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Johnston RA, Cowgill LW. The path less traveled: Using structural equation modeling to investigate factors influencing bone functional morphology. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF BIOLOGICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2024:e24999. [PMID: 39049572 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24999] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2024] [Accepted: 07/09/2024] [Indexed: 07/27/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES The relationship between an organism's mechanical environment and its bone strength has been long established by experimental research. Multiple intrinsic and extrinsic factors, including body mass, muscle strength, genetic background, and nutritional and/or hormonal status, are likely to influence bone deposition and resorption throughout the lifespan, complicating this relationship. Structural equation modeling (SEM) is uniquely positioned to parse this complex set of influences. MATERIALS AND METHODS Data from the Third National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey, including sex, total body mass, lean body mass, exercise frequency, peak body mass, and age, were analyzed using SEM to determine how they affect bone strength both individually and combined. RESULTS Body mass is typically the driver of cross-sectional area, but body mass and lean mass have similar effects on the polar moment of area (J). Peak body mass had a strong direct effect on J, despite decreasing strongly with increases in lean mass. Exercise also did not confer a large direct effect on cross-sectional area or J but did modify body mass and lean mass. In females, intentional weight loss was associated with decreased exercise levels. DISCUSSION SEM is a useful tool for parsing complex systems in bone functional morphology and has the potential to uncover causal links in the study of skeletal remodeling, including factors like weight loss or exercise that may have secondary effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rob'yn A Johnston
- Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
| | - Libby W Cowgill
- Department of Anthropology, University of Missouri, Columbia, Missouri, USA
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Zorrilla-Revilla G, Volpe SL, Prado-Nóvoa O, Howard KR, Laskaridou E, Marinik EL, Ramadoss R, Davy KP, García-González R. Far from the walking pace. Ecological and evolutionary consequences of the suboptimal locomotion speeds in non-adult humans. Am J Hum Biol 2024:e24138. [PMID: 39016420 DOI: 10.1002/ajhb.24138] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2024] [Revised: 07/05/2024] [Accepted: 07/10/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Locomotion activities are part of most human daily tasks and are the basis for subsistence activities, particularly for hunter-gatherers. Therefore, differences in speed walking-related variables may have an effect, not only on the mobility of the group, but also on its composition. Some anthropometric parameters related to body length could affect walking speed-related variables and contribute to different human behaviors. However, there is currently little information on the influence of these parameters in nonadult individuals. METHODS Overall, 11 females and 17 male child/adolescents, 8-17 years of age, volunteered to participate in this cross-sectional study. Five different pace walking tests were performed on a treadmill to calculate the optimal locomotion speed (OLS) and U-shaped relationship between the walking energy expenditure and speed (χ2 cost of transport [CoT]) (i.e., energetic walking flexibility). RESULTS The mean OLS was 3.05 ± 0.13 miles per hour (mph), with no differences between sexes. Similarly, there were no sex differences in walking flexibility according to the χ2 CoT. Body height (p < .0001) and femur length (p < .001) were positively correlated with χ2 CoT; however, female child/adolescents mitigated the effect of height and femur length when walking at suboptimal speeds. CONCLUSION Consistent with prior observations in adults, our findings suggest that anthropometric parameters related to body stature are associated with reduced suboptimal walking flexibility in children and adolescents. Taken together, these results suggest that children and adolescents can adapt their pace to the one of taller individuals without a highly energetic penalty, but this flexibility decreases with increasing body size.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Zorrilla-Revilla
- Laboratorio de Evolución Humana, Universidad de Burgos, Burgos, Spain
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- CIAS-Research Centre for Anthropology and Health, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Stella L Volpe
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Olalla Prado-Nóvoa
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Kristen R Howard
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
- Graduate Program in Translational Biology, Medicine, and Health, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Eleni Laskaridou
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Elaina L Marinik
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Rohit Ramadoss
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
| | - Kevin P Davy
- Department of Human Nutrition, Foods, and Exercise, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University (Virginia Tech), Blacksburg, Virginia, USA
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Mitteroecker P, Fischer B. Evolution of the human birth canal. Am J Obstet Gynecol 2024; 230:S841-S855. [PMID: 38462258 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajog.2022.09.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2022] [Revised: 09/07/2022] [Accepted: 09/07/2022] [Indexed: 03/12/2024]
Abstract
It seems puzzling why humans have evolved such a small and rigid birth canal that entails a relatively complex process of labor compared with the birth canal of our closest relatives, the great apes. This study reviewed insights into the evolution of the human birth canal from recent theoretical and empirical studies and discussed connections to obstetrics, gynecology, and orthopedics. Originating from the evolution of bipedality and the large human brain million years ago, the evolution of the human birth canal has been characterized by complex trade-off dynamics among multiple biological, environmental, and sociocultural factors. The long-held notion that a wider pelvis has not evolved because it would be disadvantageous for bipedal locomotion has not yet been empirically verified. However, recent clinical and biomechanical studies suggest that a larger birth canal would compromise pelvic floor stability and increase the risk of incontinence and pelvic organ prolapse. Several mammals have neonates that are equally large or even larger than human neonates compared to the size of the maternal birth canal. In these species, the pubic symphysis opens widely to allow successful delivery. Biomechanical and developmental constraints imposed by bipedality have hindered this evolutionary solution in humans and led to the comparatively rigid pelvic girdle in pregnant women. Mathematical models have shown why the evolutionary compromise to these antagonistic selective factors inevitably involves a certain rate of fetopelvic disproportion. In addition, these models predict that cesarean deliveries have disrupted the evolutionary equilibrium and led to new and ongoing evolutionary changes. Different forms of assisted birth have existed since the stone age and have become an integral part of human reproduction. Paradoxically, by buffering selection, they may also have hindered the evolution of a larger birth canal. Many of the biological, environmental, and sociocultural factors that have influenced the evolution of the human birth canal vary globally and are subject to ongoing transitions. These differences may have contributed to the global variation in the form of the birth canal and the difficulty of labor, and they likely continue to change human reproductive anatomy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philipp Mitteroecker
- Unit for Theoretical Biology, Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
| | - Barbara Fischer
- Unit for Theoretical Biology, Department of Evolutionary Biology, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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Horiuchi M, Saito A, Motoyama K, Tashiro T, Abe D. Normalized economical speed is influenced by aging and not by exercise habituation. BMC Res Notes 2023; 16:254. [PMID: 37798737 PMCID: PMC10557329 DOI: 10.1186/s13104-023-06545-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/20/2023] [Accepted: 09/28/2023] [Indexed: 10/07/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE A U-shaped relationship between energy cost of walking (Cw) and walking speed indicates that there is a specific speed minimizing the Cw, called economical speed (ES). It is mostly slower in older adults than young adults; however, effects of leg length on the ES have been ignored. We investigated effects of aging and exercise habituation on the normalized ES by leg length (ESnormalized). We quantified time delay of stride length and step frequency in sedentary young (SY), active young (AY), and active elderly (AE) adults in response to sinusoidal gait speed change at 30-s and 180-s periods with an amplitude of ± 0.56 m・s- 1. RESULTS The ES was significantly slower in the following sequence: AE, SY, and AY, whereas ESnormalized was slower in the AE than in other young groups, with no difference between AY and SY. AE and SY showed greater step variabilities at the 180-s period, whereas AY showed relatively smaller step variabilities at both periods. Collectively, the ESnormalized slowed due to aging, not due to exercise habituation. When optimizing the appropriate SL-SF combination for sinusoidal speed changes, young and elderly adults may adopt different strategies. Exercise habituation may reduce step variabilities in young adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Horiuchi
- National Institute of Fitness and Sports in KANOYA, Shiromizu-1, Kanoya-shi, Kagoshima, 891-2393 Japan
| | - Akira Saito
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 813-8503 Japan
| | - Kiyotaka Motoyama
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 813-8503 Japan
| | - Takehiro Tashiro
- CNP Design, 4-1-5 Shimobaru, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 813-0002 Japan
| | - Daijiro Abe
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka, 813-8503 Japan
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Wall-Scheffler C, Kurki H. Beyond sex, gender, and other dilemmas: Human pelvic morphology from an integrative context. Evol Anthropol 2023; 32:293-305. [PMID: 37609957 DOI: 10.1002/evan.22001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2022] [Revised: 05/30/2023] [Accepted: 08/01/2023] [Indexed: 08/24/2023]
Abstract
Recent research on the pelvis has clarified the flexibility of pelvic bones to manage nearly infinite possibilities in terms of selection and drift, while still maintaining excellent bipedalism. Despite this work, and the studies outlining the diversity of pelvic morphology across the hominin lineage, conversations continue to be stymied by distractions related to purported trade-offs that the different functions the pelvis must either allow for (e.g., parturition) or directly perform (e.g., attachment sites of muscles). Here we show that tight constraints on morphology are not evident in the pelvic variation of multiple human populations. We thus provide further evidence that human pelves are not geometrically similar and that pelvic morphology successfully balances the intersection of population history, active selective, and drift.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara Wall-Scheffler
- Department of Biology, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, Washington, USA
- Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, USA
| | - Helen Kurki
- Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
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Prado-Nóvoa O, Rodríguez J, Zorrilla-Revilla G, Vidal-Cordasco M, Mateos A. Evaluating the human capacity of carrying loads without costs: A scoping review of the Free-Ride phenomenon. Am J Hum Biol 2022; 34:e23794. [PMID: 36056617 DOI: 10.1002/ajhb.23794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2022] [Revised: 07/26/2022] [Accepted: 07/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/25/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Several researchers have obtained discordant results testing the human capability to transport loads without added locomotion costs. Carrying loads has an extended relevance to human ecology, thus a review of the Free-Ride phenomenon detection according to the existing literature is needed. METHOD A search was made in November 2021 in SCOPUS, Google Scholar, and Web of Science to identify studies comparing the energy expenditure of loaded and unloaded locomotion. Descriptive percentages were calculated with the data obtained from each study, and a Chi-squared (χ2 ) independency test and a contingency table were applied to observe the relationship between sample characteristics, experimental procedures, and the detection of the Free-Ride. RESULTS A total of 45 studies met the inclusion criteria. Eighty two percent do not detect the Free-Ride phenomenon. The general detection is independent of sex, experience, load position, load size, and speed (p value >.05) although the papers detecting the Free-Ride have some common characteristics. CONCLUSION The literature does not support a Free-Ride capacity, but future research testing this phenomenon should consider the load size, the load position, the level of expertise, or the speed. As the Free-Ride is not generalizable, it can be hypothesized that other mechanisms may have emerged during human evolution to buffer the energetic demands of load carrying.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olalla Prado-Nóvoa
- Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, UK
| | - Jesús Rodríguez
- National Research Center on Human Evolution (CENIEH), Burgos, Spain
| | | | - Marco Vidal-Cordasco
- EvoAdapta Research group, Department of Historical Sciences, University of Cantabria, Santander, Spain
| | - Ana Mateos
- National Research Center on Human Evolution (CENIEH), Burgos, Spain
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Wall-Scheffler CM. Women carry for less: body size, pelvis width, loading position and energetics. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2022; 4:e36. [PMID: 37588931 PMCID: PMC10426031 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2022.35] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The energetic cost of walking varies with mass and speed; however, the metabolic cost of carrying loads has not consistently increased proportionally to the mass carried. The cost of carrying mass, and the speed at which human walkers carry this mass, has been shown to vary with load position and load description (e.g. child vs. groceries). Additionally, the preponderance of women carriers around the world, and the tendency for certain kinds of population-level sexual dimorphism has led to the hypothesis that women might be more effective carriers than men. Here, I investigate the energetic cost and speed changes of women (N = 9) and men (N = 6) walking through the woods carrying their own babies (mean baby mass = 10.6 kg) in three different positions - on their front, side and back using the same Ergo fabric baby sling. People carrying their babies on their backs are able to maintain their unloaded walking speed (1.4 m/s) and show the lowest increase in metabolic cost per distance (J/m, 17.4%). Women carry the babies for a lower energetic cost than men at all conditions (p < 0.01). Further energetic and kinematic evidence elucidates the preponderance of back-carrying cross-culturally, and illustrates the importance of relatively wider bi-trochanteric breadths for reducing the energetic costs of carrying.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara M. Wall-Scheffler
- Department of Biology, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, WA, USA and Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
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8
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Murray AA. Variability and the form-function framework in evolutionary biomechanics and human locomotion. EVOLUTIONARY HUMAN SCIENCES 2022; 4:e29. [PMID: 37588899 PMCID: PMC10426129 DOI: 10.1017/ehs.2022.28] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The form-function conceptual framework, which assumes a strong relationship between the structure of a particular trait and its function, has been crucial for understanding morphological variation and locomotion among extant and fossil species across many disciplines. In biological anthropology, it is the lens through which many important questions and hypotheses have been tackled with respect to relationships between morphology and locomotor kinematics, energetics and performance. However, it is becoming increasingly evident that the morphologies of fossil hominins, apes and humans can confer considerable locomotor diversity and flexibility, and can do so with a range of kinematics depending on soft tissue plasticity and environmental and cultural factors. This complexity is not built into traditional biomechanical or mathematical models of relationships between structure and kinematics or energetics, limiting our interpretation of what bone structure is telling us about behaviour in the past. The nine papers presented in this Special Collection together address some of the challenges that variation in the relationship between form and function pose in evolutionary biomechanics, to better characterise the complexity linking structure and function and to provide tools through which we may begin to incorporate some of this complexity into our functional interpretations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison A. Murray
- Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, Cornett Building Room B228, 3800 Finnerty Road, Victoria, BC, CanadaV8P 5C2
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9
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Goto R, Yamada K, Nakano Y. Differences in the vertical components of substrate reaction forces between two modes of infant carrying in Japanese macaques (
Macaca fuscata fuscata
). AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2021. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.24436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ryosuke Goto
- Faculty of Health Sciences Gunma Pas University Takasaki Japan
| | - Kazunori Yamada
- Laboratory of Ethology, Graduate school of Human Sciences Osaka University Suita Japan
| | - Yoshihiko Nakano
- Laboratory of Biological Anthropology, Graduate School of Human Sciences Osaka University Suita Japan
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Abstract
Humans have a prolonged childhood, which begins with an immature developmental state at birth. We take care of these helpless infants through a variety of cultural adaptations, including material culture, provisioning of food, and shared child care. Our species has long been characterized as having secondary altriciality, but an examination of human life history shows that we are fundamentally precocial, despite seeming helpless at birth. Human babies are also relatively large and overall require substantial attention and energy from caregivers. Previous work has focused on how culture permits us to give birth to helpless young and how our cultural adaptation solves problems stemming from encephalization. The birth of these dependent, costly creatures poses challenges but also creates opportunities by enhancing the development of social and emotional relationships with caregivers as well as language acquisition and enculturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen R. Rosenberg
- Department of Anthropology, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716, USA
- Philosophical Faculty, University of Hradec Králové, 500 03 Hradec Králové, Czech Republic
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Haeusler M, Grunstra ND, Martin RD, Krenn VA, Fornai C, Webb NM. The obstetrical dilemma hypothesis: there's life in the old dog yet. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2021; 96:2031-2057. [PMID: 34013651 PMCID: PMC8518115 DOI: 10.1111/brv.12744] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/15/2020] [Revised: 05/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The term 'obstetrical dilemma' was coined by Washburn in 1960 to describe the trade-off between selection for a larger birth canal, permitting successful passage of a big-brained human neonate, and the smaller pelvic dimensions required for bipedal locomotion. His suggested solution to these antagonistic pressures was to give birth prematurely, explaining the unusual degree of neurological and physical immaturity, or secondary altriciality, observed in human infants. This proposed trade-off has traditionally been offered as the predominant evolutionary explanation for why human childbirth is so challenging, and inherently risky, compared to that of other primates. This perceived difficulty is likely due to the tight fit of fetal to maternal pelvic dimensions along with the convoluted shape of the birth canal and a comparatively low degree of ligamentous flexibility. Although the ideas combined under the obstetrical dilemma hypothesis originated almost a century ago, they have received renewed attention and empirical scrutiny in the last decade, with some researchers advocating complete rejection of the hypothesis and its assumptions. However, the hypothesis is complex because it presently captures several, mutually non-exclusive ideas: (i) there is an evolutionary trade-off resulting from opposing selection pressures on the pelvis; (ii) selection favouring a narrow pelvis specifically derives from bipedalism; (iii) human neonates are secondarily altricial because they are born relatively immature to ensure that they fit through the maternal bony pelvis; (iv) as a corollary to the asymmetric selection pressure for a spacious birth canal in females, humans evolved pronounced sexual dimorphism of pelvic shape. Recently, the hypothesis has been challenged on both empirical and theoretical grounds. Here, we appraise the original ideas captured under the 'obstetrical dilemma' and their subsequent evolution. We also evaluate complementary and alternative explanations for a tight fetopelvic fit and obstructed labour, including ecological factors related to nutrition and thermoregulation, constraints imposed by the stability of the pelvic floor or by maternal and fetal metabolism, the energetics of bipedalism, and variability in pelvic shape. This reveals that human childbirth is affected by a complex combination of evolutionary, ecological, and biocultural factors, which variably constrain maternal pelvic form and fetal growth. Our review demonstrates that it is unwarranted to reject the obstetrical dilemma hypothesis entirely because several of its fundamental assumptions have not been successfully discounted despite claims to the contrary. As such, the obstetrical dilemma remains a tenable hypothesis that can be used productively to guide evolutionary research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Haeusler
- Institute of Evolutionary MedicineUniversity of ZurichWinterthurerstrasse 190Zürich8057Switzerland
| | - Nicole D.S. Grunstra
- Konrad Lorenz Institute (KLI) for Evolution and Cognition ResearchMartinstrasse 12Klosterneuburg3400Austria
- Department of Evolutionary BiologyUniversity of ViennaUniversity Biology Building (UBB), Carl Djerassi Platz 1Vienna1030Austria
- Mammal CollectionNatural History Museum ViennaBurgring 7Vienna1010Austria
| | - Robert D. Martin
- Institute of Evolutionary MedicineUniversity of ZurichWinterthurerstrasse 190Zürich8057Switzerland
- The Field Museum1400 S Lake Shore DrChicagoIL60605U.S.A.
| | - Viktoria A. Krenn
- Institute of Evolutionary MedicineUniversity of ZurichWinterthurerstrasse 190Zürich8057Switzerland
- Department of Evolutionary AnthropologyUniversity of ViennaUniversity Biology Building (UBB), Carl Djerassi Platz 1Vienna1030Austria
| | - Cinzia Fornai
- Institute of Evolutionary MedicineUniversity of ZurichWinterthurerstrasse 190Zürich8057Switzerland
- Department of Evolutionary AnthropologyUniversity of ViennaUniversity Biology Building (UBB), Carl Djerassi Platz 1Vienna1030Austria
| | - Nicole M. Webb
- Institute of Evolutionary MedicineUniversity of ZurichWinterthurerstrasse 190Zürich8057Switzerland
- Senckenberg Research Institute and Natural History Museum FrankfurtSenckenberganlage 25Frankfurt am Main60325Germany
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Abe D, Sakata S, Motoyama K, Toyota N, Nishizono H, Horiuchi M. Economical and preferred walking speed using body weight support apparatus with a spring-like characteristics. BMC Sports Sci Med Rehabil 2021; 13:107. [PMID: 34488873 PMCID: PMC8422757 DOI: 10.1186/s13102-021-00336-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2021] [Accepted: 08/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A specific walking speed minimizing the U-shaped relationship between energy cost of transport per unit distance (CoT) and speed is called economical speed (ES). To investigate the effects of reduced body weight on the ES, we installed a body weight support (BWS) apparatus with a spring-like characteristics. We also examined whether the 'calculated' ES was equivalent to the 'preferred' walking speed (PWS) with 30% BWS. METHODS We measured oxygen uptake and carbon dioxide output to calculate CoT values at seven treadmill walking speeds (0.67-2.00 m s- 1) in 40 healthy young males under normal walking (NW) and BWS. The PWS was determined under both conditions on a different day. RESULTS A spring-like behavior of our BWS apparatus reduced the CoT values at 1.56, 1.78, and 2.00 m s- 1. The ES with BWS (1.61 ± 0.11 m s- 1) was faster than NW condition (1.39 ± 0.06 m s- 1). A Bland-Altman analysis indicated that there were no systematic biases between ES and PWS in both conditions. CONCLUSIONS The use of BWS apparatus with a spring-like behavior reduced the CoT values at faster walking speeds, resulting in the faster ES with 30% BWS compared to NW. Since the ES was equivalent to the PWS in both conditions, the PWS could be mainly determined by the metabolic minimization in healthy young males. This result also derives that the PWS can be a substitutable index of the individual ES in these populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daijiro Abe
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higashi- ku, Fukuoka, 813-8503, Japan.
| | - Shunsuke Sakata
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higashi- ku, Fukuoka, 813-8503, Japan.,Department of Management and Information, Faculty of Commerce, Yokohama College of Commerce, Yokohama, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - Kiyotaka Motoyama
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higashi- ku, Fukuoka, 813-8503, Japan
| | - Naoki Toyota
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higashi- ku, Fukuoka, 813-8503, Japan
| | - Hidetsugu Nishizono
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higashi- ku, Fukuoka, 813-8503, Japan.,Department of Sport Science and Health, Faculty of Human Sciences, Kyushu Sangyo University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Masahiro Horiuchi
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mt. Fuji Research Institute, Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi, Japan
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Mukhra R, Krishan K, Nirenberg MS, Ansert E, Kanchan T. The contact area of static and dynamic footprints: Forensic implications. Sci Justice 2021; 61:187-192. [PMID: 33736852 DOI: 10.1016/j.scijus.2020.10.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2020] [Revised: 09/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/18/2020] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
When found at crime scenes, footprints may be evidentially valuable and can assist with the identity of a perpetrator based on their features and/or measurements. Footprints can be either static (made while standing) or dynamic (made while walking). While extensive research has been performed on the linear measurements obtained from static and dynamic footprints, research on the comparisons between the contact area of static and dynamic footprints in the forensic context are limited. The present study compares the contact area of static and dynamic bare footprints to determine if statistically significant differences exist between the two. Static and dynamic footprints were obtained from a sample of randomly-selected 461 Jatt Sikh adults (230 males and 231 females) of Indian origin between the ages of 19 and 32 years. The footprint contact area was calculated from each footprint (excluding the toes) using a PedoGRID® sheet. No statistically significant differences were observed between the contact area of static and dynamic footprints for each foot among males and females. However, statistically significant differences between both the sexes were found in the footprint contact areas of both footprint types. The right dynamic footprint contact area was found to be the most predictive measurement for classifying and estimating sex from a footprint's contact area. The study has implications in the analysis of footprints recovered from crime scenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richa Mukhra
- Department of Anthropology (UGC Centre of Advanced Study), Panjab University, Sector-14, Chandigarh, India
| | - Kewal Krishan
- Department of Anthropology (UGC Centre of Advanced Study), Panjab University, Sector-14, Chandigarh, India.
| | - Michael S Nirenberg
- Friendly Foot Care, PC, 50 W. 94th Place, Crown Point, IN 46307 United States
| | - Elizabeth Ansert
- St. Vincent Hospital, 123 Summer St., Worcester, MA 01608 United States
| | - Tanuj Kanchan
- Department of Forensic Medicine and Toxicology, All India Institute of Medical Sciences, Jodhpur, India
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14
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Moving Beyond the Obstetrical Dilemma Hypothesis: Birth, Weaning and Infant Care in the Plio-Pleistocene. THE MOTHER-INFANT NEXUS IN ANTHROPOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-27393-4_10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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15
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Abe D, Fukuoka Y, Horiuchi M. On the simple calculation of walking efficiency without kinematic information for its convenient use. J Physiol Anthropol 2019; 38:17. [PMID: 31888750 PMCID: PMC6937908 DOI: 10.1186/s40101-019-0211-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 10/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Since walking is a daily activity not to require the maximal effort in healthy populations, a very few universal bio-parameters and/or methods have been defined to evaluate individual walking characteristics in those populations. A concept of "economy" is a potential candidate; however, walking economy highly depends on speed, so direct comparisons of economy values are difficult between studies. We investigated whether the vertical component of net walking "efficiency" (Effvert; %) is constant across speed. In that case, direct comparisons of Effvert will be possible between studies or individuals at any voluntary speed. METHODS Thirty young male participants walked at eight speeds on the level or ± 5% gradients, providing vertical speeds (vvert). Differences in energy expenditure between level and uphill or downhill gradients (ΔEE) were calculated. The metabolic rate for vertical component (MRvert) was calculated by multiplying ΔEE with body mass (BM). The mechanical power output for vertical component (Pmech) was calculated by multiplying BM, gravitational acceleration, and vvert. Effvert was obtained from the ratio of Pmech to MRvert at each vvert. Delta efficiency (Delta-E; %) was also calculated from the inverse slope of the regression line representing the relationship of Pmech to MRvert. RESULTS Upward Effvert was nearly constant at around 35% and downward Effvert ranged widely (49-80%). No significant differences were observed between upward Delta-E (35.5 ± 8.8%) and Effvert at any speeds, but not between downward Delta-E (44.9 ± 12.8%) and Effvert. CONCLUSIONS Upward ΔEE could be proportional to vvert. Upward, but not downward, Effvert should be useful not only for healthy populations but also for clinical patients to evaluate individual gait characteristics, because it requires only two metabolic measurements on the level and uphill gradients without kinematic information at any voluntary speed. TRIAL REGISTRATION UMIN000017690 (R000020501; registered May 26th, 2015, before the first trial) and UMIN000031456 (R000035911; registered Feb. 23rd, 2018, before the first trial).
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Affiliation(s)
- Daijiro Abe
- Biodynamics Laboratory, Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka, 813-8503, Japan.
| | - Yoshiyuki Fukuoka
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyotanabe City, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Masahiro Horiuchi
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mount Fuji Research Institute, Fujiyoshida City, Yamanashi, Japan
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16
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Lugli F, Cipriani A, Capecchi G, Ricci S, Boschin F, Boscato P, Iacumin P, Badino F, Mannino MA, Talamo S, Richards MP, Benazzi S, Ronchitelli A. Strontium and stable isotope evidence of human mobility strategies across the Last Glacial Maximum in southern Italy. Nat Ecol Evol 2019; 3:905-911. [DOI: 10.1038/s41559-019-0900-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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17
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Horiuchi M, Handa-Kirihara Y, Abe D, Fukuoka Y. Combined effects of exposure to hypoxia and cool on walking economy and muscle oxygenation profiles at tibialis anterior. J Sports Sci 2019; 37:1638-1647. [PMID: 30774004 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2019.1580130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
We investigated combined effects of ambient temperature (23°C or 13°C) and fraction of inspired oxygen (21%O2 or 13%O2) on energy cost of walking (Cw: J·kg-1·km-1) and economical speed (ES). Eighteen healthy young adults (11 males, seven females) walked at seven speeds from 0.67 to 1.67 m s-1 (four min per stage). Environmental conditions were set; thermoneutral (N: 23°C) with normoxia (N: 21%O2) = NN; 23°C (N) with hypoxia (H: 13%O2) = NH; cool (C: 13°C) with 21%O2 (N) = CN, and 13°C (C) with 13%O2 (H) = CH. Muscle deoxygenation (HHb) and tissue O2 saturation (StO2) were measured at tibialis anterior. We found a significantly slower ES in NH (1.289 ± 0.091 m s-1) and CH (1.275 ± 0.099 m s-1) than in NN (1.334 ± 0.112 m s-1) and CN (1.332 ± 0.104 m s-1). Changes in HHb and StO2 were related to the ES. These results suggested that the combined effects (exposure to hypoxia and cool) is nearly equal to exposure to hypoxia and cool individually. Specifically, acute moderate hypoxia slowed the ES by approx. 4%, but acute cool environment did not affect the ES. Further, HHb and StO2 may partly account for an individual ES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Horiuchi
- a Division of Human Environmental Science , Mt. Fuji Research Institute , Fuji-yoshdia-city , Japan
| | - Yoko Handa-Kirihara
- a Division of Human Environmental Science , Mt. Fuji Research Institute , Fuji-yoshdia-city , Japan
| | - Daijiro Abe
- b Center for Health and Sports Science , Kyushu Sangyo University , Fukuoka , Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Fukuoka
- c Faculty of Health and Sports Science , Doshisya University , Kyoto , Japan
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18
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Bouterse L, Wall-Scheffler C. Children are not like other loads: a cross-cultural perspective on the influence of burdens and companionship on human walking. PeerJ 2018; 6:e5547. [PMID: 30225171 PMCID: PMC6139008 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.5547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2018] [Accepted: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
A major portion of humans' activity-based energy expenditure is taken up by locomotion, particularly walking. Walking behaviors have energetic outcomes and as such can be important windows into how populations and groups adjust to different environmental and task constraints. While sex differences in the speed of paired walkers have been established by others, the dynamics of how walkers adjust their speed in more varied groups and in groups containing children remains unexplored. Furthermore, little ecological data exists to illustrate the relationships between walking speed and child-carrying. Here, we aim to determine how culture impacts the effects of group composition and infant-carrying on walking speed. Because the determinants of group dynamics and parental investment are partially cultural, we examine walking behavior in the Northwestern United States and in Central Uganda. Using an observational method, we recorded the speed, load carriage, and group composition of pedestrians in a single naturalistic urban environment within each country. Our data suggest that children are treated fundamentally differently than other loads or the presence of walking partners, and that major speed adjustments are child-dependent. Our data furthermore indicate that Ugandans walk more slowly in groups than when alone, while Americans walk more quickly in groups. Clear distinctions between the groups make large generalizations about walking behavior difficult, and highlight the importance of culturally specific contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leah Bouterse
- Department of Biology, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, WA, United States of America
| | - Cara Wall-Scheffler
- Department of Biology, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, WA, United States of America.,Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States of America
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19
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Ebine N, Ahad-Abdulkarim-D A, Miyake Y, Hojo T, Abe D, Horiuchi M, Fukuoka Y. Influence of Age on Cardiorespiratory Kinetics During Sinusoidal Walking in Humans. Front Physiol 2018; 9:1191. [PMID: 30197604 PMCID: PMC6117427 DOI: 10.3389/fphys.2018.01191] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2018] [Accepted: 08/07/2018] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
We sought to determine the influence of age on cardiorespiratory kinetics during sinusoidal walking in two groups: 13 healthy young subjects (YG; 7 men and 6 women, age 21 ± 2 years) and 15 healthy elderly subjects (ELD; 9 men and 6 women, age 67 ± 5 years). A treadmill’s speed was sinusoidally changed between 3 and 6 km h-1 in the YG and between 3 and 5 km h-1 in the ELD during periods of 1, 2, 5, and 10 min, and in a stepwise manner. We compared the groups’ heart rate (HR), ventilation (V˙E), and gas exchange (CO2 output (V˙CO2) and O2 uptake (V˙O2)) responses. We determined the phase shift (PS) and the normalized amplitude (Amp) ratio of these kinetics in relation to the sinusoidal change in walking speed in response to the magnitude from the maximum to minimum speeds as revealed by a Fourier analysis in all cardiorespiratory variables. Both the Amp ratio and PS in the V˙E, V˙CO2, and V˙O2 responses were very similar between the ELD and YG, and being independent of the periods of sinusoidal oscillations. In marked contrast, the PS of the HR kinetics was significantly slowed in the ELD compared to the YG. The Amp ratio of HR was not related to the covariance variation of HR (CVHR) at standing rest in the ELD. The HR kinetics during sinusoidal walking may not be attributable to parasympathetic nerve activity into the heart in the ELD. The slope of the Amp of V˙E related to the Amp of V˙CO2 (V˙E/V˙CO2 slope) was steeper in the ELD (0.0258) compared to the YG (0.0132), suggesting that exercise hyperpnea could be greatly induced during walking in the ELD. These findings suggest that aging influences the alterations of autonomic nervous system-dependent slower HR kinetics and exercise hyperpnea during walking in the ELD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naoyuki Ebine
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
| | | | - Yuki Miyake
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Tatsuya Hojo
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
| | - Daijiro Abe
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, Fukuoka, Japan
| | - Masahiro Horiuchi
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mount Fuji Research Institute, Fujiyoshida, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Fukuoka
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
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20
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Horiuchi M, Handa Y, Fukuoka Y. Impact of ambient temperature on energy cost and economical speed during level walking in healthy young males. Biol Open 2018; 7:bio.035121. [PMID: 29970478 PMCID: PMC6078347 DOI: 10.1242/bio.035121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
We measured oxygen consumption and carbon dioxide output during walking [per unit distance (Cw) values] for 14 healthy young human males at seven speeds from 0.67 to 1.67 m s−1 (4 min per stage) in thermoneutral (23°C), cool (13°C), and hot (33°C) environments. The Cw at faster gait speeds in the 33°C trial was slightly higher compared to those in the 23°C and 13°C trials. We found the speed at which the young males walked had a significant effect on the Cw values (P<0.05), but the different environmental temperatures showed no significant effect (P>0.05). Economical speed (ES) which can minimize the Cw in each individual was calculated from a U-shaped relationship. We found a significantly slower ES at 33°C [1.265 (0.060) m s−1 mean (s.d.)] compared to 23°C [1.349 (0.077) m s−1] and 13°C [1.356 (0.078) m s−1, P<0.05, respectively] with no differences between 23°C and 13°C (P>0.05). Heart rate and mean skin temperature responses in the 33°C condition increased throughout the walking trial compared to 23°C and 13°C (all P<0.05). These results suggest that an acutely hot environment slowed the ES by ∼7%, but an acutely cool environment did not affect the Cw and ES. Summary: Energy cost of walking in a hot environment was greater than in a comfortable environment. Thus, to prevent heat related injury, walking speed should be reduced in a hot environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Horiuchi
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mt. Fuji Research Institute, Kamiyoshida, 5597-1 Fuji yoshida City, Yamanashi 4030005, Japan
| | - Yoko Handa
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mt. Fuji Research Institute, Kamiyoshida, 5597-1 Fuji yoshida City, Yamanashi 4030005, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Fukuoka
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Tatara 1-3, Kyotanabe, Kyoto 6100394, Japan
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21
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Energy cost and lower leg muscle activities during erect bipedal locomotion under hyperoxia. J Physiol Anthropol 2018; 37:18. [PMID: 29914562 PMCID: PMC6006575 DOI: 10.1186/s40101-018-0177-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 05/28/2018] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Energy cost of transport per unit distance (CoT) against speed shows U-shaped fashion in walking and linear fashion in running, indicating that there exists a specific walking speed minimizing the CoT, being defined as economical speed (ES). Another specific gait speed is the intersection speed between both fashions, being called energetically optimal transition speed (EOTS). We measured the ES, EOTS, and muscle activities during walking and running at the EOTS under hyperoxia (40% fraction of inspired oxygen) on the level and uphill gradients (+ 5%). Methods Oxygen consumption \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$ \left(\dot{V}{\mathrm{O}}_2\right) $$\end{document}V˙O2 and carbon dioxide output \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$ \left(\dot{V}{\mathrm{CO}}_2\right) $$\end{document}V˙CO2 were measured to calculate the CoT values at eight walking speeds (2.4–7.3 km h−1) and four running speeds (7.3–9.4 km h− 1) in 17 young males. Electromyography was recorded from gastrocnemius medialis, gastrocnemius lateralis (GL), and tibialis anterior (TA) to evaluate muscle activities. Mean power frequency (MPF) was obtained to compare motor unit recruitment patterns between walking and running. Results \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$ \dot{V}{\mathrm{O}}_2 $$\end{document}V˙O2, \documentclass[12pt]{minimal}
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\begin{document}$$ \dot{V}{\mathrm{CO}}_2 $$\end{document}V˙CO2, and CoT values were lower under hyperoxia than normoxia at faster walking speeds and any running speeds. A faster ES on the uphill gradient and slower EOTS on both gradients were observed under hyperoxia than normoxia. GL and TA activities became lower when switching from walking to running at the EOTS under both FiO2 conditions on both gradients, so did the MPF in the TA. Conclusions ES and EOTS were influenced by reduced metabolic demands induced by hyperoxia. GL and TA activities in association with a lower shift of motor unit recruitment patterns in the TA would be related to the gait selection when walking or running at the EOTS. Trial registration UMIN000017690 (R000020501). Registered May 26, 2015, before the first trial. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (10.1186/s40101-018-0177-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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22
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Reynolds TA, Makhanova A, Marcinkowska UM, Jasienska G, McNulty JK, Eckel LA, Nikonova L, Maner JK. Progesterone and women's anxiety across the menstrual cycle. Horm Behav 2018; 102:34-40. [PMID: 29673619 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2018.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2017] [Revised: 04/10/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Animal models and a few human investigations suggest progesterone may be associated with anxiety. Progesterone naturally fluctuates across the menstrual cycle, offering an opportunity to understand how within-person increases in progesterone and average progesterone levels across the cycle correspond to women's anxiety. Across two longitudinal studies, we simultaneously modeled the between- and within-person associations between progesterone and anxiety using multilevel modeling. In Study 1, 100 Polish women provided saliva samples and reported their anxiety at three phases of the menstrual cycle: follicular, peri-ovulatory, and luteal. A significant between-person effect emerged, revealing that women with higher average progesterone levels across their cycles reported higher levels of anxiety than women with lower progesterone cycles. This effect held controlling for estradiol. In Study 2, 61 American women provided saliva samples and reported their attachment anxiety during laboratory sessions during the same three cycle phases. A significant between-person and within-person association emerged: women with higher average progesterone levels reported higher levels of attachment anxiety, and as women's progesterone levels increased across their cycles, so too did their attachment anxiety. These effects held controlling for cortisol. In sum, both studies provide support for a link between menstrual cycle progesterone levels and subjective anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tania A Reynolds
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32304, United States.
| | - Anastasia Makhanova
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32304, United States.
| | - Urszula M Marcinkowska
- Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Grzegórzecka 20, Krakow, Poland.
| | - Grazyna Jasienska
- Department of Environmental Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Grzegórzecka 20, Krakow, Poland.
| | - James K McNulty
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32304, United States.
| | - Lisa A Eckel
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32304, United States.
| | - Larissa Nikonova
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32304, United States.
| | - Jon K Maner
- Department of Psychology, Florida State University, 1107 W. Call St., Tallahassee, FL 32304, United States.
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23
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DeSilva JM, Rosenberg KR. Anatomy, Development, and Function of the Human Pelvis. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2017; 300:628-632. [PMID: 28297176 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23561] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 01/14/2017] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
The pelvis is an anatomically complex and functionally informative bone that contributes directly to both human locomotion and obstetrics. Because of the pelvis' important role in obstetrics, it is one of the most sexually dimorphic bony elements of the human body. The complex intersection of pelvic dimorphism, locomotion, and obstetrics has been reenergized by exciting new research, and many papers in this special issue of the pelvis help provide clarity on the relationship between pelvic form (especially female) and locomotor function. Compared to the pelvis of our ape relatives, the human pelvis is uniquely shaped; it is superoinferiorly short and stout, and mediolaterally wide-critical adaptations for bipedalism that are already present in some form very early in the history of the hominin lineage. In this issue, 13 original research papers address the anatomy, development, variation, and function of the modern human pelvis, with implications for understanding the selection pressures that shaped and continue to shape this bone. This rich collection of scholarship moves our understanding of the pelvis forward, while raising dozens of new questions that we hope will serve as inspiration for colleagues and students (both current and future) puzzled by this fascinatingly complex bone. Anat Rec, 300:628-632, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeremy M DeSilva
- Department of Anthropology, Dartmouth College, Hanover, New Hampshire, 03755
| | - Karen R Rosenberg
- Department of Anthropology, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware, 19716
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24
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Wall-Scheffler CM, Myers MJ. The Biomechanical and Energetic Advantages of a Mediolaterally Wide Pelvis in Women. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2017; 300:764-775. [PMID: 28297181 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Revised: 08/15/2016] [Accepted: 10/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Here, we argue that two key shifts in thinking are required to more clearly understand the selection pressures shaping pelvis evolution in female hominins: (1) the primary locomotor mode of female hominins was loaded walking in the company of others, and (2) the periodic gait of human walking is most effectively explained as a biomechanically controlled process related to heel-strike collisions that is tuned for economy and stability by properly-timed motor inputs (a model called dynamic walking). In the light of these two frameworks, the evidence supports differences between female and male upper-pelvic morphology being the result of the unique reproductive role of female hominins, which involved moderately paced, loaded walking in groups. Anat Rec, 300:764-775, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara M Wall-Scheffler
- Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington.,Department of Biology, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, Washington
| | - Marcella J Myers
- Department of Biology, St. Catherine University, St. Paul Campus, St. Paul, Minnesota
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25
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Gruss LT, Gruss R, Schmitt D. Pelvic Breadth and Locomotor Kinematics in Human Evolution. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2017; 300:739-751. [PMID: 28297175 DOI: 10.1002/ar.23550] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/23/2016] [Revised: 08/06/2016] [Accepted: 10/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
A broad pelvis is characteristic of most, if not all, pre-modern hominins. In at least some early australopithecines, most notably the female Australopithecus afarensis specimen known as "Lucy," it is very broad and coupled with very short lower limbs. In 1991, Rak suggested that Lucy's pelvic anatomy improved locomotor efficiency by increasing stride length through rotation of the wide pelvis in the axial plane. Compared to lengthening strides by increasing flexion and extension at the hips, this mechanism could avoid potentially costly excessive vertical oscillations of the body's center of mass (COM). Here, we test this hypothesis. We examined 3D kinematics of walking at various speeds in 26 adult subjects to address the following questions: Do individuals with wider pelves take longer strides, and do they use a smaller degree of hip flexion and extension? Is pelvic rotation greater in individuals with shorter legs, and those with narrower pelves? Our results support Rak's hypothesis. Subjects with wider pelves do take longer strides for a given velocity, and for a given stride length they flex and extend their hips less, suggesting a smoother pathway of the COM. Individuals with shorter legs do use more pelvic rotation when walking, but pelvic breadth was not related to pelvic rotation. These results suggest that a broad pelvis could benefit any bipedal hominin, but especially a short-legged australopithecine such as Lucy, by improving locomotor efficiency, particularly when carrying an infant or traveling in a foraging group with individuals of varying sizes. Anat Rec, 300:739-751, 2017. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Richard Gruss
- Virginia Tech Department of Mathematics, Blacksburg, Virginia, 24061
| | - Daniel Schmitt
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, North Carolina, 27708
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26
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Lugli F, Cipriani A, Arnaud J, Arzarello M, Peretto C, Benazzi S. Suspected limited mobility of a Middle Pleistocene woman from Southern Italy: strontium isotopes of a human deciduous tooth. Sci Rep 2017; 7:8615. [PMID: 28819227 PMCID: PMC5561174 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-09007-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2017] [Accepted: 07/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
We present the Sr isotopic composition of enamel of the most ancient deciduous tooth ever discovered in Italy to assess human mobility in Middle Pleistocene. Reconstructing ancient mobility is crucial for understanding human strategy at exploiting temporally and spatially patchy resources, with most studies focusing on indirect evidences, ultimately affecting our interpretation on hominin territoriality and energetic costs invested by hominin groups. Here, we use the high spatial resolution and micro-destructivity options offered by the Laser Ablation Multi-Collector Inductively Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry technique, to determine the 87Sr/ 86Sr intra-tooth variability of a human deciduous incisor from the Middle Pleistocene layers of the Isernia La Pineta site (Italy). We compared these data with the Sr isotopic signature of local micro-mammals, the broadest home-range of the macro-mammals and with modern plant samples. Our study reveals that while macro-mammals have possibly migrated through the landscape for up to 50 km, the pregnant woman from Isernia was probably local, given that the isotopic ratio of the enamel falls within the local range and is comparable with the signature of the local plants in a radius of 10 km. This is the first case study of Sr isotopic composition determination in such ancient deciduous tooth.
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Affiliation(s)
- Federico Lugli
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125, Modena, Italy.
| | - Anna Cipriani
- Department of Chemical and Geological Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125, Modena, Italy.,Lamont-Doherty Earth Observatory, Columbia University, Palisades, New York, 10964, USA
| | - Julie Arnaud
- Department of Humanities, Section of Prehistorical and Anthropological Sciences, University of Ferrara, C.so Ercole I d'Este 32, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Marta Arzarello
- Department of Humanities, Section of Prehistorical and Anthropological Sciences, University of Ferrara, C.so Ercole I d'Este 32, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Carlo Peretto
- Department of Humanities, Section of Prehistorical and Anthropological Sciences, University of Ferrara, C.so Ercole I d'Este 32, 44121, Ferrara, Italy
| | - Stefano Benazzi
- Department of Cultural Heritage, University of Bologna, 48121, Ravenna, Italy.,Department of Human Evolution, Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
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27
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Measuring the Energy of Ventilation and Circulation during Human Walking using Induced Hypoxia. Sci Rep 2017; 7:4938. [PMID: 28694491 PMCID: PMC5504009 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-05068-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Energy expenditure (EE) during walking includes energy costs to move and support the body and for respiration and circulation. We measured EE during walking under three different oxygen concentrations. Eleven healthy, young, male lowlanders walked on a treadmill at seven gait speeds (0.67–1.83 m s−1) on a level gradient under normobaric normoxia (room air, 21% O2), moderate hypoxia (15% O2), and severe hypoxia (11% O2). By comparing the hypoxia-induced elevation in heart rate (HR [bpm]), ventilation (VE [L min−1]) with the change in energy expenditure (EE [W]) at each speed, we were able to determine circulatory and respiratory costs. In a multivariate model combining HR and VE, respiratory costs were 0.44 ± 0.15 W per each L min−1 increase in VE, and circulatory costs were 0.24 ± 0.05 W per each bpm increase in HR (model adjusted r2 = 0.97, p < 0.001). These VE costs were substantially lower than previous studies that ignored the contribution of HR to cardiopulmonary work. Estimated HR costs were consistent with, although somewhat higher than, measures derived from catheterization studies. Cardiopulmonary costs accounted for 23% of resting EE, but less than 5% of net walking costs (i.e., with resting EE subtracted).
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Alcantara RS, Wall-Scheffler CM. Stroller running: Energetic and kinematic changes across pushing methods. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0180575. [PMID: 28672004 PMCID: PMC5495480 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0180575] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Running with a stroller provides an opportunity for parents to exercise near their child and counteract health declines experienced during early parenthood. Understanding biomechanical and physiological changes that occur when stroller running is needed to evaluate its health impact, yet the effects of stroller running have not been clearly presented. Here, three commonly used stroller pushing methods were investigated to detect potential changes in energetic cost and lower-limb kinematics. METHODS Sixteen individuals (M/F: 10/6) ran at self-selected speeds for 800m under three stroller conditions (2-Hands, 1-Hand, and Push/Chase) and an independent running control. RESULTS A significant decrease in speed (p = 0.001) and stride length (p<0.001) was observed between the control and stroller conditions, however no significant change in energetic cost (p = 0.080) or heart rate (p = 0.393) was observed. Additionally, pushing method had a significant effect on speed (p = 0.001) and stride length (p<0.001). CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that pushing technique influences stroller running speed and kinematics. These findings suggest specific fitness effects may be achieved through the implementation of different pushing methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan S. Alcantara
- Department of Biology, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
| | - Cara M. Wall-Scheffler
- Department of Biology, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
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Hammond AS, Royer DF, Fleagle JG. The Omo-Kibish I pelvis. J Hum Evol 2017; 108:199-219. [PMID: 28552208 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2017.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2017] [Revised: 04/13/2017] [Accepted: 04/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Omo-Kibish I (Omo I) from southern Ethiopia is the oldest anatomically modern Homo sapiens skeleton currently known (196 ± 5 ka). A partial hipbone (os coxae) of Omo I was recovered more than 30 years after the first portion of the skeleton was recovered, a find which is significant because human pelves can be informative about an individual's sex, age-at-death, body size, obstetrics and parturition, and trunk morphology. Recent human pelves are distinct from earlier Pleistocene Homo spp. pelves because they are mediolaterally narrower in bispinous breadth, have more vertically oriented ilia, lack a well-developed iliac pillar, and have distinct pubic morphology. The pelvis of Omo I provides an opportunity to test whether the earliest modern humans had the pelvic morphology characteristic of modern humans today and to shed light onto the paleobiology of the earliest humans. Here, we formally describe the preservation and morphology of the Omo I hipbone, and quantitatively and qualitatively compare the hipbone to recent humans and relevant fossil Homo. The Omo I hipbone is modern human in appearance, displaying a moderate iliac tubercle (suggesting a reduced iliac pillar) and an ilium that is not as laterally flaring as earlier Homo. Among those examined in this study, the Omo I ischium is most similar in shape to (but substantially larger than) that of recent Sudanese people. Omo I has features that suggest this skeleton belonged to a female. The stature estimates in this study were derived from multiple bones from the upper and lower part of the body, and suggest that there may be differences in the upper and lower limb proportions of the earliest modern humans compared to recent humans. The large size and robusticity of the Omo I pelvis is in agreement with other studies that have found that modern human reduction in postcranial robusticity occurred later in our evolutionary history.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ashley S Hammond
- Center for Advanced Study of Human Paleobiology, Department of Anthropology, George Washington University, Washington, DC, 20052, USA.
| | - Danielle F Royer
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado, Denver, CO, 80204, USA
| | - John G Fleagle
- Department of Anatomical Sciences, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY, 11794, USA
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Ruff C. Mechanical Constraints on the Hominin Pelvis and the “Obstetrical Dilemma”. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2017; 300:946-955. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.23539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2016] [Revised: 07/28/2016] [Accepted: 10/09/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Ruff
- Center for Functional Anatomy and Evolution; Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine; 1830 E. Monument St Baltimore Maryland 21205
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Abe D, Fukuoka Y, Horiuchi M. Muscle activities during walking and running at energetically optimal transition speed under normobaric hypoxia on gradient slopes. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173816. [PMID: 28301525 PMCID: PMC5354415 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173816] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/21/2016] [Accepted: 02/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Energy cost of transport per unit distance (CoT; J·kg-1·km-1) displays a U-shaped fashion in walking and a linear fashion in running as a function of gait speed (v; km·h-1). There exists an intersection between U-shaped and linear CoT-v relationships, being termed energetically optimal transition speed (EOTS; km·h-1). Combined effects of gradient and moderate normobaric hypoxia (15.0% O2) were investigated when walking and running at the EOTS in fifteen young males. The CoT values were determined at eight walking speeds (2.4–7.3 km·h-1) and four running speeds (7.3–9.4 km·h-1) on level and gradient slopes (±5%) at normoxia and hypoxia. Since an alteration of tibialis anterior (TA) activity has been known as a trigger for gait transition, electromyogram was recorded from TA and its antagonists (gastrocnemius medialis (GM) and gastrocnemius lateralis (GL)) for about 30 steps during walking and running corresponding to the individual EOTS in each experimental condition. Mean power frequency (MPF; Hz) of each muscle was quantified to evaluate alterations of muscle fiber recruitment pattern. The EOTS was not significantly different between normoxia and hypoxia on any slopes (ranging from 7.412 to 7.679 km·h-1 at normoxia and 7.516 to 7.678 km·h-1 at hypoxia) due to upward shifts (enhanced metabolic rate) of both U-shaped and linear CoT-v relationships at hypoxia. GM, but not GL, activated more when switching from walking to running on level and gentle downhill slopes. Significant decreases in the muscular activity and/or MPF were observed only in the TA when switching the gait pattern. Taken together, the EOTS was not slowed by moderate hypoxia in the population of this study. Muscular activities of lower leg extremities and those muscle fiber recruitment patterns are dependent on the gradient when walking and running at the EOTS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daijiro Abe
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, Fukuoka, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Yoshiyuki Fukuoka
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyotanabe, Japan
| | - Masahiro Horiuchi
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mt. Fuji Research Institute, Fujiyoshida, Japan
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Kurki HK. Bilateral Asymmetry in the Human Pelvis. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2017; 300:653-665. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.23546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2016] [Revised: 09/26/2016] [Accepted: 12/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Helen K. Kurki
- Department of Anthropology; University of Victoria; Victoria BC V8W 2Y2 Canada
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Whitcome KK, Miller EE, Burns JL. Pelvic Rotation Effect on Human Stride Length: Releasing the Constraint of Obstetric Selection. Anat Rec (Hoboken) 2017; 300:752-763. [DOI: 10.1002/ar.23551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Revised: 08/01/2016] [Accepted: 10/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Jessica L. Burns
- Department of Anthropology; University of Utah; Salt Lake City Utah 84112
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Rathkey JK, Wall-Scheffler CM. People choose to run at their optimal speed. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2017; 163:85-93. [DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.23187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2016] [Revised: 12/21/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph K. Rathkey
- Department of Pathology; School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University; Cleveland Ohio 44106
| | - Cara M. Wall-Scheffler
- Department of Biology; Seattle Pacific University; Seattle Washington 98119-1997
- Department of Anthropology; University of Washington; Seattle Washington 98195-3100
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Horiuchi M, Handa Y, Abe D, Fukuoka Y. Walking economy at simulated high altitude in human healthy young male lowlanders. Biol Open 2016; 5:1408-1414. [PMID: 27744292 PMCID: PMC5087691 DOI: 10.1242/bio.019810] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
We measured oxygen consumption during walking per unit distance (Cw) values for 12 human healthy young males at six speeds from 0.667 to 1.639 m s−1 (four min per stage) on a level gradient under normobaric normoxia, moderate hypoxia (15% O2), and severe hypoxia (11% O2). Muscle deoxygenation (HHb) was measured at the vastus lateralis muscle using near-infrared spectroscopy. Economical speed which can minimize the Cw in each individual was calculated from a U-shaped relationship. We found a significantly slower economical speed (ES) under severe hypoxia [1.237 (0.056) m s−1; mean (s.d.)] compared to normoxia [1.334 (0.070) m s−1] and moderate hypoxia [1.314 (0.070) m s−1, P<0.05 respectively] with no differences between normoxia and moderate hypoxia (P>0.05). HHb gradually increased with increasing speed under severe hypoxia, while it did not increase under normoxia and moderate hypoxia. Changes in HHb between standing baseline and the final minute at faster gait speeds were significantly related to individual ES (r=0.393 at 1.250 m s−1, r=0.376 at 1.444 m s−1, and r=0.409 at 1.639 m s−1, P<0.05, respectively). These results suggested that acute severe hypoxia slowed ES by ∼8%, but moderate hypoxia left ES unchanged. Summary: Acute severe hypoxia slowed the economical speed (ES) which can minimize energy cost of walking. Muscle O2 extraction may be one of the determining factors of an individual's ES.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Horiuchi
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mt. Fuji Research Institute, Kami-yoshida 5597-1, Fuji-yoshida-city, Yamanashi 4030005, Japan
| | - Yoko Handa
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mt. Fuji Research Institute, Kami-yoshida 5597-1, Fuji-yoshida-city, Yamanashi 4030005, Japan
| | - Daijiro Abe
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, Matsukadai 2-3-1, Higashi-ku, Fukuoka-city, Fukuoka 8138503, Japan
| | - Yoshiyuki Fukuoka
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Tatara 1-3, Kyotanabe, Kyoto 6100394, Japan
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Hosfield R. Walking in a Winter Wonderland? Strategies for Early and Middle Pleistocene Survival in Midlatitude Europe. CURRENT ANTHROPOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.1086/688579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
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Gruss LT, Schmitt D. The evolution of the human pelvis: changing adaptations to bipedalism, obstetrics and thermoregulation. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci 2016; 370:20140063. [PMID: 25602067 DOI: 10.1098/rstb.2014.0063] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The fossil record of the human pelvis reveals the selective priorities acting on hominin anatomy at different points in our evolutionary history, during which mechanical requirements for locomotion, childbirth and thermoregulation often conflicted. In our earliest upright ancestors, fundamental alterations of the pelvis compared with non-human primates facilitated bipedal walking. Further changes early in hominin evolution produced a platypelloid birth canal in a pelvis that was wide overall, with flaring ilia. This pelvic form was maintained over 3-4 Myr with only moderate changes in response to greater habitat diversity, changes in locomotor behaviour and increases in brain size. It was not until Homo sapiens evolved in Africa and the Middle East 200 000 years ago that the narrow anatomically modern pelvis with a more circular birth canal emerged. This major change appears to reflect selective pressures for further increases in neonatal brain size and for a narrow body shape associated with heat dissipation in warm environments. The advent of the modern birth canal, the shape and alignment of which require fetal rotation during birth, allowed the earliest members of our species to deal obstetrically with increases in encephalization while maintaining a narrow body to meet thermoregulatory demands and enhance locomotor performance.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Daniel Schmitt
- Department of Evolutionary Anthropology, Duke University, Durham, NC, USA
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Kurki HK, Decrausaz SL. Shape variation in the human pelvis and limb skeleton: Implications for obstetric adaptation. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 2015; 159:630-8. [PMID: 26699269 DOI: 10.1002/ajpa.22922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2015] [Revised: 11/26/2015] [Accepted: 11/28/2015] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Under the obstetrical dilemma (OD) hypothesis, selection acts on the human female pelvis to ensure a sufficiently sized obstetric canal for birthing a large-brained, broad shouldered neonate, while bipedal locomotion selects for a narrower and smaller pelvis. Despite this female-specific stabilizing selection, variability of linear dimensions of the pelvic canal and overall size are not reduced in females, suggesting shape may instead be variable among females of a population. Female canal shape has been shown to vary among populations, while male canal shape does not. Within this context, we examine within-population canal shape variation in comparison with that of noncanal aspects of the pelvis and the limbs. MATERIALS AND METHODS Nine skeletal samples (total female n = 101, male n = 117) representing diverse body sizes and shapes were included. Principal components analysis was applied to size-adjusted variables of each skeletal region. A multivariate variance was calculated using the weighted PC scores for all components in each model and F-ratios used to assess differences in within-population variances between sexes and skeletal regions. RESULTS Within both sexes, multivariate canal shape variance is significantly greater than noncanal pelvis and limb variances, while limb variance is greater than noncanal pelvis variance in some populations. Multivariate shape variation is not consistently different between the sexes in any of the skeletal regions. DISCUSSION Diverse selective pressures, including obstetrics, locomotion, load carrying, and others may act on canal shape, as well as genetic drift and plasticity, thus increasing variation in morphospace while protecting obstetric sufficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Helen K Kurki
- Department of Anthropology, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Sarah-Louise Decrausaz
- Division of Biological Anthropology, Department of Archaeology and Anthropology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, CB2 3QG
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Abe D, Fukuoka Y, Horiuchi M. Economical Speed and Energetically Optimal Transition Speed Evaluated by Gross and Net Oxygen Cost of Transport at Different Gradients. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0138154. [PMID: 26383249 PMCID: PMC4575035 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0138154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Accepted: 08/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The oxygen cost of transport per unit distance (CoT; mL·kg-1·km-1) shows a U-shaped curve as a function of walking speed (v), which includes a particular walking speed minimizing the CoT, so called economical speed (ES). The CoT-v relationship in running is approximately linear. These distinctive walking and running CoT-v relationships give an intersection between U-shaped and linear CoT relationships, termed the energetically optimal transition speed (EOTS). This study investigated the effects of subtracting the standing oxygen cost for calculating the CoT and its relevant effects on the ES and EOTS at the level and gradient slopes (±5%) in eleven male trained athletes. The percent effects of subtracting the standing oxygen cost (4.8 ± 0.4 mL·kg-1·min-1) on the CoT were significantly greater as the walking speed was slower, but it was not significant at faster running speeds over 9.4 km·h-1. The percent effect was significantly dependent on the gradient (downhill > level > uphill, P < 0.001). The net ES (level 4.09 ± 0.31, uphill 4.22 ± 0.37, and downhill 4.16 ± 0.44 km·h-1) was approximately 20% slower than the gross ES (level 5.15 ± 0.18, uphill 5.27 ± 0.20, and downhill 5.37 ± 0.22 km·h-1, P < 0.001). Both net and gross ES were not significantly dependent on the gradient. In contrast, the gross EOTS was slower than the net EOTS at the level (7.49 ± 0.32 vs. 7.63 ± 0.36 km·h-1, P = 0.003) and downhill gradients (7.78 ± 0.33 vs. 8.01 ± 0.41 km·h-1, P < 0.001), but not at the uphill gradient (7.55 ± 0.37 vs. 7.63 ± 0.51 km·h-1, P = 0.080). Note that those percent differences were less than 2.9%. Given these results, a subtraction of the standing oxygen cost should be carefully considered depending on the purpose of each study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daijiro Abe
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, Fukuoka, Japan
- * E-mail:
| | - Yoshiyuki Fukuoka
- Faculty of Health and Sports Science, Doshisha University, Kyotanabe, Japan
| | - Masahiro Horiuchi
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mt. Fuji Research Institute, Fujiyoshida, Japan
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Horiuchi M, Endo J, Horiuchi Y, Abe D. Comparisons of energy cost and economical walking speed at various gradients in healthy, active younger and older adults. J Exerc Sci Fit 2015. [PMID: 29541103 DOI: 10.1016/j.jesf.2015.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Background/Objective Oxygen consumption during walking per unit distance (Cw ; mL/kg/m) is known to be greater for older adults than younger adults, although its underlying process is controversial. Methods We measured the Cw values at six gait speeds from 30 m/min to 105 m/min on level ground and gradient slopes (±5%) in healthy younger and older male adults. A quadratic approximation was applied for a relationship between Cw and gait speeds (v; m/min). It gives a U-shaped Cw -v relationship, which includes a particular gait speed minimizing the Cw , the so-called economical speed (ES). The age-related difference of the Cw -v relationship was assessed by comparisons of ES and/or Cw . Results A significantly greater Cw at 30 m/min and slower ES were found for older adults at the downhill gradient, suggesting that a combination of leftward and upward shifts of the Cw -v relationship was found at that gradient. Only a slower ES was found for older adults at the uphill gradient, suggesting that a leftward shift was found for older adults at that gradient. Neither a significant leftward nor an upward shift was found at the level gradient. Leg length significantly correlated to the ES for younger adults at the level and downhill gradients, while such a significant relationship was observed only at the level gradient for older adults. The maximal quadriceps muscle strength significantly correlated to the ES for older adults at all gradients, but not for younger adults. Conclusion The age-related alteration of the Cw -v relationship depends on the gradient, and its related factors were different between age groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- Masahiro Horiuchi
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mount Fuji Research Institute, Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi, Japan
- Northern Region Lifelong Sports Research Center, Hokusho University, Ebetsu, Hokkaido, Japan
| | - Junko Endo
- Division of Human Environmental Science, Mount Fuji Research Institute, Fujiyoshida, Yamanashi, Japan
| | - Yukari Horiuchi
- School of Psychological Science, Health Sciences University of Hokkaido, Sapporo, Japan
| | - Daijiro Abe
- Center for Health and Sports Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Wall-Scheffler CM, Wagnild J, Wagler E. Human footprint variation while performing load bearing tasks. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0118619. [PMID: 25738496 PMCID: PMC4349815 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0118619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2014] [Accepted: 01/21/2015] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Human footprint fossils have provided essential evidence about the evolution of human bipedalism as well as the social dynamics of the footprint makers, including estimates of speed, sex and group composition. Generally such estimates are made by comparing footprint evidence with modern controls; however, previous studies have not accounted for the variation in footprint dimensions coming from load bearing activities. It is likely that a portion of the hominins who created these fossil footprints were carrying a significant load, such as offspring or foraging loads, which caused variation in the footprint which could extend to variation in any estimations concerning the footprint’s maker. To identify significant variation in footprints due to load-bearing tasks, we had participants (N = 30, 15 males and 15 females) walk at a series of speeds carrying a 20kg pack on their back, side and front. Paint was applied to the bare feet of each participant to create footprints that were compared in terms of foot length, foot width and foot area. Female foot length and width increased during multiple loaded conditions. An appreciation of footprint variability associated with carrying loads adds an additional layer to our understanding of the behavior and morphology of extinct hominin populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cara M. Wall-Scheffler
- Department of Biology, Seattle Pacific University, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- Department of Anthropology, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America
- * E-mail:
| | - Janelle Wagnild
- Department of Anthropology, Durham University, Durham, United Kingdom
| | - Emily Wagler
- Arizona School of Podiatric Medicine, Glendale, Arizona, United States of America
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Castillo ER, Lieberman GM, McCarty LS, Lieberman DE. Effects of pole compliance and step frequency on the biomechanics and economy of pole carrying during human walking. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2014; 117:507-17. [DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00119.2014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
This study investigates whether a flexible pole can be used as an energy-saving method for humans carrying loads. We model the carrier and pole system as a driven damped harmonic oscillator and predict that the energy expended by the carrier is affected by the compliance of the pole and the ratio between the pole's natural frequency and the carrier's step frequency. We tested the model by measuring oxygen consumption in 16 previously untrained male participants walking on a treadmill at four step frequencies using two loaded poles: one made of bamboo and one of steel. We found that when the bamboo pole was carried at a step frequency 20% greater than its natural frequency, the motions of the centers of mass of the load and carrier were approximately equal in amplitude and opposite in phase, which we predicted would save energy for the carrier. Carrying the steel pole, however, resulted in the carrier and loads oscillating in phase and with roughly equal amplitude. Although participants were less economical using poles than predicted costs using conventional fixed-load techniques (such as backpacks), the bamboo pole was on average 5.0% less costly than the steel pole. When allowed to select their cadence, participants also preferred to carry the bamboo pole at step frequencies of ∼2.0 Hz. This frequency, which is significantly higher than the preferred unloaded step frequency, is most economical. These experiments suggest that pole carriers can intuitively adjust their gaits, or choose poles with appropriate compliance, to increase energetic savings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric R. Castillo
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | | | - Logan S. McCarty
- Department of Physics and Department of Chemistry and Chemical Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
| | - Daniel E. Lieberman
- Department of Human Evolutionary Biology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts
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Energetic consequences of human sociality: walking speed choices among friendly dyads. PLoS One 2013; 8:e76576. [PMID: 24194840 PMCID: PMC3806777 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0076576] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2013] [Accepted: 08/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Research has shown that individuals have an optimal walking speed–a speed which minimizes energy expenditure for a given distance. Because the optimal walking speed varies with mass and lower limb length, it also varies with sex, with males in any given population tending to have faster optimal walking speeds. This potentially creates an energetic dilemma for mixed-sex walking groups. Here we examine speed choices made by individuals of varying stature, mass, and sex walking together. Individuals (N = 22) walked around a track alone, with a significant other (with and without holding hands), and with friends of the same and opposite sex while their speeds were recorded every 100 m. Our findings show that males walk at a significantly slower pace to match the females’ paces (p = 0.009), when the female is their romantic partner. The paces of friends of either same or mixed sex walking together did not significantly change (p>0.05). Thus significant pace adjustment appears to be limited to romantic partners. These findings have implications for both mobility and reproductive strategies of groups. Because the male carries the energetic burden by adjusting his pace (slowing down 7%), the female is spared the potentially increased caloric cost required to walk together. In energetically demanding environments, we will expect to find gender segregation in group composition, particularly when travelling longer distances.
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Kurki HK. Skeletal variability in the pelvis and limb skeleton of humans: Does stabilizing selection limit female pelvic variation? Am J Hum Biol 2013; 25:795-802. [DOI: 10.1002/ajhb.22455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/20/2013] [Revised: 08/16/2013] [Accepted: 08/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Helen K. Kurki
- Department of Anthropology; University of Victoria; Victoria British Columbia Canada V8W 2Y2
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Wall-Scheffler CM. Energetics, Locomotion, and Female Reproduction: Implications for Human Evolution. ANNUAL REVIEW OF ANTHROPOLOGY 2012. [DOI: 10.1146/annurev-anthro-092611-145739] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In our reconstructions of human evolution, a few key questions consistently rise to the surface. These questions tend to revolve around how the morphology of previous hominin species would have allowed them to gain access to resources during key life-history events, particularly gestation and lactation. Here the data surrounding the interactions between these key issues are assessed, making particular notes of recent advances in the fields of energetics and biomechanics as they relate to locomotion during reproduction. Reconstructions of body mass, lower limb length, and pelvic breadth suggest diverse mobility strategies for different hominin species and may offer some clues about the demographic shifts occurring in the late Pleistocene.
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