Development of gluten-free bread using guar gum and transglutaminase

Plant gums in Pickering emulsions: A review of sources, properties, applications, and future perspectives

Recently, there has been an increasing research interest in the development of Pickering emulsions stabilized with naturally derived biopolymeric particles. In this regard, plant gums, obtained as plant exudates or from plant seeds, are considered promising candidates for the development of non-toxic, biocompatible, biodegradable and eco-friendly Pickering stabilizers. The main objective of this review article is to provide a detailed overview and assess the latest advances in the formulation of Pickering emulsions stabilized with plant gum-based particles. The plant gum sources, types and properties are outlined. Besides, the current methodologies used in the production of plant gum particles formed solely of plant gums, or through interactions of plant gums with proteins or other polysaccharides are highlighted and discussed. Furthermore, the work compiles and assesses the innovative applications of plant gum-based Pickering emulsions in areas such as encapsulation and delivery of drugs and active agents, along with the utilization of these Pickering emulsions in the development of active packaging films, plant-based products and low-fat food formulations. The last part of the review presents potential future research trends that are expected to motivate and direct research to areas related to other novel food applications, as well as tissue engineering and environmental applications.

A review of gluten detoxification in wheat for food applications: approaches, mechanisms, and implications

With the improved knowledge of gluten-related disorders, especially celiac disease (CD), the market of gluten-free food is growing. However, the current gluten-free diet still presents challenges in terms of nutrition, acceptability, and cost due to the absence of gluten. It is important to note that gluten-related allergies or sensitivities have different underlying causes. And individuals with mild non-celiac gluten disorder symptoms may not necessarily require the same gluten-free treatments. Scientists are actively seeking alternative solutions for these consumers. This review delves into the various strategies employed by researchers for detoxifying gluten or modifying its main protein, gliadin, including genetic treatment, transamidation and deamidation, hydrolysis, and microbial treatments. The mechanisms, constraints of these techniques, their current utilization in food items, as well as their implications for gluten-related disorders, are discussed in detail. Although there is still a gap in the application of these methods as alternative solutions in the real market, the summary provided by our review could be beneficial for peers in enriching their basic ideas and developing more applicable solutions for wheat gluten detoxification.

Characterization of Lactic Acid Bacteria and Yeast from Grains as Starter Cultures for Gluten-Free Sourdough

With the increasing number of people affected by gluten consumption-related diseases, adhering to a gluten-free (GF) diet is the most effective preventive measure. Herein, we aimed to isolate and characterize the functional properties of autochthonous lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeast from various GF sourdoughs to determine their suitability in starter cultures for sourdough preparation. Three LAB, Weissella confusa BAQ2, Lactobacillus brevis AQ2, Leuconostoc citreum YC2, and Saccharomyces cerevisiae BW1, were identified. The isolated LAB exhibited greater TTA, faster acidification rates, and higher acid tolerance than commercial LAB. W. confusa BAQ2 exhibited the highest EPS production, W. confusa BAQ2 and L. brevis AQ2 showed high maltose utilization, and S. cerevisiae BW1 exhibited the highest CO2 production rate. Accordingly, all four microbial strains were mixed for the starter culture. The sourdough prepared with starter cultures exhibited differences in gas production depending on fermentation time, which influenced the volume of GF bread dough. GF bread prepared with fermented sourdough exhibited a 16% higher specific volume and enhanced crumb firmness and elasticity than that prepared using non-fermented sourdough. Thus, autochthonous LAB strains isolated from various GF sourdoughs can be used together to improve the quality of sourdough bread, demonstrating their potential for use in starter cultures for GF sourdough production.

Evaluation of producing gluten-free bread by utilizing amaranth and lipase and protease enzymes

Generating high pleasant and nutritious gluten-free (GF) bread for sufferers with celiac disease (CD) is a main task for food technologists. Amaranth is a useful nutrition and gliadin-free and could be utilized in GF products. At this study, by using different substitutions of amaranth flour (0%, 15%, 25%) GF bread samples were produced, and the effects of lipase and protease enzymes as bread improver have been investigated. On this assessment, physicochemical (ash, moisture, specific volume, bread yield, color index and porosity) and rheological (springiness, chewiness, cohesiveness, hardness and staling) characteristic, microstructure and sensory feature of bread were evaluated. The consequences tested the production bread with acceptable sensory properties is feasible with the aid of applying amaranth flour in GF bread formulations. Applying 15% amaranth flour increased meaningfully bread porosity and specific volume, but texture hardness was notably decreased. 25% amaranth flour formulation lowered hardness, specific volume and porosity of bread samples. Utilizing lipase and protease enzymes in 15% amaranth flour reduced texture hardness, porosity and specific volume, while the enzymes at 25% amaranth flour heightened the mentioned bread properties. In this result, for lower amaranth flour substitution (15%), using enzymes in formulation is not necessary, however enzymes in 25% Amaranth flour substitution could promote bread texture, porosity and specific volume.

Effect of Thermoresponsive Xyloglucan on the Bread-Making Properties and Preservation of Gluten-Free Rice-Flour Bread

This study clarified the effect of adding thermoresponsive xyloglucan on the bread-making properties and preservation of gluten-free rice-flour bread. The thickening polysaccharides used for preparing gluten-free rice-flour bread were modified tamarind gum (MTG; thermoresponsive xyloglucan), tamarind gum (TG), and xanthan gum (XT). The mechanical properties of the added polysaccharide thickener solutions and bread dough, the mechanical properties and sensory characteristics of rice-flour bread, and the aging properties of rice-flour bread were measured. The results showed that the MTG solution exhibited solification at 40 °C and gelation below 40 °C, which affected the dynamic viscoelasticity of the dough. The addition of MTG to gluten-free rice-flour bread reduced the specific volume, increased the moisture content, and reduced the stress at 70% compression. Therefore, the bread with MTG added was soft, moist, and preferred over other those with other additives. In terms of preservation, the addition of 0.5-0.75% of polysaccharides inhibited the hardening and aging of beard with MTG added. This indicates that the addition of MTG at low concentrations is effective in preserving gluten-free rice-flour breads. We found that the thickening polysaccharides had to be added in appropriate concentrations to improve the bread-making properties and achieve the preferred effect.

Technological characteristics of sodium reduced wheat bread: Effects of fermentation type and partial replacement of salt with potassium chloride

Rheological, physicochemical, textural, and sensory characteristics of wheat bread prepared by potassium chloride (KCl) substitution of sodium chloride (NaCl) at different ratio (0:100, 10:90, 20:80, 30:70, 40:60, 50:50) in the presence of two different fermentation types (Saccharomyces cerevisiae yeast starter (YSF) and mixed fermentation based on sourdough (MFSD)) were investigated. Considering the results obtained at this study, the technological characteristics change through KCl substitution ratio which depends on the type of fermentation. In other words, the enhanced activity of microflora in MFSD-fermented samples and decreased activity of yeast in YSF-fermented ones have been found by increasing the ratio of KCl incorporation level. Despite the increased activity of starter microflora in MFSD-fermented samples through increasing the KCl incorporation level, the lowest specific volume (p < .05) is found in SD50 (containing 50%w/w KCl in the presence of MFSD) with a quantity equal to 1.71 ± 0.47 cm3/g confirming its inability to restore gases. No significant difference has been found in KCl substitution levels up to 20%w/w in YSF-fermented samples (Y20) with control (p ≥ .05). The lowest crumb lightness (L*) (65.27 ± 0.12), highest cohesiveness (1.31 ± 0.07 mm), and springiness (0.76 ± 0.01) is also found in Y20. Considering sensory characteristics perception, no significant difference has been found in textural characteristics perception of Y10 and Y20 containing KCl at 10%w/w and 20% w/w, respectively, in the presence of YSF with control sample (Y). The overall acceptability is also found to be more influenced by texture perception(r = 0.827, p < .00).

Optimization of gluten-free bread production with low aflatoxin level based on quinoa flour containing xanthan gum and laccase enzyme

This study was aimed to develop a new cereal-based product using quinoa flour, xanthan gum, and laccase and also to evaluate their effects on the quality characteristics of gluten-free bread (GFB). Experimental design method was applied for optimization of gluten-free formulation. The effects of three variables of quinoa flour (0-50%), laccase activity (0-2 U/g flour), and xanthan gum (0-0.5%) on the contents of total aflatoxin (TAF) and aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), color indices (L*, a*, and b*), and texture properties (hardness, cohesiveness, and springiness) of GFB were evaluated. The results showed that quinoa flour and laccase enzyme significantly reduced TAF and AFB1 (p < 0.05). The lowest AFB1 level (3.67 ± 0.96 ng/g) in the GFB formulation containing quinoa flour (40%), laccase enzyme (2.0 U/g), and xanthan gum (0.46%) was very close to the predicted amount (3.66 ± 0.96 ng/g). Quinoa flour significantly reduced the L* and a* values and increased b* value and improved the texture parameters. Laccase enzyme also improved color indices and texture properties. Therefore, the use of laccase enzyme and quinoa flour is recommended based on the desired effect on the quality characteristics of GFB.

Physicochemical, Rheological, and Sensory Properties of Gluten-Free Cookie Produced by Flour of Chestnut, Date Seed, and Modified Starch

A gluten-free rice flour-based cookie was produced using different mixtures of chestnut flour (0, 30, 40, and 50%), date seed flour (0, 10, and 20%), and modified starch (0.3, 0.5, 0.6, and 0.9%). Physicochemical, rheological, and sensory properties of the prepared treatments were investigated. The results showed that moisture, specific volume, and dough viscosity were the lowest in control and the highest in treatment T1 containing 20% date seed flour, 30% chestnut flour, and 0.9% modified starch ( $P<0.05$ ). The highest (22.15 N) and the lowest hardness (13.5 N) were obtained in the control and T1, respectively, both of which increased over the storage time ( $P<0.05$ ). Regarding the texture characteristics of different dough treatments, the control illustrated the lowest adhesiveness and the highest hardness and chewiness. Sensory evaluation revealed that gluten-free treatments were acceptable from the consumers’ point of view. It was concluded that T1 as a gluten-free cookie had the highest quality.

The Influence of Rice Protein, Hemp Protein and Transglutaminase Addition on the Quality of Instant Fried Noodles

The goal of this study was to determine the effect of rice and hemp protein addition together with transglutaminase on the quality and fat content of fried instant noodles. The following parameters have been analyzed during this research: the amount of water, fat content, hydration time, color and texture parameters. The evaluation of sensory parameters before and after cooking of instant noodles has been performed. It can be concluded that the addition of TGase significantly decreased the fat content; the recipe with a 3% hemp protein addition with TGase in an amount of 2% was the most promising solution to obtain a low-fat product. On the other hand, the better consumer acceptance levels were observed for the rice protein addition (1%) with 2% TGase. It seems that the most promising product is the sample with a 5% addition of rice protein with 2% TGase-a reduction in the fat content by 30% (from 25% to 16%). The addition of rice protein, hemp protein and TGase reduced the fat content of the instant noodles in comparison to the control sample. The additives used had an impact on the L*, a* and b* color parameters. All instant noodles obtained during the research process were characterized by a short hydration time, which did not exceed 5 min. During the sensory evaluation, analyzed samples of the instant noodles obtained scores higher than 4.2 points on a five-point scale.

Sourdough Biotechnology Applied to Gluten-Free Baked Goods: Rescuing the Tradition

Recent studies suggest that the beneficial properties provided by sourdough fermentation may be translated to the development of new GF products that could improve their technological and nutritional properties. The main objective of this manuscript is to review the current evidence regarding the elaboration of GF baked goods, and to present the latest knowledge about the so-called sourdough biotechnology. A bibliographic search of articles published in the last 12 years has been carried out. It is common to use additives, such as hydrocolloids, proteins, enzymes, and emulsifiers, to technologically improve GF products. Sourdough is a mixture of flour and water fermented by an ecosystem of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) and yeasts that provide technological and nutritional improvements to the bakery products. LAB-synthesized biopolymers can mimic gluten molecules. Sourdough biotechnology is an ecological and cost-effective technology with great potential in the field of GF products. Further research is necessary to optimize the process and select species of microorganisms robust enough to be competitive in any circumstance.

Enzymatic modifications of gluten protein: Oxidative enzymes

Oxidative enzymes treat weak flours in order to restore the gluten network of damaged wheat flour and reduce the economic and technological losses. The present review concentrates on oxidative exogenous enzymes (transglutaminase, laccase, glucose oxidase, hexose oxidase) and oxidative endogenous enzymes (tyrosinase, peroxidase, catalase, sulfhydryl oxidase, lipoxygenase, lipase, protein disulfide isomerase, NAD(P)H-dependent dehydrogenase, thioredoxin reductase and glutathione reductase) and their effects on the rheological, functional, and conformational features of gluten and its subunits. Overall, transglutaminase is used in wheat-based foods through introducing isopeptide bonds (ε-γ glutamyl-lysine). Glucose oxidase, hexose oxidase, peroxidase, sulfhydryl oxidase, lipase, and lipoxygenase form disulfide and nondisulfide bonds through producing hydrogen peroxide. Laccase, tyrosinase, and protein disulfide isomerase form cross-links between tyrosine and cysteine residues by generating radicals. Thioredoxin reductase and glutathione reductase create new inter disulfide bonds. The effect of oxidative enzymes on the formation of covalent cross-linkages were substantially more than non-covalent bonds in gluten structure.

Tetraselmis chuii as a Sustainable and Healthy Ingredient to Produce Gluten-Free Bread: Impact on Structure, Colour and Bioactivity

The objective of this work is to increase the nutritional quality of gluten-free (GF) bread by addition of Tetraselmis chuii microalgal biomass, a sustainable source of protein and bioactive compounds. The impact of different levels of T. chuii (0%-Control, 1%, 2% and 4% w/w) on the GF doughs and breads' structure was studied. Microdough-Lab mixing tests and oscillatory rheology were conducted to evaluate the dough´s structure. Physical properties of the loaves, total phenolic content (Folin-Ciocalteu) and antioxidant capacity (DPPH and FRAP) of the bread extracts were assessed. For the low additions of T. chuii (1% and 2%), a destabilising effect is noticed, expressed by lower dough viscoelastic functions (G' and G'') and poor baking results. At the higher level (4%) of microalgal addition, there was a structure recovery with bread volume increase and a decrease in crumb firmness. Moreover, 4% T. chuii bread presented higher total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity when compared to control. Bread with 4% T. chuii seems particularly interesting since a significant increase in the bioactivity and an innovative green appearance was achieved, with a low impact on technological performance, but with lower sensory scores.

The effect of Quinoa flour and enzymes on the quality of gluten-free bread

Gluten-free products usually are produced by refined flours such as rice and corn flour, which the bran is separated during processing. These flours are not nutritionally as rich as gluten containing products. Moreover, gluten-free bread has several technical problems such as unfavorable texture, low volume, quick staling, and weaker color and taste compared with the wheat flour products. In this research, gluten-free bread with various substitution of quinoa (0%, 15%, and 25%) was produced and the effects of lipase and protease enzymes on the quality of bread were investigated. The gluten-free bread properties like physicochemical properties, rheological properties, and bread microstructure were evaluated. Moreover, the sensorial properties were assessed. The results have demonstrated that gluten-free bread with quinoa flour has favorable properties. Also, lipase and protease enzymes could improve the quality of the bread containing quinoa. Protease and lipase enzymes increased the bread volume, specifically in sample containing 15% quinoa substitution. Moreover, the staling was delayed in sample 25% quinoa substitution. The bread was accepted by consumers, and the highest score belonged to 25% substitution of quinoa flour.

Influence of Potato Flour on Dough and Steamed Bread Quality and Correlation Analysis

Potato offers numerous health benefits that have yet to be utilized by the food industry. To evaluate the use of potato as an ingredient in staple food products, various proportions of potato flour were added to wheat flour (0–50 %) to form potato–wheat flour mixtures. The mixtures were used to make dough and steamed bread that were tested based on several established quality indicators. Specifically, with increasing potato flour proportion above 20 %, dough quality indicators of extensibility, tensile resistance, fermentation volume and fermentation activity exhibited downward trends, with worsening microstructural, while steamed bread exhibited decreasing specific volume, decreasing brightness, worsening textural properties, increasing yellowness and increasing lysine content. However, for dough and steamed bread made from flour mixtures containing 10–20 % potato flour, quality indicators were not significantly different from corresponding control values (100 % wheat flour). Notably, correlation analysis indicated that tensile and fermentative dough properties significantly correlated with resulting steamed bread quality. Therefore, only data measurements for these dough indicators are needed to predict steamed bread quality, in order to reduce testing workload during evaluation of ingredient formulations for steamed bread production.

Development of gluten-free non-yeasted dough structure as factor of bread quality formation

The article is devoted to the study of the influence of hydrocolloids and animal protein concentrates on the formation of the foam-like structure of gluten-free non-yeast dough as the main factor for bread quality formation. The use of CMC in a concentration of 0.5% is found to be appropriate. The bread volume increases to 236 cm3.100g-1 in comparison with the control sample in water – 202 cm3.100g-1. It is proved that the suggested additives in the amounts of 0.5 ‒ 1.0% Helios-11 and 0.5% CMC solution cause 100% resistance of egg white foam. In this case, the foaming ability increases with the addition of Helios-11 only in amounts up to 1.0%, then decreases for higher amounts of Helios-11 or in the presence of CMC. This can be explained by the increase in density of the whipping mass and the ability of both additives to thicken solutions. In the presence of the additives, the foamy texture of the dough changes. The number of large pores (0.7 – 1.5 mm) decreases almost fourfold, and the number of small and very small pores (0.1 ‒ 0.5 mm) increases significantly. The index of form resistance of the control sample is 32, and in the presence of 0.5% CMC with 0.5 ‒ 1.0% APC is 20 ‒ 21, which indicates a decrease in the surface tension of the aqueous solutions with additives, to a large extent, in the case of joint use.

Production of prebiotic gluten-free bread with red rice flour and different microbial transglutaminase concentrations: modeling, sensory and multivariate data analysis

The aim of this study was to develop gluten-free bread formulated with red rice flour and microbial transglutaminase and prebiotic (inulin). First, the physicochemical analysis of minerals present in red rice flour was performed. Response surface methodology was used to analyze the effects of microbial transglutaminase (MTgase) [0.5; 1.0 and 1.5%] in combination with fermentation time (FT) [60; 80 and 100 min] on the quality parameters of gluten-free bread. Acceptance test was used to evaluate the sensory characteristics of breads together with multivariate analysis of data. The addition of MTgase increased bread volume, hardness and chewiness. However, the cohesiveness and springiness of all breads remained unaffected. The formulation (1.0% MTgase and 80 min FT) presented the best sensory attributes through PCA (principal component analysis) and greater acceptance. Overall, red rice flour, prebiotic and MTgase are promisingly useful ingredients for the production of gluten-free quality bread.

Optimization of Quality Properties of Gluten-Free Bread by a Mixture Design of Xanthan, Guar, and Hydroxypropyl Methyl Cellulose Gums

The objective of this study was to investigate, by means of a D-optimal mixture design, the combined effects of hydroxypropyl methyl cellulose (HPMC), xanthan (XG), and guar (GG) gums on physicochemical, rheological, and textural properties of gluten-free batter and bread. For each of the quality properties measured, a two-factor interaction model was fitted, and the significance of its terms was assessed by analysis of variance. Sticky batters were produced with a combination of high dose of GG (0.60%), high-intermediate dose of HPMC (3.36%), and low dose of XG (0.04%). Combinations of high XG dose (0.60%) and intermediate doses of HPMC (3.08%) and GG (0.32%) rendered GF breads of greater specific volume, while lower bread crust luminosity was obtained with combinations of high GG dose (0.60%), low XG dose (0.04%), and high-intermediate HPMC dose (3.36%). Combinations of high-intermediate HPMC dose (3.36%), high GG dose (0.60%), and low XG dose (0.04%) produced both softer crumbs and bread slices of more open visual texture. By using a desirability function that maximized specific volume while minimizing crust luminosity, crumb hardness, and mean cell density, the optimization of hydrocolloids mixture rendered a value of 0.54, for a combination of 0.24% XG, 0.60% GG, and 3.16% HPMC.

A Review on the Gluten-Free Diet: Technological and Nutritional Challenges

Consumers, food manufacturers and health professionals are uniquely influenced by the growing popularity of the gluten-free diet. Consumer expectations have urged the food industry to continuously adjust and improve the formulations and processing techniques used in gluten-free product manufacturing. Health experts have been interested in the nutritional adequacy of the diet, as well as its effectiveness in managing gluten-related disorders and other conditions. In this review, we aim to provide a clear picture of the current motivations behind the use of gluten-free diets, as well as the technological and nutritional challenges of the diet as a whole. Alternative starches and flours, hydrocolloids, and fiber sources were found to play a complex role in mimicking the functional and sensory effects of gluten in gluten-free products. However, the quality of gluten-free alternatives is often still inferior to the gluten-containing products. Furthermore, the gluten-free diet has demonstrated benefits in managing some gluten-related disorders, though nutritional imbalances have been reported. As there is limited evidence supporting the use of the gluten-free diet beyond its role in managing gluten-related disorders, consumers are urged to be mindful of the sensorial limitations and nutritional inadequacies of the diet despite ongoing strategies to improve them.