Impact of non-rinse skin cleansing with chlorhexidine gluconate on prevention of healthcare-associated infections and colonization with multi-resistant organisms: a systematic review

The Effect of Using Chlorhexidine Gluconate and Povidone Iodine Solution on the Healing Process Before a Cesarean Section

PURPOSE

This study aimed to compare the effect of povidone iodine (PI) and chlorhexidine gluconate (CG) shower groups on the healing process in cesarean section operations.

DESIGN

Randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

Patients were recruited from Gynecology and Obstetrics Hospital in Turkey between February and May 2021. In total, 102 pregnant women were scheduled for elective cesareans. They were randomly divided into PI group (A), CG group (B), and CG shower group (C) operated by three gynecology and obstetrics physicians. During the data collection, a demographics form, an incision site evaluation form, a visual analog scale (VAS), and a postpartum comfort questionnaire (PPCQ) were used. Data from the in-house blinding study to avoid bias and follow-up of the women were done for 7-day duration following postnatal to assess postoperative comfort, pain, and wound complications.

FINDINGS

The VAS, pain, erythema, warm, edema, discharge, and wound opening were statistically evaluated at the incision site with 3 measurements for each of the groups. There was a significant difference in the CG groups (2 and 3) (VAS P < .000, erythema P < .05, and edema P < .05). The mean PPCQ score was higher in the CG groups (2 and 3) and showed a significant difference compared with the PI group (P < .000).

CONCLUSIONS

Due to the antiseptic and nonirritating properties of CG, showering 6 hours before the operation contributed to the wound healing process according to the incision site evaluation form and to a corresponding increased PPCQ level of the mother in the postoperative period.

Exploring facilitators and barriers to daily chlorhexidine gluconate bathing in adult patients undergoing hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Hematopoietic cell transplantation (HCT) is a promising treatment for hematologic malignancies, but intensive conditioning leads to immunosuppression and susceptibility to healthcare-associated infections (HAI). Despite standard prevention measures, bloodstream infections (BSI) impact a significant percentage of immunocompromised HCT patients. Incidence of BSI can be mitigated by chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) bathing-an underutilized infection-prevention strategy. Gaining HCT recipients' perceptions on CHG bathing can inform strategies to improve adherence and enhance patient outcomes.

PURPOSE

This study explored patients' perceived facilitators, barriers, and education/knowledge related to CHG bathing and thus addresses the gap in implementation for immunocompromised HCT patients.

METHODS

This study used a qualitative description approach to explore patients' perceived facilitators, barriers, and knowledge of CHG bathing. Fourteen HCT recipients (mean 51 ± 16 years) completed semi-structured interviews. Data were analyzed using a rapid qualitative analysis approach to identify themes.

RESULTS

Participants identified facilitators to using CHG wipes including ease of use, comfort, and staff assistance, along with barriers including wait time, discomfort, and physical challenges. Patient education themes encompassed patient understanding of CHG purpose, perceived ease in learning/application, inconsistent instruction, and inconsistent procedures.

CONCLUSION

CHG bathing is a valuable infection prevention strategy for HCT patients. Participants' perspectives highlight the importance of addressing practical challenges and improving education to enhance adherence. This study contributes insights from HCT recipients, emphasizing the need for patient-centered interventions to reduce HAI and improve overall patient care.

Risk, Predictive, and Preventive Factors for Noninfectious Ventriculitis and External Ventricular Drain Infection

BACKGROUND

External ventricular drain (EVD) is used for monitoring intracranial pressure or diverting cerebrospinal fluid. However, confirmation of an infection is not immediate and requires obtaining culture results, often leading to the excessive use of antibiotics. This study aimed to compare noninfectious ventriculitis and EVD infection in terms of the risk factors, predictors, prognosis, and effectiveness of care bundle interventions.

METHODS

This retrospective study was conducted at a medical center with 1,006 beds in northern Taiwan between January 2018 and July 2022. Standard EVD insertion protocols and care bundles have been implemented since 2018, along with the initiation of chlorhexidine.

RESULTS

In total, 742 EVD cases were identified. Noninfectious ventriculitis typically presents with fever approximately 8 days following EVD placement, whereas EVD infection typically manifests as fever after 20 days. Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage was strongly associated with the development of noninfectious ventriculitis (adjusted odds ratio [OR] 2.6, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.5-4.4). Alcoholism (adjusted OR 3.5, 95% CI 1.1-12.3) and arteriovenous malformation (adjusted OR 13.1, 95% CI 2.9-58.2) significantly increased the risk of EVD infection. The EVD infection rate significantly decreased from 3.6% (14 of 446) to 1.0% (3 of 219) (p = 0.03) after the implementation of chlorhexidine gluconate bathing.

CONCLUSIONS

Aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage or fever with neuroinflammation within 2 weeks of EVD placement is indicative of a higher likelihood of noninfectious ventriculitis. Conversely, patients with arteriovenous malformation, alcoholism, or fever with neuroinflammation occurring after more than 3 weeks of EVD placement are more likely to necessitate antibiotic treatment for EVD infection. Chlorhexidine gluconate bathing decreases EVD infection.

The Effect of Preoperative Chlorhexidine Gluconate Cleanse on Lower Extremity Surgical Site Infections: A Retrospective Cohort Study

BACKGROUND

Lower extremity surgical sites are at an increased risk of wound infection following Mohs micrographic surgery.

OBJECTIVE

To evaluate the rate of lower extremity surgical site infections following a 14-day regimen of preoperative 4% chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) rinses and postoperative wound occlusion for 14 days.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Retrospective data were collected from procedures performed by the senior author from January 2022 through June 2023. To meet inclusion, patients must have completed waist-down CHG soak and rinse for 14 days before surgery, including the day before surgery. In addition, the patient must have kept the dressing clean, dry, and intact until the postoperative appointment at 14 days.

RESULTS

A total of 100 Mohs cases met inclusion criteria. Zero patients developed a surgical site infection.

CONCLUSION

Chlorhexidine gluconate preoperative rinsing and postoperative occlusion for 14 days may minimize the risk of wound infection. Although further research is indicated, an opportunity exists for the adoption of CHG into routine clinical practice in the outpatient dermatology setting.

Bathing with wipes impregnated with chlorhexidine gluconate to prevent central line-associated bloodstream infection in critically ill patients: A systematic review with meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Recommendations for different types of bathing to prevent central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI) are still divergent. The objective of this study was to verify whether bed bathing with wipes impregnated with 2% chlorhexidine (CHG) compared to conventional bed bathing is more effective in preventing CLABSI.

METHODS

Systematic review of the literature by consulting the electronic databases PubMed/Medline, Embase, CINAHL, Scopus, and Web of Science from the date of inception until July 1, 2023, with no language or time restrictions.

RESULTS

A total of 84,462 studies were examined, of which 6 were included in the meta-analysis. Data from 20,188 critical care patients included in primary studies were analyzed. The meta-analysis found that bed bathing with wipes impregnated with 2% CHG reduced the risk of CLABSI by 48% compared to conventional bed bathing (risk ratio 0.52; 95% confidence interval, 0.37-0.73), and this is moderate-quality evidence. The reduction in length of stay in the intensive care unit and length of hospital stay as well as the risk of death were not significantly different between the study groups. Whether bed bathing with 2% CHG-impregnated wipes increases the occurrence of skin reactions is unclear.

CONCLUSIONS

This meta-analysis provides moderate-quality evidence that daily bathing with 2% CHG-impregnated wipes is safe and helps prevent CLABSI among adult intensive care unit patients.

Study of Combined Effect of Bacteriophage vB3530 and Chlorhexidine on the Inactivation of Pseudomonas aeruginosa

BACKGROUND

Chlorhexidine (CHG) is a disinfectant commonly used in hospitals. However, it has been reported that the excessive use of CHG can cause resistance in bacteria to this agent and even to other clinical antibiotics. Therefore, new methods are needed to alleviate the development of CHG tolerance and reduce its dosage. This study aimed to explore the synergistic effects of CHG in combination with bacteriophage against CHG-tolerant Pseudomonas aeruginosa (P. aeruginosa) and provide ideas for optimizing disinfection strategies in clinical environments as well as for the efficient use of disinfectants.

METHODS

The CHG-tolerant P. aeruginosa strains were isolated from the First Affiliated Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University in China. The bacteriophage vB3530 was isolated from the sewage inlet of the hospital, and its genome was sequenced. Time-killing curve was used to determine the antibacterial effects of vB3530 and chlorohexidine gluconate (CHG). The phage sensitivity to 16 CHG-tolerant P. aeruginosa strains and PAO1 strain was detected using plaque assay. The emergence rate of resistant bacterial strains was detected to determine the development of phage-resistant and CHG-tolerant strains. Finally, the disinfection effects of the disinfectant and phage combination on the surface of the medical devices were preliminarily evaluated.

RESULTS

The results showed that (1) CHG combined with bacteriophage vB3530 significantly inhibited the growth of CHG-resistant P. aeruginosa and reduced the bacterial colony forming units (CFUs) after 24 h. (2) The combination of CHG and bacteriophage inhibited the emergence of phage-resistant and CHG-tolerant strains. (3) The combination of CHG and bacteriophage significantly reduced the bacterial load on the surface of medical devices.

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, the combination of bacteriophage vB3530 and CHG presented a combined inactivation effect to CHG-tolerant P. aeruginosa and reduced the emergence of strains resistant to CHG and phage. This study demonstrated the potential of bacteriophage as adjuvants to traditional disinfectants. The use of bacteriophage in combination with commercial disinfectants might be a promising method for controlling the spread of bacteria in hospitals.

Potent Antiviral and Antimicrobial Polymers as Safe and Effective Disinfectants for the Prevention of Infections

Disinfection using effective antimicrobials is essential in preventing the spread of infectious diseases. This COVID-19 pandemic has brought the need for effective disinfectants to greater attention due to the fast transmission of SARS-CoV-2. Current active ingredients in disinfectants are small molecules that microorganisms can develop resistance against after repeated long-term use and may penetrate the skin, causing harmful side-effects. To this end, a series of membrane-disrupting polyionenes that contain quaternary ammoniums and varying hydrophobic components is synthesized. They are effective against bacteria and fungi. They are also fast acting against clinically isolated drug resistant strains of bacteria. Formulating them with thickeners and nonionic surfactants do not affect their killing efficiency. These polyionenes are also effective in preventing infections caused by nonenveloped and enveloped viruses. Their effectiveness against mouse coronavirus (i.e., mouse hepatitis virus-MHV) depends on their hydrophobicity. The polyionenes with optimal compositions inactivates MHV completely in 30 s. More importantly, the polyionenes are effective in inhibiting SARS-CoV-2 by >99.999% within 30 s. While they are effective against the microorganisms, they do not cause damage to the skin and have a high oral lethal dose. Overall, these polyionenes are promising active ingredients for disinfection and prevention of viral and microbial infections.

Preoperative Prevention of Surgical-Site Infection in Spine Surgery

Surgical-site infections (SSI) contribute to increased hospital length of stay, readmission rates, cost, and morbidity and mortality rates. The spine service line at a suburban Level II trauma center encountered 2 SSIs among the spine fusion population within a 6-month period. This did not meet the organization's internal benchmark of zero. A pilot quasi-experimental design was used to determine whether preoperative cleansing with 2% chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG)-impregnated cloths versus current practice of bathing with 4% CHG solution would reduce SSIs. Infection rates were measured using simple percentages. Level of significance was p < .05. Outcome data showed a reduction in SSIs from 3.9% to 1.9% with use of 2% CHG-impregnated cloths. There was no significant difference found between the use of 2% CHG-impregnated cloths and 4% CHG solution (p = .524). This quality improvement change, combined with a strengthened preoperative bundle approach, has permanently been adopted within the spine service line. From October 2017 to March 2021, the spine service line has had zero SSIs within the spine fusion population.

A Multifaceted Surgical Site Infection Prevention Bundle for Cesarean Delivery

OBJECTIVE

Surgical site infections (SSI, including wound infections, endometritis, pelvic abscess, and sepsis) may complicate cesarean section (C/S). We report outcomes before and after the introduction of an SSI prevention bundle that did not include antibiotics beyond routine prophylaxis (cefazolin, or gentamicin/clindamycin for penicillin-allergic patients).

STUDY DESIGN

The prevention bundle was introduced following an increase in C/S-associated SSI, which itself was associated with an institutional switch in preoperative scrub from povidone-iodine to chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG)/isopropanol. Components of the bundle included: (1) full-body preoperative wash with 4% CHG cloths; (2) retraining on surgeon hand scrub; (3) retraining for surgical prep; and (4) patient education regarding wound care. Patients delivered by C/S at ≥24 weeks of gestation were segregated into four epochs over 7 years: (1) baseline (18 months when povidone-iodine was used); (2) CHG scrub (18 months after skin prep was switched to CHG); (3) bundle implementation (24 months); and (4) maintenance (24 months following implementation).

RESULTS

A total of 3,637 patients were included (n = 667, 796, 1098, and 1076, respectively, in epochs 1-4). A rise in SSI occurred with the institutional switch from povidone-iodine to CHG (i.e., from baseline to the CHG scrub epoch, 8.4-13.3%, p < 0.01). Following the intervention (maintenance epoch), this rate decreased to below baseline values (to 4.5%, p < 0.01), attributable to a decline in wound infection (rates in the above three epochs 6.9, 12.9, and 3.5%, respectively, p < 0.01), with no change in endometritis. In multivariable analysis, only epoch and body mass index (BMI) were independently associated with SSI. The improvement associated with the prevention bundle held for stratified analysis of specific risk factors such as chorioamnionitis, prior C/S, obesity, labor induction, and diabetes.

CONCLUSION

Implementation of a prevention bundle was associated with a reduction in post-C/S SSI. This improvement was achieved without the use of antibiotics beyond standard preoperative dosing.

Microbiological efficacy and skin tolerance of commonly used nonantiseptic inpatient bathing practices in non-ICU settings: A systematic review

BACKGROUND

Nonantiseptic bathing practices among inpatients and residents of nursing homes vary in terms of frequency, bathing type and product. We performed a systematic review to compare the efficacy of different bathing practices in reducing skin colonization, health care-associated infections (HAI) or their impact on skin integrity.

METHODS

We searched Medline and Embase up until February 2018 testing a combination of terms for 3 concepts: (1) personal hygiene, (2) inpatients, (3) skin colonization, integrity or HAIs. Studies set in ICUs or including children were excluded. This review was registered in PROSPERO: CRD42018091639.

RESULTS

Seven studies were included. No statistically significant impact in terms of reduced skin colonization was described irrespective of bathing product, type or frequency except for a reduced burden of C difficile on the skin of infected patients after showering compared to bathing. One study addressing impact on HAI did not detect a significant difference when a waterless no-rinse product was used. Integrity of the skin was better preserved by no-rinse products.

CONCLUSIONS

No study described a statistically significant reduction of bacterial skin colonization or incidence of HAI after bathing hospitalized patients with nonantiseptic products. However, waterless no-rinse products were associated with less skin damage in most studies.

Inhibitory effect of host ocular microenvironmental factors on chlorhexidine digluconate activity

Acanthamoeba spp. are free-living protozoan that cause a serious human eye disease called Acanthamoeba keratitis (AK). Several new and effective medical therapy for AK patients remains highly debated and therefore, CHG is still considered one of the first lines of treatment for AK patients. We hypothesized that ocular microenvironmental factors are responsible for Acanthamoeba drug resistance and clinical AK treatment failure. To investigate the influence of the ocular surface on CHG treatment, we tested the effect of several ocular elements on the anti-amoeba activity of CHG. The suspected inhibitory elements, including mucin, albumin, human and amoeba cell lysates, live and heat-killed bacteria, and cornea, were added to the amoebicidal activity platform, where amoeba was incubated with CHG at varying concentrations. Mucin showed a significant inhibitory effect on CHG activity against Acanthamoeba castellanii In contrast, albumin did not affect CHG treatment. Furthermore, human and amoeba cell lysates as well as live and heat-killed bacterial suspensions also significantly inhibited CHG activity. Additionally, we found that pig corneas also reduced CHG activity. In contrast, dry eye drops and their major component, propylene glycol, which is commonly used as eyewash material, did not have an impact on CHG activity. Our results demonstrate the effect of ocular microenvironmental factors on CHG activity and suggest that these factors may play a role in the development of amoeba resistance to CHG and treatment failure.

The Prevention of Periprosthetic Joint Infection in Primary Total Hip Arthroplasty Using Pre-Operative Chlorhexidine Bathing

Periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) after total hip arthroplasty (THA) is a devastating complication. The aim of this study was to investigate whether preoperative bathing using chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) before THA can effectively reduce the postoperative PJI rate. A total of 933 primary THA patients, with the majority being female (54.4%) were included in the study. Primary THA patients who performed preoperative chlorhexidine bathing were assigned to the CHG group (190 subjects), and those who did not have preoperative chlorhexidine bathing were in the control group (743 subjects). The effects of chlorhexidine bathing on the prevention of PJI incidence rates were investigated. Differences in age, sex, and the operated side between the two groups were not statistically significant. Postoperative PJI occurred in four subjects, indicating an infection rate of 0.43% (4/933). All four infected subjects belonged to the control group. Although the PJI cases were significantly more in the control group than in the CHG group, statistical analysis revealed no statistical significance in the risk of PJI occurrence between the two groups (p = 0.588). Preoperative skin preparation by bathing with a 2% chlorhexidine gluconate cleanser did not produce significant effects on the prevention of postoperative PJI in primary THA.

Antimicrobial approaches in the prevention of Staphylococcus aureus infections: a review

Background

The prophylactic application of antimicrobials that are active against Staphylococcus aureus can prevent infections. However, implementation in clinical practice is limited. We have reviewed antimicrobial approaches for the prevention of S. aureus infections.

Methods

We searched the Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials, PubMed/MEDLINE and EMBASE databases and trial registries using synonyms for S. aureus, infections and prevention as search terms. We included randomized controlled trials and systematic reviews only.

Results

Most studies were conducted with mupirocin. Mupirocin is effective in preventing S. aureus infections in patients receiving dialysis treatment and in surgical patients, particularly if the patients are carriers of S. aureus. The combination of mupirocin and chlorhexidine, but not chlorhexidine alone, is also effective against S. aureus infections. So far, vaccines have not proven successful in protecting against S. aureus infections. Regarding prophylactic povidone-iodine and systemic antibiotics, there is limited evidence supporting their effectiveness against S. aureus infections. Antimicrobial honey has not been proven to be more effective or non-inferior to mupirocin in protecting against S. aureus infections.

Conclusions

The current evidence supports the use of mupirocin as prophylaxis for preventing infections with S. aureus, particularly in carriers and in the surgical setting or in patients receiving dialysis treatment. Other antimicrobial agents have not been sufficiently proven to be effective so far, or have been proven ineffective. New trials with vaccines and anti-staphylococcal peptides are currently underway and may lead to new preventive strategies in the future.

The potential for developing new antimicrobial resistance from the use of medical devices containing chlorhexidine, minocycline, rifampicin and their combinations: a systematic review

Background

Catheter infections remain one of the most persistent adverse events causing significant morbidity, economic impact and mortality. Several strategies have been proposed to reduce these infections including the use of catheters embedded with antibiotics and/or antiseptics. One reoccurring challenge is the fear that antimicrobial medical devices will induce resistance. The aim of this systematic review is to evaluate the evidence for induced antimicrobial resistance caused by exposure to antimicrobial medical devices.

Methods

Four electronic databases [MEDLINE, Embase, Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL) and Scopus] were screened for studies published between 1983 and 2019 regarding assessment of microbial resistance with use of medical devices containing chlorhexidine, minocycline, rifampicin or combinations thereof. Development of new resistance, selection for tolerant organisms and 'no change in resistance' were assessed.

Results

Forty-four publications, grouped by study type and stratified by drug assessed, were included for analyses. The majority of studies found no change in resistance after exposure to antimicrobial medical devices (13 in vitro, 2 in vivo, 20 clinical). Development of new resistance was commonly reported with the use of rifampicin as a single agent and only reported in one study assessing the minocycline/rifampicin combination (M/R); however, the increase in MIC was well below clinical relevance.

Conclusions

Emergence of new resistance to combinations of M/R, minocycline/rifampicin/chlorhexidine (M/R/CH) and chlorhexidine/silver sulfadiazine (CHXSS) was rare. No clinical trials confirmed its occurrence and some refuted it. The risk of development of new resistance to these antimicrobial combinations appears more fear-based than substantiated by clinical and experimental evidence but warrants continued surveillance.

CE: Hematologic Childhood Cancers: An Evidence-Based Review

Every year in the United States, thousands of children and adolescents are diagnosed with a hematologic cancer. That diagnosis and the prescribed course of treatment profoundly affect both the child and the family. This article provides a brief overview of the therapies used to treat such cancers, describes the presentations and diagnoses of the various hematologic cancers, and explains the treatments specific to each. Nursing care of the child and family is discussed, with an emphasis on education and supportive care.

2CS-CHXT Operon Signature of Chlorhexidine Tolerance among Enterococcus faecium Isolates

Chlorhexidine (CHX) is a broad-spectrum antiseptic widely used in community and clinical contexts for many years that has recently acquired higher relevance in nosocomial infection control worldwide. Despite this, CHX tolerance among Enterococcus faecium bacteria, representing one of the leading agents causing nosocomial infections, has been poorly understood. This study provides new phenotypic and molecular data for better identification of CHX-tolerant E. faecium subpopulations in community and clinical contexts. The chlorhexidine MIC (MIC_CHX) distribution of 106 E. faecium isolates suggested the occurrence of tolerant subpopulations in diverse sources (human, animal, food, environment) and phylogenomic backgrounds (clades A1/A2/B), with predominance in clade A1. They carried a specific variant of the 2CS-CHX^T operon, identified here. It encodes glucose and amino acid-polyamine-organocation family transporters, besides the DNA-binding response regulator ChtR, with a P102H mutation previously described only in CHX-tolerant clade A1 E. faecium, and the ChtS sensor. 2CS-CHX^T seems to be associated with three regulons modulating diverse bacterial biological functions. Combined data from normal MIC distribution and 2CS-CHX^T operon characterization support a tentative epidemiological cutoff (ECOFF) of 8 mg/liter to CHX, which is useful to detect tolerant E. faecium populations in future surveillance studies. The spread of tolerant E. faecium in diverse epidemiological backgrounds calls for the prudent use of CHX in multiple contexts.IMPORTANCE Chlorhexidine is one of the substances included in the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines, which comprises the safest and most effective medicines needed in global health systems. Although it has been widely applied as a disinfectant and antiseptic in health care (skin, hands, mouthwashes, eye drops) since the 1950s, its use in hospitals to prevent nosocomial infections has increased worldwide in recent years. Here, we provide a comprehensive study on chlorhexidine tolerance among strains of Enterococcus faecium, one of the leading nosocomial agents worldwide, and identify a novel 2CS-CHX^T operon as a signature of tolerant strains occurring in diverse phylogenomic groups. Our data allowed for the proposal of a tentative epidemiological cutoff of 8 mg/liter, which is useful to detect tolerant E. faecium populations in surveillance studies in community and clinical contexts. The prediction of 2CS-CHX^T regulons will also facilitate the design of future experimental studies to better uncover chlorhexidine tolerance among E. faecium bacteria.

Navel to Knees With Chlorhexidine Gluconate: Preventing Catheter-Associated Urinary Tract Infections

Urinary tract infections are the most common type of health care-associated infection, and greater than 75% of them are attributed to an indwelling urinary catheter. A catheter-associated urinary infection may lead to a longer hospital length of stay by as many as 4 days. A new patient care standard requiring twice-daily chlorhexidine cleansing from umbilicus to knees was implemented on all patients of the pilot unit with a urinary catheter. This same technique was used after a patient with a urinary catheter had an incontinent bowel movement. The 9-month average catheter-associated urinary infection rate decreased from 3.06/1000 urinary catheter days to 0.46/1000 urinary catheter days after implementation of the new standard. The use of chlorhexidine for routine urinary catheter care and after bowel movements from umbilicus to knees for patients with urinary catheters may significantly decrease catheter-associated urinary tract infections when compared with the standard of care using soap and water. Standards for Quality Improvement Reporting Excellence guidelines were used in reporting these data.

The impact of chlorhexidine gluconate on the skin microbiota of children and adults: A pilot study

We examined the effect of chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) bathing on the skin microbiota of adult and pediatric patients. We observed no differences in pediatric patients; however, multiple genera of bacteria were observed to be significantly less abundant in the adults bathing with CHG. Further research is needed to determine the long-term impact of CHG use on the skin microbiota.

Fatty Acid Potassium Had Beneficial Bactericidal Effects and Removed Staphylococcus aureus Biofilms while Exhibiting Reduced Cytotoxicity towards Mouse Fibroblasts and Human Keratinocytes

Wounds frequently become infected or contaminated with bacteria. Potassium oleate (C18:1K), a type of fatty acid potassium, caused >4 log colony-forming unit (CFU)/mL reductions in the numbers of Staphylococcus aureus and Escherichia coli within 10 min and a >2 log CFU/mL reduction in the number of Clostridium difficile within 1 min. C18:1K (proportion removed: 90.3%) was significantly more effective at removing Staphylococcus aureus biofilms than the synthetic surfactant detergents sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES) (74.8%, p < 0.01) and sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS) (78.0%, p < 0.05). In the WST (water-soluble tetrazolium) assay, mouse fibroblasts (BALB/3T3 clone A31) in C18:1K (relative viability vs. control: 102.8%) demonstrated a significantly higher viability than those in SLES (30.1%) or SLS (18.1%, p < 0.05). In a lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) leakage assay, C18:1K (relative leakage vs. control: 108.9%) was found to be associated with a significantly lower LDH leakage from mouse fibroblasts than SLES or SLS (720.6% and 523.4%, respectively; p < 0.05). Potassium oleate demonstrated bactericidal effects against various species including Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Bacillus cereus, and Clostridium difficile; removed significantly greater amounts of Staphylococcus aureus biofilm material than SLES and SLS; and maintained fibroblast viability; therefore, it might be useful for wound cleaning and peri-wound skin.

An outbreak of vanA vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium in a hospital with endemic vanB VRE

BACKGROUND

In Australia, vanB vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus faecium (VREfm) has been endemic for over 20 years, but vanA VREfm isolates have rarely been reported.

METHODS

This outbreak report describes an outbreak of vanA VREfm in the intensive care unit (ICU) and cardiothoracic surgery (CTS) wards of a Melbourne hospital in 2015-2016. After the cluster was initially identified in the ICU ward, an active screening programme was implemented. VRE isolates were typed using in silico multi-locus sequence typing. In addition, to screening, enhanced environmental cleaning, chlorhexidine gluconate body washes, and standardisation of the surgical antibiotic prophylaxis regimen were implemented to control the outbreak.

RESULTS

There were 83 new isolates of vanA VREfm recovered from patients in the ICU (n = 31) and CTS (n = 52) wards. Screening identified 78 (94%) of cases. Three patients required treatment for clinical infection with vanA VREfm during the outbreak. The outbreak was polyclonal with 5 different multilocus sequence types carrying the vanA gene (ST17, ST80, ST203, ST252 and ST1421) detected from a subset of isolates (N = 43). The ST17 isolates all carried both the vanA and vanB gene. The intervention bundle resulted in control of the outbreak after 10 months.

CONCLUSION

Geographically, vanA VREfm has previously been uncommon in the region and this outbreak represents a change in local epidemiology. Few VRE outbreaks have been reported in CTS patients. The infection control responses controlled the outbreak within 10-months and may help guide future management of outbreaks.

Evidence for the effectiveness of chlorhexidine bathing and health care-associated infections among adult intensive care patients: a trial sequential meta-analysis

Background

Health care associated infections (HAI) among adults admitted to the intensive care unit (ICU) have been shown to increase length of stay, the cost of care, and in some cases increased the risk of hospital death (Kaye et al., J Am Geriatr Soc 62:306-11, 2014; Roberts et al., Med Care 48:1026-35, 2010; Warren et al., Crit Care Med 34:2084-9, 2006; Zimlichman et al., JAMA Intern Med 173:2039-46, 2013). Daily bathing with chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) has been shown to decrease the risk of infection in the ICU (Loveday et al., J Hosp Infect 86:S1-S70, 2014). However, due to varying quality of published studies, and varying estimates of effectiveness, CHG bathing is not universally practiced. As a result, current opinion of the merit of CHG bathing to reduce hospital acquired infections in the ICU, is divergent, suggesting a state of ‘clinical equipoise’.

This trial sequential meta-analysis aims to explore the current status of evidence for the effectiveness of chlorhexidine (CHG) bathing, in adult intensive care patients, to reduce hospital acquired infections, and address the question: do we need more trials?

Methods

A systematic literature search was undertaken to identify trials assessing the effectiveness of chlorhexidine bathing to reduce risk of infection, among adult intensive care patients. With particular focus on: (1) Blood stream infections (BSI); (2) Central Line Associated Blood Stream Infections (CLABSI); (3) Multi-Resistant Drug Organism (MRDO); (4) Ventilator Associated Pneumonia; and, Catheter Associated Urinary Tract Infections (CAUTI). Only randomised-control or cluster randomised cross-over trials, were include in our analysis. A Trial Sequential Analysis (TSA) was used to describe the current status of evidence for the effectiveness of chlorhexidine (CHG) bathing, in adult intensive care patients, to reduce hospital acquired infections.

Results

Five trials were included in our final analysis - two trials were individual patient randomised-controlled, and the remaining cluster-randomised-crossover trials. Daily bathing with CHG was estimated to reduce BSI in the ICU by approximately 29% (Der-Simonian and Laird, Random-Effects.

(DL-RE) Incidence Rate Ratio (IRR) = 0.71, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.51, 0.98); reduce CLABSI in the ICU by approximately 40% (DL-RE IRR = 0.60, 95% CI 0.34, 1.04); reduce MDRO in the ICU by approximately 18% (DL-RE IRR = 0.82, 95% CI 0.69, 0.98); no effect in reducing VAP in the ICU (DL-RE IRR = 1.33, 95% CI 0.81, 2.18); and, no effect in reducing CAUTI in the ICU (DL-RE IRR = 0.77, 95% CI 0.52, 1.15). Upper (superiority) monitoring boundaries from TSA were not crossed for all five specific infections in the ICU.

Conclusion

Routine bathing with CHG does not occur in the ICU setting, and TSA suggests that more trials are needed to address the current state of ‘clinical equipoise’. Ideally these studies would be conducted among a diverse group of ICU patients, and to the highest standard to ensure generalisability of results.

Antimicrobial Stewardship in Veterinary Medicine

While antimicrobial resistance is already a public health crisis in human medicine, therapeutic failure in veterinary medicine due to antimicrobial resistance remains relatively uncommon. However, there are many pathways by which antimicrobial resistance determinants can travel between animals and humans: by close contact, through the food chain, or indirectly via the environment. Antimicrobial stewardship describes measures that can help mitigate the public health crisis and preserve the effectiveness of available antimicrobial agents. Antimicrobial stewardship programs have been principally developed, implemented, and studied in human hospitals but are beginning to be adapted for other applications in human medicine. Key learning from the experiences of antimicrobial stewardship programs in human medicine are summarized in this article-guiding the development of a stewardship framework suitable for adaptation and use in both companion animal and livestock practice. The antimicrobial stewardship program for veterinary use integrates infection prevention and control together with approaches emphasizing avoidance of antimicrobial agents. The 5R framework of continuous improvement that is described recognizes the importance of executive support; highly motivated organizations and teams (responsibility); the need to review the starting position, set objectives, and determine means of measuring progress and success; and a critical focus on reducing, replacing, and refining the use of antimicrobial agents. Significant issues that are currently the focus of intensive research include improved detection and diagnosis of infections, refined dosing regimens that are simultaneously effective while not selecting resistance, searches for alternatives to antimicrobial agents, and development of improved vaccines to enhance immunity and reduce disease.

Chlorhexidine gluconate bathing practices and skin concentrations in intensive care unit patients

In this 2-phase real-world evaluation of chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) skin concentrations in intensive care unit patients, we found lower skin CHG concentrations when rinsing with water after CHG solution bath (compared with no rinse), but no significant difference in concentrations between the use of CHG solution without rinse and preimpregnated CHG wipes. CHG concentration audits could be useful in assessing the quality of bathing practice, and CHG solution without rinsing may be an alternative to preimpregnated CHG wipes.

EFFECT of daily antiseptic body wash with octenidine on nosocomial primary bacteraemia and nosocomial multidrug-resistant organisms in intensive care units: design of a multicentre, cluster-randomised, double-blind, cross-over study

INTRODUCTION

Nosocomial infections are serious complications that increase morbidity, mortality and costs and could potentially be avoidable. Antiseptic body wash is an approach to reduce dermal micro-organisms as potential pathogens on the skin. Large-scale trials with chlorhexidine as the antiseptic agent suggest a reduction of nosocomial infection rates. Octenidine is a promising alternative agent which could be more effective against Gram-negative organisms. We hypothesise that daily antiseptic body wash with octenidine reduces the risk of intensive care unit (ICU)-acquired primary bacteraemia and ICU-acquired multidrug-resistant organisms (MDRO) in a standard care setting.

METHODS AND ANALYSIS

EFFECT is a controlled, cluster-randomised, double-blind study. The experimental intervention consists in using octenidine-impregnated wash mitts for the daily routine washing procedure of the patients. This will be compared with using placebo wash mitts. Replacing existing washing methods is the only interference into clinical routine.Participating ICUs are randomised in an AB/BA cross-over design. There are two 15-month periods, each consisting of a 3-month wash-out period followed by a 12-month intervention and observation period. Randomisation determines only the sequence in which octenidine-impregnated or placebo wash mitts are used. ICUs are left unaware of what mitts packages they are using.The two coprimary endpoints are ICU-acquired primary bacteraemia and ICU-acquired MDRO. Endpoints are defined based on individual ward-movement history and microbiological test results taken from the hospital information systems without need for extra documentation. Data on clinical symptoms of infection are not collected. EFFECT aims at recruiting about 45 ICUs with about 225 000 patient-days per year.

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

The study was approved by the ethics committee of the University of Leipzig (number 340/16-ek) in November 2016. Findings will be published in peer-reviewed journals.

TRIAL REGISTRATION NUMBER

DRKS-ID: DRKS00011282.

Prevention of Vascular Catheter-Related Bloodstream Infections

Catheter-related bloodstream infections (CRBSI) are responsible for significant morbidity, mortality, and excess health care costs. It is increasingly evident that many CRBSI can be prevented with current knowledge and techniques. Preventive measures can be broadly grouped into clinical practice-based interventions and technologic innovations. Clinical practice-based interventions require changes in human behavior and can be subdivided into interventions before and at the time of insertion and postinsertion. Despite recent successes with prevention of CRBSI, pertinent questions regarding pathogenesis and prevention remain unanswered and work on improved surveillance, devices less prone to infection, and more effective prevention techniques are needed.

Effect of Chlorhexidine Bathing Every Other Day on Prevention of Hospital-Acquired Infections in the Surgical ICU: A Single-Center, Randomized Controlled Trial

OBJECTIVE

To test the hypothesis that compared with daily soap and water bathing, 2% chlorhexidine gluconate bathing every other day for up to 28 days decreases the risk of hospital-acquired catheter-associated urinary tract infection, ventilator-associated pneumonia, incisional surgical site infection, and primary bloodstream infection in surgical ICU patients.

DESIGN

This was a single-center, pragmatic, randomized trial. Patients and clinicians were aware of treatment-group assignment; investigators who determined outcomes were blinded.

SETTING

Twenty-four-bed surgical ICU at a quaternary academic medical center.

PATIENTS

Adults admitted to the surgical ICU from July 2012 to May 2013 with an anticipated surgical ICU stay for 48 hours or more were included.

INTERVENTIONS

Patients were randomized to bathing with 2% chlorhexidine every other day alternating with soap and water every other day (treatment arm) or to bathing with soap and water daily (control arm).

MEASUREMENTS AND MAIN RESULTS

The primary endpoint was a composite outcome of catheter-associated urinary tract infection, ventilator-associated pneumonia, incisional surgical site infection, and primary bloodstream infection. Of 350 patients randomized, 24 were excluded due to prior enrollment in this trial and one withdrew consent. Therefore, 325 were analyzed (164 soap and water versus 161 chlorhexidine). Patients acquired 53 infections. Compared with soap and water bathing, chlorhexidine bathing every other day decreased the risk of acquiring infections (hazard ratio = 0.555; 95% CI, 0.309-0.997; p = 0.049). For patients bathed with soap and water versus chlorhexidine, counts of incident hospital-acquired infections were 14 versus 7 for catheter-associated urinary tract infection, 13 versus 8 for ventilator-associated pneumonia, 6 versus 3 for incisional surgical site infections, and 2 versus 0 for primary bloodstream infection; the effect was consistent across all infections. The absolute risk reduction for acquiring a hospital-acquired infection was 9.0% (95% CI, 1.5-16.4%; p = 0.019). Incidences of adverse skin occurrences were similar (18.9% soap and water vs 18.6% chlorhexidine; p = 0.95).

CONCLUSIONS

Compared with soap and water, chlorhexidine bathing every other day decreased the risk of acquiring infections by 44.5% in surgical ICU patients.

The Two-Component System ChtRS Contributes to Chlorhexidine Tolerance in Enterococcus faecium

Enterococcus faecium is one of the primary causes of nosocomial infections. Disinfectants are commonly used to prevent infections with multidrug-resistant E. faecium in hospitals. Worryingly, E. faecium strains that exhibit tolerance to disinfectants have already been described. We aimed to identify and characterize E. faecium genes that contribute to tolerance to the disinfectant chlorhexidine (CHX). We used a transposon mutant library, constructed in a multidrug-resistant E. faecium bloodstream isolate, to perform a genome-wide screen to identify genetic determinants involved in tolerance to CHX. We identified a putative two-component system (2CS), composed of a putative sensor histidine kinase (ChtS) and a cognate DNA-binding response regulator (ChtR), which contributed to CHX tolerance in E. faecium Targeted chtR and chtS deletion mutants exhibited compromised growth in the presence of CHX. Growth of the chtR and chtS mutants was also affected in the presence of the antibiotic bacitracin. The CHX- and bacitracin-tolerant phenotype of E. faecium E1162 was linked to a unique, nonsynonymous single nucleotide polymorphism in chtR Transmission electron microscopy showed that upon challenge with CHX, the ΔchtR and ΔchtS mutants failed to divide properly and formed long chains. Normal growth and cell morphology were restored when the mutations were complemented in trans Morphological abnormalities were also observed upon exposure of the ΔchtR and ΔchtS mutants to bacitracin. The tolerance to both chlorhexidine and bacitracin provided by ChtRS in E. faecium highlights the overlap between responses to disinfectants and antibiotics and the potential for the development of cross-tolerance for these classes of antimicrobials.

Prevention of hospital-acquired bloodstream infections through chlorhexidine gluconate-impregnated washcloth bathing in intensive care units: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomised crossover trials

We assessed the impact of 2% daily patient bathing with chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) washcloths on the incidence of hospital-acquired (HA) and central line-associated (CLA) bloodstream infections (BSI) in intensive care units (ICUs). We searched randomised studies in Medline, EMBASE, Cochrane Library (CENTRAL) and Web of Science databases up to April 2015. Primary outcomes were total HABSI, central line, and non-central line-associated BSI rates per patient-days. Secondary outcomes included Gram-negative and Gram-positive BSI rates and adverse events. Four randomised crossover trials involved 25 ICUs and 22,850 patients. Meta-analysis identified a total HABSI rate reduction (odds ratio (OR): 0.74; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.60–0.90; p = 0.002) with moderate heterogeneity (I² = 36%). Subgroup analysis identified significantly stronger rate reductions (p = 0.01) for CLABSI (OR: 0.50; 95% CI: 0.35–0.71; p < 0.001) than other HABSI (OR: 0.82; 95% CI: 0.70–0.97; p = 0.02) with low heterogeneity (I² = 0%). This effect was evident in the Gram-positive subgroup (OR: 0.55; 95% CI: 0.31–0.99; p = 0.05), but became non-significant after removal of a high-risk-of-bias study. Sensitivity analysis revealed that the intervention effect remained significant for total and central line-associated HABSI. We suggest that use of CHG washcloths prevents HABSI and CLABSI in ICUs, possibly due to the reduction in Gram-positive skin commensals.

Assessing the sustainability of daily chlorhexidine bathing in the intensive care unit of a Veteran's Hospital by examining nurses' perspectives and experiences

BACKGROUND

Daily bathing with chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) of intensive care unit (ICU) patients has been shown to reduce healthcare-associated infections and colonization by multidrug resistant organisms. The objective of this project was to describe the process of daily CHG bathing and identify the barriers and facilitators that can influence its successful adoption and sustainability in an ICU of a Veterans Administration Hospital.

METHODS

We conducted 26 semi-structured interviews with a convenience sample of 4 nurse managers (NMs), 13 registered nurses (RNs) and 9 health care technicians (HCTs) working in the ICU. We used qualitative content analysis to code and analyze the data. Dedoose software was used to facilitate data management and coding. Trustworthiness and scientific integrity of the data were ensured by having two authors corroborate the coding process, conducting member checks and keeping an audit trail of all the decisions made.

RESULTS

Duration of the interviews was 15 to 39 min (average = 26 min). Five steps of bathing were identified: 1) decision to give a bath; 2) ability to give a bath; 3) decision about which soap to use; 4) delegation of a bath; and 5) getting assistance to do a bath. The bathing process resulted in one of the following three outcomes: 1) complete bath; 2) interrupted bath; and 3) bath not done. The outcome was influenced by a combination of barriers and facilitators at each step. Most barriers were related to perceived workload, patient factors, and scheduling. Facilitators were mainly organizational factors such as the policy of daily CHG bathing, the consistent supply of CHG soap, and support such as reminders to conduct CHG baths by nurse managers.

CONCLUSIONS

Patient bathing in ICUs is a complex process that can be hindered and interrupted by numerous factors. The decision to use CHG soap for bathing was only one of 5 steps of bathing and was largely influenced by scheduling/workload and patient factors such as clinical stability, hypersensitivity to CHG, patient refusal, presence of IV lines and general hygiene. Interventions that address the organizational, provider, and patient barriers to bathing could improve adherence to a daily CHG bathing protocol.

Effectiveness of Chlorhexidine Wipes for the Prevention of Multidrug-Resistant Bacterial Colonization and Hospital-Acquired Infections in Intensive Care Unit Patients: A Randomized Trial in Thailand

OBJECTIVE

To determine the effectiveness of daily bathing with 2% chlorhexidine-impregnated washcloths in preventing multidrug-resistant (MDR) gram-positive bacterial colonization and bloodstream infection.

METHODS

A randomized, open-label controlled trial was conducted in 4 medical intensive care units (ICUs) in Thailand from December 2013 to January 2015. Patients were randomized to receive cleansing with non-antimicrobial soap (control group) or 2% chlorhexidine-impregnated washcloths used to wipe the patient's body once daily (chlorhexidine group). Swabs were taken from nares, axilla, antecubital, groin, and perianal areas on admission and on day 3, 5, 7, and 14. The 5 outcomes were (1) favorable events ( all samples negative throughout ICU admission, or initially positive samples with subsequent negative samples); (2) MDR bacteria colonization-free time; (3) hospital-acquired infection; (4) length of ICU and hospital stay; (5) adverse skin reactions.

RESULTS

A total of 481 patients were randomly assigned to the control group (241) or the chlorhexidine group (240). Favorable events at day 14 were observed in 34.8% of patients in the control group and 28.6% in the chlorhexidine group (P=.79). Median MDR bacteria colonization-free times were 5 days in both groups. The incidence rate of hospital-acquired infection and the length of the ICU and hospital stay did not differ significantly between groups. The incidence of adverse skin reactions in the chlorhexidine group was 2.5%.

CONCLUSION

The effectiveness of 2% chlorhexidine-impregnated washcloths for the prevention of MDR gram-negative bacteria colonization and hospital-acquired infection in adult patients in ICU was not proven. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT01989416.

Effect of daily chlorhexidine bathing on the acquisition of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus in a medical intensive care unit with methicillin-resistant S aureus endemicity

BACKGROUND

Universal decolonization is recommended in intensive care units (ICUs) that have unacceptably high rates of methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) despite implementation of basic prevention strategies.

METHODS

An interrupted time series study was performed to evaluate the effect of daily chlorhexidine bathing on the acquisition of MRSA in a medical ICU with MRSA endemicity. There was a 14-month control period and a 16-month chlorhexidine bathing period. Segmented Poisson regression analysis was performed to assess the impact of daily chlorhexidine bathing on the incidence density of MRSA. Also, chlorhexidine susceptibility testing with polymerase chain reaction for the qacA/B gene was performed on MRSA isolates collected during the chlorhexidine bathing period.

RESULTS

There was a significant reduction in trend (-0.056; 95% confidence interval, -0.095 to -0.017; P = .005) of incidence density of MRSA despite a significant increase in both level and trend of MRSA prevalence rates during the chlorhexidine bathing period. However, there was no significant reduction in level of incidence density of MRSA during the interventional period. Minimum inhibitory concentration of chlorhexidine and the detection rates of the qacA/B gene for a total of 174 MRSA isolates did not increase during the chlorhexidine bathing period.

CONCLUSIONS

Daily chlorhexidine bathing resulted in a significantly decreasing trend of MRSA acquisition rates irrespective of increased MRSA prevalence rates in the medical ICU. There was no shift of chlorhexidine-resistant MRSA strains.

Chlorhexidine bathing and health care-associated infections among adult intensive care patients: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Health care-associated infections (HAI) have been shown to increase length of stay, the cost of care, and rates of hospital deaths (Kaye and Marchaim, J Am Geriatr Soc 62(2):306–11, 2014; Roberts and Scott, Med Care 48(11):1026–35, 2010; Warren and Quadir, Crit Care Med 34(8):2084–9, 2006; Zimlichman and Henderson, JAMA Intern Med 173(22):2039–46, 2013). Importantly, infections acquired during a hospital stay have been shown to be preventable (Loveday and Wilson, J Hosp Infect 86:S1–70, 2014). In particular, due to more invasive procedures, mechanical ventilation, and critical illness, patients cared for in the intensive care unit (ICU) are at greater risk of HAI and associated poor outcomes. This meta-analysis aims to summarise the effectiveness of chlorhexidine (CHG) bathing, in adult intensive care patients, to reduce infection.

Methods

A systematic literature search was undertaken to identify trials assessing the effectiveness of CHG bathing to reduce risk of infection, among adult intensive care patients. Infections included were: bloodstream infections; central line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSI); catheter-associated urinary tract infections; ventilator-associated pneumonia; methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA); vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus; and Clostridium difficile. Summary estimates were calculated as incidence rate ratios (IRRs) and 95% confidence/credible intervals. Variation in study designs was addressed using hierarchical Bayesian random-effects models.

Results

Seventeen trials were included in our final analysis: seven of the studies were cluster-randomised crossover trials, and the remaining studies were before-and-after trials. CHG bathing was estimated to reduce the risk of CLABSI by 56% (Bayesian random effects IRR = 0.44 (95% credible interval (CrI), 0.26, 0.75)), and MRSA colonisation and bacteraemia in the ICU by 41% and 36%, respectively (IRR = 0.59 (95% CrI, 0.36, 0.94); and IRR = 0.64 (95% CrI, 0.43, 0.91)). The numbers needed to treat for these specific ICU infections ranged from 360 (CLABSI) to 2780 (MRSA bacteraemia).

Conclusion

This meta-analysis of the effectiveness of CHG bathing to reduce infections among adults in the ICU has found evidence for the benefit of daily bathing with CHG to reduce CLABSI and MRSA infections. However, the effectiveness may be dependent on the underlying baseline risk of these events among the given ICU population. Therefore, CHG bathing appears to be of the most clinical benefit when infection rates are high for a given ICU population.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s13054-016-1553-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Bathing and Beyond: Current Bathing Controversies for Newborn Infants

BACKGROUND

Bathing the newborn infant is controversial, ranging from how and when to give the newborn their first bath, whether to bathe newborns at all in the initial days of life, and how to approach bathing the hospitalized premature and full-term infant in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).

PURPOSE

To review relevant literature about bathing newborn infants, as well as examine the controversies about bathing NICU patients including the use of daily chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) baths.

FINDINGS

Despite studies showing that temperature can be maintained when the first bath was at 1 hour after delivery, there are benefits from delaying the bath including improved breastfeeding. Tub or immersion bathing improves temperature, and is less stressful. It is not necessary to bathe infants every day, and premature infants can be bathed as little as every 4 days without an increase in skin colonization. No differences have been reported in skin parameters such as pH, transepidermal water loss, and stratum corneum hydration whether the first and subsequent baths are given using water alone or water and a mild baby cleanser. Concerns about systemic absorption suggests caution about widespread practice of daily CHG bathing in the NICU until it is known whether CHG crosses the blood-brain barrier, particularly in premature infants.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH

Research regarding bathing practices for NICU patients should be evidence-based whenever possible, such as the benefits of immersion bathing. More evidence about the risks and benefits of daily CHG bathing is needed before this practice is widely disseminated.

Chlorhexidine Bathing Effects on Health-Care-Associated Infections

BACKGROUND

Health-care-associated infections (HAIs), infections that patients contract during the course of their hospitalization, are receiving a growing amount of attention. Heavy skin bacterial colonization aids in the transmission and development of HAIs. Nurses frequently use bathing with chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) to reduce patients' cutaneous microbial burden. This intervention has been shown to have promising but mixed results in the prevention of HAIs.

PURPOSE

This article reviews the literature for evidence on the impact of CHG bathing on HAIs.

METHOD

A literature search was conducted to identify peer-reviewed studies and meta-analyses that examined the impact of CHG bathing on HAIs using PubMed and CINAHL with the following search terms: CHG bathing AND healthcare associated infections, surgical site infections ( SSIs), central line associated bloodstream infections ( CLABSIs), ventilator-associated pneumonias ( VAP), catheter-associated urinary-tract infections ( CAUTIs), and Clostridium difficile-associated disease. The initial search identified 23 articles for review. Additional studies were identified by searching references used in original studies or review articles on this topic.

PRINCIPLE FINDINGS

There is good evidence to support incorporating a CHG bathing regimen to reduce the incidence of CLABSIs, SSIs, vancomycin-resistant enterococci (VRE), and methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) HAIs.

CONCLUSION

As CHG becomes a standard practice to prevent HAIs, it is important to monitor for adverse reactions and evidence of resistance/susceptibility.

Strategies to Prevent Methicillin-ResistantStaphylococcus aureusTransmission and Infection in Acute Care Hospitals: 2014 Update

Previously published guidelines are available that provide comprehensive recommendations for detecting and preventing healthcare-associated infections (HAIs). The intent of this document is to highlight practical recommendations in a concise format designed to assist acute care hospitals in implementing and prioritizing their methicillin-resistantStaphylococcus aureus(MRSA) prevention efforts. This document updates “Strategies to Prevent Transmission of Methicillin-ResistantStaphylococcus aureusin Acute Care Hospitals,” published in 2008. This expert guidance document is sponsored by the Society for Healthcare Epidemiology of America (SHEA) and is the product of a collaborative effort led by SHEA, the Infectious Diseases Society of America (IDSA), the American Hospital Association (AHA), the Association for Professionals in Infection Control and Epidemiology (APIC), and The Joint Commission, with major contributions from representatives of a number of organizations and societies with content expertise. The list of endorsing and supporting organizations is presented in the introduction to the 2014 updates.

Bacterial Multidrug Efflux Pumps: Much More Than Antibiotic Resistance Determinants

Bacterial multidrug efflux pumps are antibiotic resistance determinants present in all microorganisms. With few exceptions, they are chromosomally encoded and present a conserved organization both at the genetic and at the protein levels. In addition, most, if not all, strains of a given bacterial species present the same chromosomally-encoded efflux pumps. Altogether this indicates that multidrug efflux pumps are ancient elements encoded in bacterial genomes long before the recent use of antibiotics for human and animal therapy. In this regard, it is worth mentioning that efflux pumps can extrude a wide range of substrates that include, besides antibiotics, heavy metals, organic pollutants, plant-produced compounds, quorum sensing signals or bacterial metabolites, among others. In the current review, we present information on the different functions that multidrug efflux pumps may have for the bacterial behaviour in different habitats as well as on their regulation by specific signals. Since, in addition to their function in non-clinical ecosystems, multidrug efflux pumps contribute to intrinsic, acquired, and phenotypic resistance of bacterial pathogens, the review also presents information on the search for inhibitors of multidrug efflux pumps, which are currently under development, in the aim of increasing the susceptibility of bacterial pathogens to antibiotics.

A Multicenter Pragmatic Interrupted Time Series Analysis of Chlorhexidine Gluconate Bathing in Community Hospital Intensive Care Units

OBJECTIVE To determine whether daily chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) bathing of intensive care unit (ICU) patients leads to a decrease in hospital-acquired infections (HAIs), particularly infections caused by methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) and vancomycin-resistant Enterococcus (VRE). DESIGN Interrupted time series analysis. SETTING The study included 33 community hospitals participating in the Duke Infection Control Outreach Network from January 2008 through December 2013. PARTICIPANTS All ICU patients at study hospitals during the study period. METHODS Of the 33 hospitals, 17 hospitals implemented CHG bathing during the study period, and 16 hospitals that did not perform CHG bathing served as controls. Primary pre-specified outcomes included ICU central-line-associated bloodstream infections (CLABSIs), primary bloodstream infections (BSI), ventilator-associated pneumonia (VAP), and catheter-associated urinary tract infections (CAUTIs). MRSA and VRE HAIs were also evaluated. RESULTS Chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) bathing was associated with a significant downward trend in incidence rates of ICU CLABSI (incidence rate ratio [IRR], 0.96; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.93-0.99), ICU primary BSI (IRR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.94-0.99), VRE CLABSIs (IRR, 0.97; 95% CI, 0.97-0.98), and all combined VRE infections (IRR, 0.96; 95% CI, 0.93-1.00). No significant trend in MRSA infection incidence rates was identified prior to or following the implementation of CHG bathing. CONCLUSIONS In this multicenter, real-world analysis of the impact of CHG bathing, hospitals that implemented CHG bathing attained a decrease in ICU CLABSIs, ICU primary BSIs, and VRE CLABSIs. CHG bathing did not affect rates of specific or overall infections due to MRSA. Our findings support daily CHG bathing of ICU patients. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2016;37:791-797.

A Novel Prevention Bundle to Reduce Surgical Site Infections in Pediatric Spinal Fusion Patients

BACKGROUND

The Surgical Care Improvement Project bundle emphasizes operative infection prevention practices. Despite implementing the Surgical Care Improvement Project bundle in 2008, spinal fusion surgical site infections (SF-SSI) continued to be prevalent for this low-volume, high-risk surgery.

OBJECTIVE

To design a combined pre-, peri-, and postoperative bundle (PPPB) that would lead to sustained reductions in SF-SSI rates.

DESIGN

Quality improvement project, before-after trial with cost-effectiveness analysis.

SETTING

Children’s hospital.

PATIENTS

All spinal fusion patients, 2008–2015.

INTERVENTION

A multidisciplinary team developed the PPPB composed of Surgical Care Improvement Project elements plus improved wound care practices, nursing standard of care, dedicated nursing unit, dermatology assessment tool and consultation, nursing education tool using “teach back” technique, and a “Back Home” kit. SF-SSI rates were compared before (2008–2010) and after (2011-February 2015) implementation of PPPB. PPPB compliance was monitored.

RESULTS

A total of 224 SF surgeries were performed from 2008 to February 2015. Pre-PPPB analysis revealed median time to SF-SSI of 28 days, secondary to skin and bowel flora. Mean 3-year pre-PPPB SF-SSI rate per 100 SF surgeries was 8.2 (8/98) (2008: 13.3 [4/30], 2009: 2.7 [1/37], 2010: 9.7 [3/31]). Mean SF-SSI rate after PPPB was 2.4 (3/126) (January 2011-February 2015); there was a 71% reduction in mean SSI rate (P=.0695). No SF-SSI occurred in neuromuscular patients (P=.008) after PPPB. Compliance with PPPB elements has been 100%.

CONCLUSIONS

PPPB led to sustained improvement in SF-SSI rates over 50 months. The PPPB could be reproduced for other surgeries.

Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2016;37:527–534

Decolonization and decontamination: what's their role in infection control?

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

Hospital-acquired infections cause up to 19% of infections in paediatric patients contributing to the spread of antimicrobial resistance. This review evaluates the effect of decolonization and decontamination in hospitalized children and neonates as an adjunct to standard infection control measures.

RECENT FINDINGS

Few studies on decolonization and decontamination are available in children. The evidence about the effectiveness of daily chlorhexidine washcloths on bacteraemia in paediatric patients relies on a single randomized controlled trial, in neonates with central venous access in a single retrospective observational study. It is uncertain whether nasal mupirocin reduces methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus carriage and infections in neonates, whereas oral chlorhexidine mouthwashes have not proven effective in children in intensive care settings. Scanty evidence demonstrates a reduction in the rate of ventilation-acquired pneumonia with digestive tract decontamination in paediatric patients and no studies are available in neonates. These strategies have not been extensively tested in resource-poor countries.

SUMMARY

Strong evidence about the efficacy of decolonization and decontamination interventions exists in adult medicine but not in paediatric patients. There is an urgent need to understand how these interventions could be adapted to neonates and resource-poor settings in which the prevalence of hospital-acquired infections is higher.

Effect of daily chlorhexidine bathing on acquisition of carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB) in the medical intensive care unit with CRAB endemicity

BACKGROUND

There is insufficient evidence for daily chlorhexidine bathing to reduce nosocomial spread of carbapenem-resistant Acinetobacter baumannii (CRAB) in endemic situations.

METHODS

An interrupted time series study was performed to evaluate the effect of daily chlorhexidine bathing on the acquisition of CRAB in a medical intensive care unit (ICU) with CRAB endemicity. There was a 14-month control period and 12-month chlorhexidine bathing period. Segmented Poisson regression analysis was performed to assess the impact of chlorhexidine bathing on the level and trend of the series of prevalence rates and incidence density. Also, chlorhexidine susceptibility testing was performed on CRAB isolates collected during the chlorhexidine bathing period.

RESULTS

There was a 51.8% reduction of CRAB acquisition rates after an introduction of daily chlorhexidine bathing (44.0 vs 21.2 cases/1,000 at-risk patient days, P < .001). There was a significant reduction in the level (-0.604; 95% CI, -0.904 to -0.305; P < .001) of incidence density of CRAB, whereas there was no significant change in both level and trend of CRAB prevalence rates. Minimum inhibitory concentration of chlorhexidine against a total of 98 CRAB isolates ranged from 8-64 μg/mL.

CONCLUSION

Daily chlorhexidine bathing significantly reduces the acquisition of CRAB in a medical ICU with CRAB endemicity.

Impact of daily bathing with chlorhexidine gluconate on ventilator associated pneumonia in intensive care units: a meta-analysis

OBJECTIVE

Ventilator associated pneumonia (VAP) is the most important nosocomial infection in intensive care units (ICUs). Our objective was to assess whether daily bathing with chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) would significantly result in the reduction of VAP.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-experimental studies were conducted. The setting are medical, surgical, trauma, and combined medical-surgical ICUs. The patients are adult. We searched electronic search engine (PubMed), Embase and the Cochrane Central Register database for all published studies related to the application of daily CHG bathing with VAP risk.

RESULTS

In all, six articles reporting a total of 27,638 ventilator-days met the inclusion criteria; 132 patients in the CHG arm developed a VAP (13,349 ventilator-days), compared with 188 patients in the control arm (14,289 ventilator-days). Daily bathing with CHG was significantly associated with decreased incidence risk of VAP [relative risk (RR): 0.73, 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.57-0.92, I(2)=0%]. In the subgroup analysis, we found that daily bathing with 2% CHG impregnated cloths or wipes would reduce the incidence risk of VAP among before-and-after studies (pooled RR: 0.73, 95% CI: 0.57-0.93).

CONCLUSIONS

The application of daily bathing with CHG would decrease incidence risk of VAP, which would be an important complementary intervention to barrier precautions.