microbial fermentation led to a higher percentage of small peptides and higher solubility compared with Alcalase hydrolysis (P ≤ 0.05). Hydrolysates showing the highest antioxidant properties attenuated serum, liver, and kidney oxidative stress biomarkers in male Wister rats stressed by carbon tetrachloride (P ≤ 0.05). At 300 mg/kg oral administration, hydrolysates increased serum, renal, and hepatic total antioxidant capacity (TAC) (P ≤ 0.05) and reduced their elevated levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), nitric oxide (NO^•), and serum liver enzymes (AST, ALP, and ALT) (P ≤ 0.05). The hydrolysates were able to ameliorate hepatic damage by reducing necrosis, fatty changes, and inflammation. Results showed the antioxidant and hepato-toxic protective activities of Klunzinger's mullet muscle hydrolysates obtained using microbial fermentation, which may, therefore, potentially be considered as a functional food ingredient.

Bioactive peptides in the management of lifestyle-related diseases: Current trends and future perspectives

Lifestyle-related diseases constitute a major concern in the twenty-first century, with millions dying worldwide each year due to chosen lifestyles and associated complications such as obesity, type 2 diabetes, hypertension, and hypercholesterolemia. Although synthetic drugs have been shown to be quite effective in the treatment of these conditions, safety of these compounds remains a concern. Natural alternatives to drugs include food-derived peptides are now being explored for the prevention and treatment of lifestyle-related complications. Peptides are fragments nascent in the primary protein sequences and could impart health benefits beyond basic nutritional advantages. Evidence suggests that by controlling adipocyte differentiation and lipase activities, bioactive peptides may be able to prevent obesity. Bioactive peptides act as agents against type 2 diabetes because of their ability to inhibit enzymatic activities of DPP-IV, α-amylase, and α-glucosidase. Moreover, bioactive peptides can act as competitive inhibitors of angiotensin-converting enzyme, thus eliciting an antihypertensive effect. Bioactive peptides may have a hypocholesterolemic effect by inhibiting cholesterol metabolism pathways and cholesterol synthesis. This review addresses current knowledge of the impact of food-derived bioactive peptides on lifestyle diseases. In addition, future insights on the clinical trials, allergenicity, cytotoxicity, gastrointestinal stability, and regulatory approvals have also been considered.

Identification and Comparison of Peptides from Chickpea Protein Hydrolysates Using Either Bromelain or Gastrointestinal Enzymes and Their Relationship with Markers of Type 2 Diabetes and Bitterness

The chickpea (Cicer arietinum L.) is one of the most important pulses worldwide. The objective was to identify, compare and evaluate peptides from chickpea hydrolysates produced by two enzymatic treatments. The antidiabetic potential and bitterness of the peptides and induction of bitter receptors were identified in silico. Proteins were isolated from the Kabuli variety. Peptides were produced from the proteins using a simulated digestive system (pepsin/pancreatin, 1:50 Enzyme/Protein, E/P), and these peptides were compared with those produced via bromelain hydrolysis (1:50 E/P). The protein profiles, sequences and characteristics of the peptides were evaluated. The biochemical inhibition and molecular docking of dipeptidyl peptidase-IV (DPP-IV), α-amylase and α-glucosidase were also studied. The molecular docking identified peptides from enzymatic hydrolysis as inhibitors of DPP-IV. The high hydrophobicity of the peptides indicated the potential for bitterness. There was no correlation between peptide length and DPP-IV binding. Peptides sequenced from the pepsin/pancreatin hydrolysates, PHPATSGGGL and YVDGSGTPLT, had greater affinity for the DPP-IV catalytic site than the peptides from the bromelain hydrolysates. These results are in agreement with their biochemical inhibition, when considering the inhibition of sitagliptin (54.3 µg/mL) as a standard. The bitter receptors hTAS2R38, hTAS2R5, hTAS2R7 and hTAS2R14 were stimulated by most sequences, which could be beneficial in the treatment of type 2 diabetes. Chickpea hydrolysates could be utilized as functional ingredients to be included in the diet for the prevention of diabetes.

Inhibitors of α-amylase and α-glucosidase: Potential linkage for whole cereal foods on prevention of hyperglycemia

The strategy of reducing carbohydrate digestibility by controlling the activity of two hydrolyzing enzymes (α-amylase and α-glucosidase) to control postprandial hyperglycemia is considered as a viable prophylactic treatment of type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). Thus, the consumption of foods rich in hydrolyzing enzyme inhibitors is recommended for diet therapy of diabetes. Whole cereal products have gained increasing interests for plasma glucose-reducing effects. However, the mechanisms for whole cereal benefits in relation to T2DM are not yet fully understood, but most likely involve bioactive components. Cereal-derived phenolic compounds, peptides, nonstarch polysaccharides, and lipids have been shown to inhibit α-amylase and α-glucosidase activities. These hydrolyzing enzyme inhibitors seem to make whole cereals become nutritional strategies in managing postmeal glucose for T2DM. This review presents an updated overview on the effects provided by cereal-derived ingredients on carbohydrate digestibility. It suggests that there is some evidence for whole cereal intake to be beneficial in amelioration of T2DM through inhibiting α-glucosidase and α-amylase activities.

Recent Progress in Enzymatic Release of Peptides in Foods of Animal Origin and Assessment of Bioactivity

There is a wide variety of peptides released from food proteins that are able to exert a relevant benefit for human health, such as angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibition, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, hypoglucemic, or antithrombotic activity, among others. This manuscript is reviewing the recent advances on enzymatic mechanisms for the hydrolysis of proteins from foods of animal origin, including the types of enzymes and mechanisms of action involved, the strategies followed for the isolation and identification of bioactive peptides through advanced proteomic tools, and the assessment of bioactivity and its beneficial effects. Specific applications in fermented and/or ripened foods where a significant number of bioactive peptides have been reported with relevant in vivo physiological effects on laboratory rats and humans as well as the hydrolysis of animal food proteins for the production of bioactive peptides are also reviewed.

Bioactive peptides from food fermentation: A comprehensive review of their sources, bioactivities, applications, and future development

Bioactive peptides (BPs) are specific protein fragments that exert various beneficial effects on human bodies and ultimately influence health, depending on their structural properties and amino acid composition and sequences. By offering promising solutions to solve diverse health issues, the production, characterization, and applications of food-derived BPs have drawn great interest in the current literature and are of particular interest to the food and pharmaceutical industries. The microbial fermentation of protein from various sources is indubitably a novel way to produce BPs with numerous beneficial health effects. Apart from its lower cost as compared to enzymes, the BPs produced from microbial fermentation can be purified without further hydrolysis. Despite these features, current literature shows dearth of information on the BPs produced from food via microbial fermentation. Hence, there is a strong necessity to explore the BPs obtained from food fermentation for the development of commercial nutraceuticals and functional foods. As such, this review focuses on the production of BPs from different food sources, including the extensively studied milk and milk products, with emphasis on microbial fermentation. The structure-activity (antihypertensive, antioxidant, antimicrobial, opiate-like, anti-inflammatory, anticancer/antiproliferative, antithrombotic, hypolipidemic, hypocholesterolemic, and mineral binding) relationship, potential applications, future development, and challenges of BPs obtained from food fermentation are also discussed.

Antidiabetic Food-Derived Peptides for Functional Feeding: Production, Functionality and In Vivo Evidences

Bioactive peptides released from the enzymatic hydrolysis of food proteins are currently a trending topic in the scientific community. Their potential as antidiabetic agents, by regulating the glycemic index, and thus to be employed in food formulation, is one of the most important functions of these peptides. In this review, we aimed to summarize the whole process that must be considered when talking about including these molecules as a bioactive ingredient. In this regard, at first, the production, purification and identification of bioactive peptides is summed up. The detailed metabolic pathways described included carbohydrate hydrolases (glucosidase and amylase) and dipeptidyl-peptidase IV inhibition, due to their importance in the food-derived peptides research field. Then, their characterization, concerning bioavailability in vitro and in situ, stability and functionality in food matrices, and ultimately, the in vivo evidence (from invertebrate animals to humans), was described. The future applicability that these molecules have due to their biological potential as functional ingredients makes them an important field of research, which could help the world population avoid suffering from several diseases, such as diabetes.

Facile and moderate immobilization of proteases on SPS nanospheres for the active collagen peptides

Although collagen peptides have been proved to possess wide applications in functional foods, cosmetics, medical materials and pharmaceuticals, the production of collagen peptides are deeply affected by proteases and substrate. In this study, the scalable-synthesis sulfonated polystyrene (SPS) nanospheres were utilized as accessible supports for efficient subtilisin immobilization. Detailed characterizations through SEM-EDS, TEM, TGA and FT-IR confirmed the undamaged formation of the SPS-subtilisin. Owing to the moderate hydrophobic effect and electrostatic interaction, the SPS-subtilisin could achieve 397.15 mg/g enzyme loading and 77.3% activity recovery. The tilapia skin collagen, as a resource-rich raw material, was hydrolyzed by the prepared immobilized subtilisin. The antioxidant activity of the attained peptides was verified. With the mass spectrometry and molecular docking analysis of product peptides sequences, representative peptides were synthesized and their anti-oxidation capacity and mechanism were affirmed, which further verified the undiminished catalytic ability of immobilized subtilisin.

Frationation of hydrolysate from corn germ protein by ultrafiltration: In vitro antidiabetic and antioxidant activity

In the present work, defatted corn germ was hydrolyzed by three proteases and further separated by sequential ultrafiltration with different molecular weight cutoff (100, 10, 2 kDa). Corn germ protein hydrolysate (CGPH) and their fractions were investigated for antioxidant activity, α-glucosidase, α-amylase, and DPP-IV inhibitory activity. The degree of hydrolysis (DH) after 2 hr was 17.5%, 11.14%, and 2.05% for alcalase, trypsin, and flavourzyme, respectively. Trypsin hydrolysate showed the highest DPPH and ABTS+ radical scavenging and Fe2+ chelating activity, but a lower α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. F1 fraction (<2 kDa) exhibited highest radical scavenging and α-glucosidase inhibitory activity. While F2 fraction (2-10 kDa) showed the higher Fe2+ chelating and α-amylase inhibitory activity, F1 fraction of flavourzyme showed the highest α-glucosidase inhibitory and F2 fraction of alcalase and flavourzyme exhibited highest α-amylase inhibitory activity. Hydrolysate and F1 fraction of alcalase and F2 fraction of trypsin showed the highest DPP-IV inhibitory activity. RP-HPLC results showed that trypsin hydrolysate had higher levels of high-hydrophobic peptides. The amino acid composition of the F1 fractions showed high levels of hydrophobic amino acids. Thus, CGPHs may be used as a potential source of antioxidant and antidiabetic peptides in food industry and pharmaceutical application.

Peptide identification from a Porphyra dioica protein hydrolysate with antioxidant, angiotensin converting enzyme and dipeptidyl peptidase IV inhibitory activities

A Porphyra dioica protein extract was enzymatically hydrolysed and then fractionated using semi-preparative reverse-phase high performance chromatography. The hydrolysate and its fractions were tested for their oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC) along with their angiotensin converting enzyme (ACE) and dipeptidyl peptidase IV (DPP-IV) inhibitory activities. The most potent fraction was analysed by liquid chromatography mass spectrometry. Eight peptide sequences were selected for synthesis based on their structure-activity criteria for bioactivity. Asp-Tyr-Tyr-Lys-Arg showed the highest ORAC activity (4.27 ± 0.15 μmol Trolox equivalent per μM). Thr-Tyr-Ile-Ala had the highest ACE inhibitory activity (IC50: 89.7 ± 7.10 μM). Tyr-Leu-Val-Ala was the only peptide showing DPP-IV inhibitory activity (IC50: 439 ± 44 μM). Apart from Asp-Tyr-Tyr-Lys-Arg and Thr-Tyr-Ile-Ala, which displayed increased ORAC activity, the bioactivities of the peptides were either maintained or decreased following in vitro simulated gastrointestinal digestion. The results indicate that P. dioica-derived peptides may have potential applications as health enhancing ingredients.

Plant-Derived Bioactive Peptides: A Treatment to Cure Diabetes

ABSTRACT

Recent advances in analytical techniques have opened new opportunities for plant-based drug discovery in the field of peptide and proteins. Enzymatic hydrolysis of plant parent proteins forms bioactive peptides which are explored in the treatment of various diseases. In this review, we will discuss the identified plant-based bioactive proteins and peptides and the in vitro, in vivo results for the treatment of diabetes. Extraction, isolation, characterization and commercial utilization of plant proteins is a challenge for the pharmaceutical industry as plants contain several interfering secondary metabolites. The market of peptide drugs for the treatment of diabetes is growing at a fast rate. Plant-based bioactive peptides might open up new opportunities to discover economic lead for the management of various diseases.

GRAPHIC ABSTRACT