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Mor Z, Omari H, Indenbaum V, Kirstein OD, Shatach Catabi O, Reicher S, Lustig Y, Davidovich-Cohen M, Kaliner E, Sheffer R, Elbaz S, Kriger O, Alroy-Preis S. Early rise of West Nile fever in Israel, June 2024. Euro Surveill 2024; 29:2400457. [PMID: 39056196 PMCID: PMC11274845 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2024.29.30.2400457] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 07/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
This report describes an unusual surge of West Nile fever in Israel in June 2024, during which 125 cases were diagnosed, compared with 4 cases on average during June in previous years (2014-23). Of the cases, 64 (62.1%) had neuroinvasive disease and 12 (9.6%) died; the 2024 case fatality rate was not significantly elevated vs the average rate in 2014-23. The early rise could be related to a temperature increase in spring and early summer of 2024.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zohar Mor
- School of Health Science, Ashkelon Academic College, Ashkelon, Israel
- Division of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Husein Omari
- Division of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | - Oscar D Kirstein
- Public Health Laboratories, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | | | - Shay Reicher
- Ministry of Environmental Protection, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yaniv Lustig
- School of Public Health, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
- Central Virology Laboratories, Ministry of Health, Tel Hashomer, Israel
| | | | | | | | - Shirly Elbaz
- Public Health Laboratories, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Or Kriger
- Public Health Directorate, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
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2
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Khedhiri M, Chaouch M, Ayouni K, Chouikha A, Gdoura M, Touzi H, Hogga N, Benkahla A, Fares W, Triki H. Development and evaluation of an easy to use real-time reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for clinical diagnosis of West Nile virus. J Clin Virol 2024; 170:105633. [PMID: 38103483 DOI: 10.1016/j.jcv.2023.105633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2023] [Revised: 11/09/2023] [Accepted: 12/06/2023] [Indexed: 12/19/2023]
Abstract
West Nile Virus (WNV) causes a serious public health concern in many countries around the world. Virus detection in pathological samples is a key component of WNV infection diagnostic, classically performed by real-time PCR. In outbreak situation, rapid detection of the virus, in peripheral laboratories or at point of care, is crucial to guide decision makers and for the establishment of adequate action plans to prevent virus dissemination. Here, we evaluate a Loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) tool for WNV detection. Amplifications were performed comparatively on extracted viral RNA and on crude samples using a classical thermal cycler and a portable device (pebble device). qRT-PCR was used as gold standard and two sets of urine samples (n = 62 and n = 74) were used to evaluate the retained amplification protocols and assess their sensitivity and specificity. RT-LAMP on RNA extracts and crude samples showed a sensitivity of 90 % and 87 %, respectively. The specificity was 100 % for extracts and 97 % for crude samples. Using the device, the RT-LAMP on extracted RNA was comparable to the gold standard results (100 % sensitivity and specificity) and it was a bit lower on crude samples (65 % sensitivity and 94 % specificity). These results show that RT-LAMP is an efficient technique to detect WNV. RT-LAMP provides a rapid, sensitive, high-throughput and portable tool for accurate WNV detection and has potentials to facilitate diagnostic and surveillance efforts both in the laboratory and in the field, especially in developing countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa Khedhiri
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Research Laboratory: "Virus, Vector and Host" (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia.
| | - Melek Chaouch
- Laboratory of Medical Parasitology, Biotechnology and Biomolecules (LR16IPT06), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Laboratory of BioInformatics, BioMathematics and BioStatistics Laboratory (LR16IPT09), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Kaouther Ayouni
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Research Laboratory: "Virus, Vector and Host" (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Anissa Chouikha
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Research Laboratory: "Virus, Vector and Host" (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Mariem Gdoura
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Research Laboratory: "Virus, Vector and Host" (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Henda Touzi
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Research Laboratory: "Virus, Vector and Host" (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Nahed Hogga
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Research Laboratory: "Virus, Vector and Host" (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Alia Benkahla
- Laboratory of Medical Parasitology, Biotechnology and Biomolecules (LR16IPT06), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Wasfi Fares
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Research Laboratory: "Virus, Vector and Host" (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia
| | - Henda Triki
- Laboratory of Clinical Virology, WHO Reference Laboratory for Poliomyelitis and Measles in the Eastern Mediterranean Region, Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Research Laboratory: "Virus, Vector and Host" (LR20IPT02), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, Tunis 1002, Tunisia; Clinical Investigation Center (CIC), Pasteur Institute of Tunis, University of Tunis El Manar (UTM), Tunis 1002, Tunisia
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3
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Amin YES, Ahmed-Abakur EH. West Nile virus IgG antibodies among blood donors in Sudan: a cross-sectional study. New Microbes New Infect 2022; 49-50:101062. [PMID: 36568644 PMCID: PMC9772833 DOI: 10.1016/j.nmni.2022.101062] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2022] [Revised: 11/29/2022] [Accepted: 12/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
while the world is concentrated on fighting SARS-CoV-2, other viruses such as West Nile virus (WNV) attack the communities silently. West Nile Virus (WNV) is established as one of the infectious agents that transmissible blood transfusion. The present study is cross-sectional, conducted in the central blood bank, Khartoum state, Sudan, and aimed to determine WNV IgG antibodies among blood donors. METHODS the antibodies of the IgG class against West Nile virus in the serum were determined using the ELISA technique. Ninety blood donors participated in this study. RESULTS the results showed that 67(74.4%) of participants had positive IgG for WNV. The majority of positive participants 28/67(41.8%) had an age between 28-37 years followed by an age group 18-27 years 24/67(35.8), the dominant blood group of the positive WNV IgG participants was A+ 26/67 (38.8%) followed by O+ 19/67(28.4%). The result displayed that 40(59.7%) of the positive IgG had donated blood several times and 58 (86.6%) had a blood transfusion. Statistical analysis showed an insignificant association between age group, blood group, blood donation, blood transfusion, and West Nile Virus. CONCLUSIONS the high IgG seroprevalence (which indicated previous infection) in the present study suggests high virus circulation in Sudan. This situation proposed that WNF screening test should be part of blood transfusion screening tests in Sudan.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasir Ezzeldien Salih Amin
- Faculty of Medical Laboratory Science, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Alzaiem Alazhari University, Khartoum North, Postal code 11111, Sudan
| | - Eltayib Hassan Ahmed-Abakur
- Faculty of Medical Laboratory Science, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Alzaiem Alazhari University, Khartoum North, Postal code 11111, Sudan
- Medical Laboratory Technology Department, University of Tabuk, P.O. Box 741, Tabuk, Postal code 71411, Saudi Arabia
- Corresponding author. Faculty of Medical Laboratory Science, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Alzaiem Alazhari University, Khartoum North, Postal code 11111, Sudan.
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Kimirilova OG, Kharchenko GA. Arbovirus fevers in children and adults in the Astrakhan region: clinical cases. CHILDREN INFECTIONS 2022. [DOI: 10.22627/2072-8107-2022-21-3-68-72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Natural focal infections with transmissible transmission caused by viruses of West Nile Fever, Batai, Inco, Sindbis, Tyagin are registered in various territories of Russia, in the form of sporadic cases, characterized by polymorphism of clinical symptoms, from inapparent forms to severe, occurring with Central nervous system damage (meningitis, meningoencephalitis), which complicates the timely diagnosis and treatment of this pathology.Purpose: to describe our own clinical observations of five cases of arbovirus fevers.Results. Arbovirus fevers (West Nile Fever, Batai, Inko, Tyaginya) in the five clinical cases we have presented occurred in two clinical forms: catarrhal with hypertension syndrome, febrile fever and intense headache, vomiting in the absence of signs of inflammation in the CSF; and with damage to the central nervous system (meningitis). Catarrhal forms of arboviral fevers must be differentiated from ARVI, influenza, mononucleosis. Arbovirus fevers occurring with Central nervous system lesions (meningitis) had a significant similarity with enteroviral meningitis, both in terms of seasonality and clinical symptoms.Conclusion. In the territories of Russia endemic for mosquito fevers, in the summer period of the year, febrile patients with cerebral symptoms and / or meningeal symptoms should be examined for a group of arbovirus fevers.
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5
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Paz S, Majeed A, Christophides GK. Climate change impacts on infectious diseases in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Middle East (EMME)-risks and recommendations. CLIMATIC CHANGE 2021; 169:40. [PMID: 34980932 PMCID: PMC8716574 DOI: 10.1007/s10584-021-03300-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2021] [Accepted: 12/18/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
The Eastern Mediterranean and Middle East (EMME) region has rapid population growth, large differences in socio-economic levels between developed and developing countries, migration, increased water demand, and ecosystems degradation. The region is experiencing a significant warming trend with longer and warmer summers, increased frequency and severity of heat waves, and a drier climate. While climate change plays an important role in contributing to political instability in the region through displacement of people, food insecurity, and increased violence, it also increases the risks of vector-, water-, and food-borne diseases. Poorer and less educated people, young children and the elderly, migrants, and those with long-term health problems are at highest risk. A result of the inequalities among EMME countries is an inconsistency in the availability of reliable evidence about the impacts on infectious diseases. To help address this gap, a search of the literature was conducted as a basis for related recommended responses and suggested actions for preparedness and prevention. Since climate change already impacts the health of vulnerable populations in the EMME and will have a greater impact in future years, risk assessment and timely design and implementation of health preparedness and adaptation strategies are essential. Joint national and cross-border infectious diseases management systems for more effective preparedness and prevention are needed, supported by interventions that improve the environment. Without such cooperation and effective interventions, climate change will lead to an increasing morbidity and mortality in the EMME from infectious diseases, with a higher risk for the most vulnerable populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shlomit Paz
- Department of Geography and Environmental Studies, University of Haifa, 199 Aba Khoushy Ave., Mount Carmel, 3498838 Haifa, Israel
| | - Azeem Majeed
- Department of Primary Care and Public Health, School of Public Health, Imperial College London, London, UK
| | - George K. Christophides
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, UK
- Climate and Atmosphere Research Centre,, The Cyprus Institute, Nicosia, Cyprus
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6
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Lourenço J, Thompson RN, Thézé J, Obolski U. Characterising West Nile virus epidemiology in Israel using a transmission suitability index. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2021; 25. [PMID: 33213688 PMCID: PMC7678037 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2020.25.46.1900629] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Background Climate is a major factor in the epidemiology of West Nile virus (WNV), a pathogen increasingly pervasive worldwide. Cases increased during 2018 in Israel, the United States and Europe. Aim We set to retrospectively understand the spatial and temporal determinants of WNV transmission in Israel, as a case study for the possible effects of climate on virus spread. Methods We employed a suitability index to WNV, parameterising it with prior knowledge pertaining to a bird reservoir and Culex species, using local time series of temperature and humidity as inputs. The predicted suitability index was compared with confirmed WNV cases in Israel (2016–2018). Results The suitability index was highly associated with WNV cases in Israel, with correlation coefficients of 0.91 (p value = 4 × 10− 5), 0.68 (p = 0.016) and 0.9 (p = 2 × 10− 4) in 2016, 2017 and 2018, respectively. The fluctuations in the number of WNV cases between the years were explained by higher area under the index curve. A new WNV seasonal mode was identified in the south-east of Israel, along the Great Rift Valley, characterised by two yearly peaks (spring and autumn), distinct from the already known single summer peak in the rest of Israel. Conclusions By producing a detailed geotemporal estimate of transmission potential and its determinants in Israel, our study promotes a better understanding of WNV epidemiology and has the potential to inform future public health responses. The proposed approach further provides opportunities for retrospective and prospective mechanistic modelling of WNV epidemiology and its associated climatic drivers.
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Affiliation(s)
- José Lourenço
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Robin N Thompson
- Christ Church, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Mathematical Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom.,Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Julien Thézé
- Joint Research Unit Epidemiology of Animal and Zoonotic Diseases (EPIA), INRA, VetAgro Sup, Saint-Genès-Champanelle, France
| | - Uri Obolski
- Porter School of the Environment and Earth Sciences, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel.,School of Public Health, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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7
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Lustig Y, Gosinov R, Zuckerman N, Glazer Y, Orshan L, Sofer D, Schwartz E, Schvartz G, Farnoushi Y, Lublin A, Erster O, Shalom U, Yeger T, Mor O, Anis E, Mendelson E. Epidemiologic and phylogenetic analysis of the 2018 West Nile virus (WNV) outbreak in Israel demonstrates human infection of WNV lineage I. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 24. [PMID: 30621816 PMCID: PMC6325669 DOI: 10.2807/1560-7917.es.2019.24.1.1800662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2022]
Abstract
As at 12 November 2018, an outbreak of West Nile virus (WNV) was responsible for 139 WNV infection cases in Israel. Here, we characterise the epidemiology of the outbreak and demonstrate that only WNV lineage I was circulating in mosquitoes and responsible for WNV infection in humans. This suggests that the concurrence of the outbreak in Israel with WNV outbreaks in several European countries is not due to a common, more virulent WNV genotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaniv Lustig
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
| | - Ruslan Gosinov
- Division of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Neta Zuckerman
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
| | - Yael Glazer
- Division of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Laor Orshan
- Laboratory of Entomology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Danit Sofer
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
| | - Eli Schwartz
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel.,Institute of Tropical and Travel Medicine, Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | | | | | | | - Oran Erster
- Kimron Veterinary Institute, Beit Dagan, Israel
| | - Uri Shalom
- Ministry of Environmental Protection, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Tamar Yeger
- Ministry of Environmental Protection, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Orna Mor
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel.,Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
| | - Emilia Anis
- Braun School of Public Health, Hebrew University and Hadassah, Israel.,Division of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ella Mendelson
- Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel.,Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
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8
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Mavrouli M, Vrioni G, Kapsimali V, Tsiamis C, Mavroulis S, Pervanidou D, Billinis C, Hadjichristodoulou C, Tsakris A. Reemergence of West Nile Virus Infections in Southern Greece, 2017. Am J Trop Med Hyg 2019; 100:420-426. [PMID: 30526732 DOI: 10.4269/ajtmh.18-0339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
Greece experienced the largest European West Nile virus (WNV) outbreak in 2010 since the 1996 Romania epidemic. West Nile virus reemerged in southern Greece during 2017, after a 2-year hiatus of recorded human cases, and herein laboratory findings, clinical features, and geographic distribution of WNV cases are presented. Clinical specimens from patients with clinically suspected WNV infection were sent from local hospitals to the Microbiology Department of Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, and were tested for the presence of specific anti-WNV antibodies and WNV RNA. From July to September 2017, 45 confirmed or probable WNV infection cases were identified; 43 of them with an acute/recent infection, of which 24 (55.8%) experienced WNV neuroinvasive disease (WNND). Risk factors for developing WNND included advanced age, hypertension, and diabetes mellitus. A total of four deaths (16.7%) occurred, all in elderly patients aged > 70 years. Thirty-nine cases were identified in regional units that had not been affected before (36 in Argolis and two in Corinth, northeastern Peloponnese, and one in Rethymno, Crete). The remaining four cases were reported from previously affected regional units of northwestern Peloponnese. The reemergence of WNV after a 2-year hiatus of recorded human cases and the spread of the virus in newly affected regions of the country suggests that WNV has been established in Greece and disease transmission will continue in the future. Epidemiological surveillance, intensive mosquito management programs, and public awareness campaigns about personal protective measures are crucial to the prevention of WNV transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Mavrouli
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Georgia Vrioni
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Violetta Kapsimali
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Constantinos Tsiamis
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Spyridon Mavroulis
- Department of Dynamic Tectonic Applied Geology, Faculty of Geology and Geoenvironment, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Danai Pervanidou
- Hellenic Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Department of Epidemiological Surveillance and Intervention, Vector-borne Diseases Office, Athens, Greece
| | - Charalambos Billinis
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Thessaly, Karditsa, Greece
| | | | - Athanassios Tsakris
- Department of Microbiology, Medical School, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
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9
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Kumar JS, Saxena D, Parida M, Rathinam S. Evaluation of real-time reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification assay for clinical diagnosis of West Nile virus in patients. Indian J Med Res 2018; 147:293-298. [PMID: 29923519 PMCID: PMC6022379 DOI: 10.4103/0971-5916.234607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Background & objectives West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus. The disease can be diagnosed by isolation followed by fluorescent antibody tests, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay and polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. These diagnostic methods are laborious and time-consuming. The present study was aimed to evaluate the real-time reverse-transcription loop-mediated isothermal amplification (RT-LAMP) method for rapid, early and accurate diagnosis of WNV. Methods A one-step single tube accelerated quantitative RT-LAMP assay was evaluated by targeting the Env gene of WNV. The gene amplification was accomplished by incubating the reaction mixture at 63°C for 60 min in both real time turbidimeter as well as routine laboratory water bath/dry heating bath. To rule out contamination issues, proper negative controls, including no template, no primer; and no enzyme, were always kept alongside each run. The RT-LAMP assay was evaluated on 105 clinical samples from individuals having ocular infection. Results Of the 105 samples tested, 27 were positive for WNV by RT-LAMP assay. The comparative evaluation with conventional RT-PCR revealed 100 per cent accordance with sensitivity and specificity of 100 and 95 per cent, respectively. The specificity of this assay was confirmed with serum samples obtained from patients with dengue and chikungunya. Interpretation & conclusions The RT-LAMP test seemed to be a sensitive and specific method for rapid detection of WNV infection and would be useful for rapid screening of a large number of clinical samples in endemic areas during outbreaks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jyoti S Kumar
- Division of Virology, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, India
| | - Divyasha Saxena
- Division of Virology, Translational Health Science & Technology Institute, Faridabad, India
| | - Manmohan Parida
- Division of Virology, Defence Research & Development Establishment, Gwalior, India
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10
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Lustig Y, Sofer D, Bucris ED, Mendelson E. Surveillance and Diagnosis of West Nile Virus in the Face of Flavivirus Cross-Reactivity. Front Microbiol 2018; 9:2421. [PMID: 30369916 PMCID: PMC6194321 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2018.02421] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 09/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
West Nile Virus (WNV) is an arthropod-borne flavivirus whose zoonotic cycle includes both mosquitoes and birds as amplifiers and humans and horses as dead-end hosts. In recent years WNV has been spreading globally and is currently endemic in Africa, The Middle East, India, Australia, central and southern Europe, and the Americas. Integrated surveillance schemes and environmental data aim to detect viral circulation and reduce the risk of infection for the human population emphasizing the critical role for One Health principles in public health. Approximately 20% of WNV infected patients develop West Nile Fever while in less than 1%, infection results in West Nile Neurological Disease. Currently, the diagnosis of WNV infection is primarily based on serology, since molecular identification of WNV RNA is unreliable due to the short viremia. The recent emergence of Zika virus epidemic in America and Asia has added another layer of complexity to WNV diagnosis due to significant cross-reactivity between several members of the Flaviviridae family such as Zika, dengue, Usutu, and West Nile viruses. Diagnosis is especially challenging in persons living in regions with flavivirus co-circulation as well as in travelers from WNV endemic countries traveling to Zika or dengue infected areas or vise-versa. Here, we review the recent studies implementing WNV surveillance of mosquitoes and birds within the One Health initiative. Furthermore, we discuss the utility of novel molecular methods, alongside traditional molecular and serological methods, in WNV diagnosis and epidemiological research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaniv Lustig
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Danit Sofer
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Efrat Dahan Bucris
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel
| | - Ella Mendelson
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Sheba Medical Center, Ramat Gan, Israel.,School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
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11
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Salama M, Amitai Z, Lustig Y, Mor Z, Weiberger M, Chowers M, Maayan S, Zimhony O, Ben-Ami R, Chazan B, Zaltzman-Bershadsky N, Cohen R, Tsyba E, Sheffer R, Anis E, Glazer Y, Pessah S, Mendelson E, Leshem E. Outbreak of West Nile Virus disease in Israel (2015): A retrospective analysis of notified cases. Travel Med Infect Dis 2018; 28:41-45. [PMID: 30016649 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2018.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2018] [Revised: 07/12/2018] [Accepted: 07/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND West Nile Virus (WNV) is mosquito-borne virus that is endemic in Israel. In 2015, national disease surveillance demonstrated a sharp increase in disease cases, with 149 cases diagnosed. METHODS Clinical data was extracted from the patients' medical files and laboratory analysis on blood, cerebrospinal fluid or urine was carried out. Data on climate was extracted from the Israel Meteorological Service. RESULTS Neuroinvasive disease was reported in 70% of cases and case-fatality rate was 16%. Simultaneously with the outbreak, an intense heat wave and an upsurge in summer temperatures occurred. CONCLUSIONS Clinical data shows substantial morbidity and mortality of WNV disease in Israel. Climatic measures are consistent with previous reports and point to the importance of temperature monitoring and rapid implementation of preventive environmental measures during the summer to reduce potential mosquito breeding sites. WNV disease should be suspected as a cause of fever or neurologic disease in travelers returning from endemic countries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matanelle Salama
- Tel Aviv District Health Office, Ministry of Health, Tel Aviv, Israel.
| | - Ziva Amitai
- Tel Aviv District Health Office, Ministry of Health, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Yaniv Lustig
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
| | - Zohar Mor
- Tel Aviv District Health Office, Ministry of Health, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Miriam Weiberger
- Infectious Disease Unit, Assaf Harofeh Medical Center, Israel; Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | | | - Shlomo Maayan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Barzilai Medical Center, Israel
| | - Oren Zimhony
- Infectious Diseases, Kaplan Medical Center, Israel
| | - Ronen Ben-Ami
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Tel Aviv Sourasky Medical Center, Tel Aviv, Israel; Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | | | | | - Regev Cohen
- Infectious Diseases Unit, Sanz Medical Center, Laniado Hospital, Israel
| | - Evgenia Tsyba
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Barzilai Medical Center, Israel
| | - Rivka Sheffer
- Tel Aviv District Health Office, Ministry of Health, Tel Aviv, Israel
| | - Emilia Anis
- Division of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yael Glazer
- Division of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Silvia Pessah
- Division of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Ella Mendelson
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
| | - Eyal Leshem
- Sackler School of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, Israel; Internal Medicine C', The Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel Hashomer, Israel
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Mannasse B, Mendelson E, Orshan L, Mor O, Shalom U, Yeger T, Lustig Y. Usutu Virus RNA in Mosquitoes, Israel, 2014-2015. Emerg Infect Dis 2018; 23:1699-1702. [PMID: 28930008 PMCID: PMC5621534 DOI: 10.3201/eid2310.171017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
We identified Usutu virus (USUV) RNA in 6 pools of mosquitoes trapped in northern Israel during 2014–2015. These Israeli strains were most similar to strains identified in Senegal and Germany, which further elucidates common ancestry and evolutionary dynamics of USUV. Our findings suggest that human infection with USUV might occur in Israel.
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Popescu CP, Florescu SA, Cotar AI, Badescu D, Ceianu CS, Zaharia M, Tardei G, Codreanu D, Ceausu E, Ruta SM. Re-emergence of severe West Nile virus neuroinvasive disease in humans in Romania, 2012 to 2017-implications for travel medicine. Travel Med Infect Dis 2018; 22:30-35. [PMID: 29544774 DOI: 10.1016/j.tmaid.2018.03.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2017] [Revised: 02/25/2018] [Accepted: 03/11/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND In Romania, after a major outbreak in 1996, West Nile neuroinvasive disease (WNND) was reported only in a limited number of cases annually. During 2016-2017, a significant increase in the number of WNND cases was reported at the national level, associated with high mortality rates. METHODS A retrospective analysis of all cases confirmed with WNND, hospitalized during 2012-2017 in a single tertiary facility from Bucharest was performed in order to determine the annual prevalence and mortality rate and the risk factors associated with a severe outcome. RESULTS 47 cases were confirmed as WNND. The mortality rate was 25.5%, all death occurred during 2016-2017. Coma, confusion, obtundation, sleepiness and depressed deep tendon reflexes were symptoms predicting a severe outcome. In a univariate analysis age (p < 0.001), associated cancers (p = 0.012) and low levels of chloride in the CSF (p = 0.008) were risk factors for mortality. In a multinomial logistic analysis, age older than 75 years remained the only independent predictor of death in WNND. CONCLUSIONS The increase in both the number and the mortality rate of WNND cases suggest a changing pattern of WNV infection in Romania. Public health authorities and clinicians should be aware of the risk of severe WNV infection in travelers returning from Romania.
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Affiliation(s)
- Corneliu Petru Popescu
- Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Dr Victor Babes Clinical Hospital of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Bucharest, Romania; ESCMID Study Group for Infectious Diseases of the Brain, Basel, Switzerland; ESCMID Study Group for Infections in Travellers and Migrants, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Simin Aysel Florescu
- Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Dr Victor Babes Clinical Hospital of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Ani Ioana Cotar
- Laboratory for Vector-Borne Infections, Cantacuzino National Institute for Research, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Daniela Badescu
- Laboratory for Vector-Borne Infections, Cantacuzino National Institute for Research, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Cornelia Svetlana Ceianu
- Laboratory for Vector-Borne Infections, Cantacuzino National Institute for Research, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Mihaela Zaharia
- Dr Victor Babes Clinical Hospital of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Bucharest, Romania; ESCMID Study Group for Infectious Diseases of the Brain, Basel, Switzerland; ESCMID Study Group for Infections in Travellers and Migrants, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Gratiela Tardei
- Dr Victor Babes Clinical Hospital of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Daniel Codreanu
- Dr Victor Babes Clinical Hospital of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Emanoil Ceausu
- Dr Victor Babes Clinical Hospital of Infectious and Tropical Diseases, Bucharest, Romania
| | - Simona Maria Ruta
- Carol Davila University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Bucharest, Romania; Stefan S Nicolau Institute of Virology, Bucharest, Romania
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14
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Lustig Y, Kaufman Z, Mendelson E, Orshan L, Anis E, Glazer Y, Cohen D, Shohat T, Bassal R. Spatial distribution of West Nile virus in humans and mosquitoes in Israel, 2000-2014. Int J Infect Dis 2017; 64:20-26. [PMID: 28882664 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijid.2017.08.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2017] [Revised: 08/09/2017] [Accepted: 08/26/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Israel has a long history of West Nile virus (WNV) morbidity, and the rate of detection of WNV in mosquitoes has been high since 2000. The aim of this study was to integrate several WNV datasets in order to gain an insight into the geographical distribution of WNV in Israel. METHODS Three choropleth maps were generated showing WNV human morbidity, WNV prevalence in mosquitoes, and the results of a nationwide serological survey, based on the division of Israel into 15 sub-districts. RESULTS The maps show a high endemicity of WNV in Israel. In respect to the morbidity map, the population residing in the central part of the country and in Arava Region is at higher risk of developing the disease than the population of the rest of Israel. Interestingly, high prevalence rates of both WNV serology and WNV-infected mosquitoes were detected in Arava Region, but lower prevalence rates were detected in most areas of the coastal region, suggesting that other factors might also be important in the development of symptomatic WNV infections. CONCLUSIONS These results underline the high prevalence of WNV in Israel and point to specific risk areas for WNV infections across the country.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaniv Lustig
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel.
| | - Zalman Kaufman
- Israel Center for Disease Control, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
| | - Ella Mendelson
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Laor Orshan
- Laboratory of Entomology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Emilia Anis
- Division of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Braun School of Public Health, Hebrew University and Hadassah, Jerusalem, Israel
| | - Yael Glazer
- Division of Epidemiology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem, Israel; Department of Public Health, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Beer-Sheva, Israel
| | - Daniel Cohen
- Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Tamy Shohat
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel; Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Tel-Aviv, Israel
| | - Ravit Bassal
- Israel Center for Disease Control, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical Center, Tel-Hashomer, Israel
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15
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Azmi K, Tirosh-Levy S, Manasrah M, Mizrahi R, Nasereddin A, Al-Jawabreh A, Ereqat S, Abdeen Z, Lustig Y, Gelman B, Schvartz G, Steinman A. West Nile Virus: Seroprevalence in Animals in Palestine and Israel. Vector Borne Zoonotic Dis 2017. [PMID: 28628400 DOI: 10.1089/vbz.2016.2090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) epidemiological situation in Israel and Palestine, due to their unique location, draws attention following to the global spread of West Nile fever (WNF). Although much information is available from Israel on clinical cases and prevalence of WNV, clinical cases are rarely reported in Palestine, and prevalence is not known. The objectives of this study were to determine WNV seroprevalence in various domestic animals in Palestine and to reevaluate current seroprevalence, force of infection, and risk factors for WNV exposure in horses in Israel. Sera samples were collected from 717 animals from Palestine and Israel (460 horses, 124 donkeys, 3 mules, 50 goats, 45 sheep, and 35 camels). Two hundred and ten horses were sampled twice. The level of WNV antibodies was determined using commercial Enzyme-linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) Kit. Seroprevalence in equids was 73%. Seroprevalence in Israel (84.6%) was significantly higher than in Palestine (48.6%). Seroprevalence in horses (82.6%) was significantly higher than in donkeys and mules (39.3%). Multivariable statistical analysis showed that geographical area, landscape features (altitude), environmental factors (land surface temperature during the day [LSTD]), species, and age significantly influenced WNV seroprevalence. Fourteen of 95 (14.7%) sheep and goats and 14/35 camels (40%) sampled in Palestine were seropositive for WNV. Of the horses that were sampled twice, 82.8% were seropositive for WNV at the first sampling, and all remained seropositive. Three of the seronegative horses, all from Palestine, converted to positive when resampled (8.5%). The results indicate that domestic animals in Palestine were infected with WNV in the past, and the seroconversion indicates that WNV was circulating in Palestine in the summer of 2014. Control measures to prevent human infection should be implemented in Palestine. Anti WNV antibodies in domestic animals suggest that those species can be used as sentinels for WNV activity in areas where most horses are either seropositive or vaccinated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kifaya Azmi
- 1 Al-Quds Nutrition and Health Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Quds University , Abu-Deis, Palestine.,2 Al-Quds Public Health Society , Jerusalem, Palestine
| | - Sharon Tirosh-Levy
- 3 Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem , Rehovot, Israel
| | - Mu'taz Manasrah
- 1 Al-Quds Nutrition and Health Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Quds University , Abu-Deis, Palestine.,2 Al-Quds Public Health Society , Jerusalem, Palestine
| | - Rotem Mizrahi
- 3 Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem , Rehovot, Israel
| | - Abed Nasereddin
- 1 Al-Quds Nutrition and Health Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Quds University , Abu-Deis, Palestine.,2 Al-Quds Public Health Society , Jerusalem, Palestine
| | - Amer Al-Jawabreh
- 1 Al-Quds Nutrition and Health Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Quds University , Abu-Deis, Palestine.,2 Al-Quds Public Health Society , Jerusalem, Palestine
| | - Suheir Ereqat
- 1 Al-Quds Nutrition and Health Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Quds University , Abu-Deis, Palestine.,2 Al-Quds Public Health Society , Jerusalem, Palestine
| | - Ziad Abdeen
- 1 Al-Quds Nutrition and Health Research Institute, Faculty of Medicine, Al-Quds University , Abu-Deis, Palestine.,2 Al-Quds Public Health Society , Jerusalem, Palestine
| | - Yaniv Lustig
- 4 Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health , Tel-Hashomer, Israel
| | - Boris Gelman
- 5 Kimron Veterinary Institute , Bet-Dagan, Israel
| | - Gili Schvartz
- 3 Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem , Rehovot, Israel
| | - Amir Steinman
- 3 Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem , Rehovot, Israel
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Abstract
West Nile Virus (WNV) is endemic in Israel, affecting yearly 40-160 individuals. Israel is located on a central migratory path between Africa and Eurasia and most West Nile Fever (WNF) cases reported in recent years were among residents of the coastal plain. The aim of the study was to evaluate the seroprevalence of WNV among the Israeli population and to assess correlates for WNV infection. A cross-sectional nationwide serologic survey was conducted using 3,145 serum samples collected by the national Israeli serum bank during 2011-2014, representing all age and population groups in Israel. Prevalence rates of WNV IgG antibodies were determined. Logistic regressions models were applied to assess the associations between demographic characteristics and WNV seropositivity. 350 samples were positive to WNV (11.1%; 95%CI: 10.0-12.3%). In the multivariable analysis, there was a significant association between seropositivity and the Arab population group vs. Jews and others (OR = 1.86, 95%CI: 1.37-2.52), the time lived in Israel [50-59 years vs. 0-9 years; OR = 10.80 (95%CI: 1.03-113.46) and ≥60 years vs. 0-9 years; OR = 14.00 (1.32-148.31)] residence area] Coastal Plain, Inland Plain (Shfela) and Great Rift Valley vs. Upper Galilee; OR = 2.24 (95%CI: 1.37-3.65), OR = 2.18 (95%CI: 1.18-4.03), OR = 1.90 (95%CI: 1.10-3.30), respectively [and rural vs. urban settlement (OR = 1.65, 95%CI: 1.26-2.16). People, who reside in the Coastal Plain, Inland Plain and Great Rift Valley, should be aware of the risk of contracting WNV and reduce exposure to mosquito bites, using insect repellents, and wearing protective clothing. The Ministry of Environmental Protection should be active in reducing the mosquito population by eliminating sources of standing water, a breeding ground for mosquitoes.
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Surveillance of Arthropod-Borne Viruses and Their Vectors in the Mediterranean and Black Sea Regions Within the MediLabSecure Network. CURRENT TROPICAL MEDICINE REPORTS 2017; 4:27-39. [PMID: 28386524 PMCID: PMC5362652 DOI: 10.1007/s40475-017-0101-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Arboviruses, viruses transmitted by arthropods such as mosquitoes, ticks, sandflies, and fleas are a significant threat to public health because of their epidemic and zoonotic potential. The geographical distribution of mosquito-borne diseases such as West Nile (WN), Rift Valley fever (RVF), Dengue, Chikungunya, and Zika has expanded over the last decades. Countries of the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions are not spared. Outbreaks of WN are repeatedly reported in the Mediterranean basin. Human cases of RVF were reported at the southern borders of the Maghreb region. For this reason, establishing the basis for the research to understand the potential for the future emergence of these and other arboviruses and their expansion into new geographic areas became a public health priority. In this context, the European network "MediLabSecure" gathering laboratories in 19 non-EU countries from the Mediterranean and Black Sea regions seeks to improve the surveillance (of animals, humans, and vectors) by reinforcing capacity building and harmonizing national surveillance systems to address this important human and veterinary health issue. The aim of this review is to give an exhaustive overview of arboviruses and their vectors in the region. RECENT FINDINGS The data presented underline the importance of surveillance in the implementation of more adapted control strategies to combat vector-borne diseases. Partner laboratories within the MediLabSecure network present a wide range of infrastructures and have benefited from different training programs. SUMMARY Although reporting of arboviral presence is not carried out in a systematic manner, the expansion of the area where arboviruses are present cannot be disputed. This reinforces the need for increasing surveillance capacity building in this region to prevent future emergences.
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Nyamwaya D, Wang'ondu V, Amimo J, Michuki G, Ogugo M, Ontiri E, Sang R, Lindahl J, Grace D, Bett B. Detection of West Nile virus in wild birds in Tana River and Garissa Counties, Kenya. BMC Infect Dis 2016; 16:696. [PMID: 27881079 PMCID: PMC5121970 DOI: 10.1186/s12879-016-2019-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/11/2016] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background West Nile fever virus is a zoonotic arboviral infection maintained in a sylvatic cycle involving mosquito vectors and birds. It is one the arboviruses whose geographical range is expanding because of climate and land use changes that enhance the densities of mosquitoes and promote mosquito-bird-human interactions. We carried out a survey to determine the reservoirs of WNV among wild birds in Tana River and Garissa counties, Kenya. Methods Blood samples were obtained from 361 randomly trapped wild birds. Using real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR), all samples were screened for WNV using gene specific primer sets amplifying a portion of the E region of the genome encoding the envelope protein. Results Sixty five (65) out of 361 birds screened tested positive for WNV on real-time PCR assay. Sequencing of the selected positive samples reveals that the isolated WNV were most closely related to strains isolated from China (2011). A regression analysis indicated that sampling location influenced the occurrence of WNV while species, age, weight and sex of the birds did not have any effect. Conclusions This study provides baseline information on the existing circulation of WNV in this region among wild bird reservoirs that could spill over to the human population and points to the need for implementation of surveillance programs to map the distribution of the virus among reservoirs. Awareness creation about West Nile fever in this region is important to improve its detection and management. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12879-016-2019-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Doris Nyamwaya
- International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 30709, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya. .,Department of Microbiology and Marine Botany, School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, P. O. BOX 30197, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
| | - Virginia Wang'ondu
- Department of Microbiology and Marine Botany, School of Biological Sciences, University of Nairobi, P. O. BOX 30197, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Joshua Amimo
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Nairobi, P. O. Box 29053, 00625, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - George Michuki
- International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 30709, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Moses Ogugo
- International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 30709, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Enoch Ontiri
- International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 30709, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Rosemary Sang
- U.S. Army Medical Research Unit (USAMRD-K), P.O. Box 606, 00621, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Johanna Lindahl
- International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 30709, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Delia Grace
- International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 30709, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Bernard Bett
- International Livestock Research Institute, P. O. Box 30709, 00100, Nairobi, Kenya.
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Lustig Y, Lanciotti RS, Hindiyeh M, Keller N, Milo R, Mayan S, Mendelson E. Mutation in West Nile Virus Structural Protein prM during Human Infection. Emerg Infect Dis 2016; 22:1647-9. [PMID: 27322782 PMCID: PMC4994336 DOI: 10.3201/eid2209.160132] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A mutation leading to substitution of a key amino acid in the prM protein of West Nile virus (WNV) occurred during persistent infection of an immunocompetent patient. WNV RNA persisted in the patient's urine and serum in the presence of low-level neutralizing antibodies. This case demonstrates active replication of WNV during persistent infection.
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20
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Wang L, Zhou P, Fu X, Zheng Y, Huang S, Fang B, Zhang G, Jia K, Li S. Yellow fever virus: Increasing imported cases in China. J Infect 2016; 73:377-80. [PMID: 27422700 DOI: 10.1016/j.jinf.2016.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lifang Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Pet, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Pei Zhou
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Pet, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Xingliang Fu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Yun Zheng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Pet, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - San Huang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Pet, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Bo Fang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Guihong Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Key Laboratory of Zoonosis Prevention and Control of Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China
| | - Kun Jia
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Pet, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China.
| | - Shoujun Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agricultural University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of Prevention and Control for Severe Clinical Animal Diseases, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China; Guangdong Provincial Engineering Research Center of Pet, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, 510642, People's Republic of China.
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21
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Conte A, Candeloro L, Ippoliti C, Monaco F, De Massis F, Bruno R, Di Sabatino D, Danzetta ML, Benjelloun A, Belkadi B, El Harrak M, Declich S, Rizzo C, Hammami S, Ben Hassine T, Calistri P, Savini G. Spatio-Temporal Identification of Areas Suitable for West Nile Disease in the Mediterranean Basin and Central Europe. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0146024. [PMID: 26717483 PMCID: PMC4696814 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0146024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 12/12/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-transmitted Flavivirus belonging to the Japanese encephalitis antigenic complex of the Flaviviridae family. Its spread in the Mediterranean basin and the Balkans poses a significant risk to human health and forces public health officials to constantly monitor the virus transmission to ensure prompt application of preventive measures. In this context, predictive tools indicating the areas and periods at major risk of WNV transmission are of paramount importance. Spatial analysis approaches, which use environmental and climatic variables to find suitable habitats for WNV spread, can enhance predictive techniques. Using the Mahalanobis Distance statistic, areas ecologically most suitable for sustaining WNV transmission were identified in the Mediterranean basin and Central Europe. About 270 human and equine clinical cases notified in Italy, Greece, Portugal, Morocco, and Tunisia, between 2008 and 2012, have been considered. The environmental variables included in the model were altitude, slope, night time Land Surface Temperature, Normalized Difference Vegetation Index, Enhanced Vegetation Index, and daily temperature range. Seasonality of mosquito population has been modelled and included in the analyses to produce monthly maps of suitable areas for West Nile Disease. Between May and July, the most suitable areas are located in Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, and North Cyprus. Summer/Autumn months, particularly between August and October, characterize the suitability in Italy, France, Spain, the Balkan countries, Morocco, North Tunisia, the Mediterranean coast of Africa, and the Middle East. The persistence of suitable conditions in December is confined to the coastal areas of Morocco, Tunisia, Libya, Egypt, and Israel.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annamaria Conte
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, Teramo, Italy
| | - Luca Candeloro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, Teramo, Italy
| | - Carla Ippoliti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, Teramo, Italy
| | - Federica Monaco
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, Teramo, Italy
| | - Fabrizio De Massis
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, Teramo, Italy
| | - Rossana Bruno
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, Teramo, Italy
| | - Daria Di Sabatino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, Teramo, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Danzetta
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, Teramo, Italy
| | - Abdennasser Benjelloun
- Société de Produits Biologiques et Pharmaceutiques vétérinaires (Biopharma), Rabat, Morocco
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University Mohamed V, Faculty of Science, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Bouchra Belkadi
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Molecular Biology, University Mohamed V, Faculty of Science, Rabat, Morocco
| | - Mehdi El Harrak
- Société de Produits Biologiques et Pharmaceutiques vétérinaires (Biopharma), Rabat, Morocco
| | - Silvia Declich
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Reparto Epidemiologia delle Malattie Infettive, Centro Nazionale di Epidemiologia, Sorveglianza e Promozione della Salute, Rome, Italy
| | - Caterina Rizzo
- Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Reparto Epidemiologia delle Malattie Infettive, Centro Nazionale di Epidemiologia, Sorveglianza e Promozione della Salute, Rome, Italy
| | - Salah Hammami
- Ecole Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire de Sidi Thabet (ENMV), Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Thameur Ben Hassine
- Ecole Nationale de Médecine Vétérinaire de Sidi Thabet (ENMV), Sidi Thabet, Tunisia
| | - Paolo Calistri
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, Teramo, Italy
| | - Giovanni Savini
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell’Abruzzo e del Molise ‘G. Caporale’, Teramo, Italy
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Lustig Y, Hindiyeh M, Orshan L, Weiss L, Koren R, Katz-Likvornik S, Zadka H, Glatman-Freedman A, Mendelson E, Shulman LM. Mosquito Surveillance for 15 Years Reveals High Genetic Diversity Among West Nile Viruses in Israel. J Infect Dis 2015; 213:1107-14. [PMID: 26597260 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jiv556] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
West Nile Virus (WNV) is endemic in Israel and has been the cause of several outbreaks in recent years. In 2000, a countrywide mosquito survey was established to monitor WNV activity and characterize viral genotypes in Israel. We analyzed data from 7135 pools containing 277 186 mosquitoes collected over the past 15 years and, here, report partial sequences of WNV genomes obtained from 102 of the 336 positive mosquito pools. Phylogenetic analysis demonstrated that cluster 4 and the Mediterranean and Eastern European subtypes of cluster 2 within WNV lineage 1 circulated in Israel, as did WNV lineage 2, highlighting a high genetic diversity of WNV genotypes in our region. As a major crossroads for bird migration between Africa and Eurasia and with a long history of human infection, Israel serves as a resource hub for WNV in Africa and Eurasia and provides valuable information on WNV circulation in these regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaniv Lustig
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical center, Tel-Hashomer
| | - Musa Hindiyeh
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical center, Tel-Hashomer Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
| | - Laor Orshan
- Laboratory of Entomology, Ministry of Health, Jerusalem
| | - Leah Weiss
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical center, Tel-Hashomer
| | - Ravit Koren
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical center, Tel-Hashomer
| | - Shiri Katz-Likvornik
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical center, Tel-Hashomer
| | - Hila Zadka
- Israel Center for Disease Control, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical center, Tel-Hashomer
| | - Aharona Glatman-Freedman
- Israel Center for Disease Control, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical center, Tel-Hashomer New York Medical College, Valhalla, New York
| | - Ella Mendelson
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical center, Tel-Hashomer Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
| | - Lester M Shulman
- Central Virology Laboratory, Ministry of Health, Chaim Sheba Medical center, Tel-Hashomer Department of Epidemiology and Preventive Medicine, School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel-Aviv University, Israel
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23
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24
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The global ecology and epidemiology of West Nile virus. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2015; 2015:376230. [PMID: 25866777 PMCID: PMC4383390 DOI: 10.1155/2015/376230] [Citation(s) in RCA: 307] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2014] [Accepted: 08/10/2014] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Since its initial isolation in Uganda in 1937 through the present, West Nile virus (WNV) has become an important cause of human and animal disease worldwide. WNV, an enveloped virus of the genus Flavivirus, is naturally maintained in an enzootic cycle between birds and mosquitoes, with occasional epizootic spillover causing disease in humans and horses. The mosquito vectors for WNV are widely distributed worldwide, and the known geographic range of WNV transmission and disease has continued to increase over the past 77 years. While most human infections with WNV are asymptomatic, severe neurological disease may develop resulting in long-term sequelae or death. Surveillance and preventive measures are an ongoing need to reduce the public health impact of WNV in areas with the potential for transmission.
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25
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Riabi S, Gaaloul I, Mastouri M, Hassine M, Aouni M. An outbreak of West Nile Virus infection in the region of Monastir, Tunisia, 2003. Pathog Glob Health 2014; 108:148-57. [PMID: 24766339 DOI: 10.1179/2047773214y.0000000137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND A West Nile (WN) fever epidemic occurred in the region of Monastir, Tunisia, between August and October 2003. AIM OF THE STUDY We attempt to describe the epidemiology, clinical presentation, and outcome of patients with confirmed West Nile virus (WNV) infection. METHODS Three groups of specimens were prepared. One was made up of serum only (n = 43), the other of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) only (n = 30), and the third group was made up of both (n = 40). These specimens were obtained from 113 patients. A serological diagnosis and evidence of WNV genome by nested reverse-transcriptase polymerase chain reaction (nRT-PCR) and TaqMan reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) were carried out. RESULTS Thirty-eight cases (33.6%) were serologically positive. Results of nRT-PCR showed a total of 10 positive cases of WNV (8.8%) detected in group 1 (n = 1/43), group 2 (n = 5/30), and group 3 (n = 4/40) whereas the PCR TaqMan showed 18 positive samples (15.9%) found in group 1 (n = 3/43), group 2 (n = 9/30), and group 3 (n = 6/40). All TaqMan PCR positive cases were nRT-PCR positive. In addition, four serologically probable cases were confirmed by TaqMan PCR. The attempts to isolate WNV by cell culture were unsuccessful. Considering the results of TaqMan assay and the serological diagnosis, WNV infection was confirmed in a total of 42 patients. The main clinical presentations were meningoencephalitis (40%), febrile disease (95%), and meningitis (36%). Eight patients (19%) died. The highest case-fatality rates occurred among patients aged ≧55 years. The phylogenetic analysis revealed that isolates of WNV were closely related to the Tunisian strain 1997 (PAH001) and the Israeli one (Is-98). CONCLUSIONS West Nile virus is a reemerging global pathogen that remains an important public health challenge in the next decade.
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26
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Aharonson-Raz K, Lichter-Peled A, Tal S, Gelman B, Cohen D, Klement E, Steinman A. Spatial and temporal distribution of West Nile virus in horses in Israel (1997-2013)--from endemic to epidemics. PLoS One 2014; 9:e113149. [PMID: 25402217 PMCID: PMC4234662 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0113149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2014] [Accepted: 10/23/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
With the rapid global spread of West Nile virus (WNV) and the endemic state it has acquired in new geographical areas, we hereby bring a thorough serological investigation of WNV in horses in a longstanding endemic region, such as Israel. This study evaluates the environmental and demographic risk factors for WNV infection in horses and suggests possible factors associated with the transition from endemic to epidemic state. West Nile virus seroprevalence in horses in Israel was determined throughout a period of more than a decade, before (1997) and after (2002 and 2013) the massive West Nile fever outbreak in humans and horses in 2000. An increase in seroprevalence was observed, from 39% (113/290) in 1997 to 66.1% (547/827) in 2002 and 85.5% (153/179) in 2013, with persistent significantly higher seroprevalence in horses situated along the Great Rift Valley (GRV) area, the major birds' migration route in Israel. Demographic risk factors included age and breed of the horse. Significantly lower spring precipitation was observed during years with increased human incidence rate that occurred between 1997–2007. Hence, we suggest referring to Israel as two WNV distinct epidemiological regions; an endemic region along the birds' migration route (GRV) and the rest of the country which perhaps suffers from cyclic epidemics. In addition, weather conditions, such as periods of spring drought, might be associated with the transition from endemic state to epidemic state of WNV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karin Aharonson-Raz
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 76100, Israel
| | - Anat Lichter-Peled
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 76100, Israel
| | - Shlomit Tal
- School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 39040, Israel
| | - Boris Gelman
- Kimron Veterinary Institute, Bet-Dagan, 50250, Israel
| | - Daniel Cohen
- School of Public Health, Sackler Faculty of Medicine, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv, 39040, Israel
| | - Eyal Klement
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 76100, Israel
| | - Amir Steinman
- Koret School of Veterinary Medicine, The Robert H. Smith Faculty of Agriculture, Food and Environment, The Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Rehovot, 76100, Israel
- * E-mail:
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27
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Di Sabatino D, Bruno R, Sauro F, Danzetta ML, Cito F, Iannetti S, Narcisi V, De Massis F, Calistri P. Epidemiology of West Nile disease in Europe and in the Mediterranean Basin from 2009 to 2013. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:907852. [PMID: 25302311 PMCID: PMC4180897 DOI: 10.1155/2014/907852] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2014] [Accepted: 09/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
West Nile virus (WNV) transmission has been confirmed in the last four years in Europe and in the Mediterranean Basin. An increasing concern towards West Nile disease (WND) has been observed due to the high number of human and animal cases reported in these areas confirming the importance of this zoonosis. A new epidemiological scenario is currently emerging: although new introductions of the virus from abroad are always possible, confirming the epidemiological role played by migratory birds, the infection endemisation in some European territories today is a reality supported by the constant reoccurrence of the same strains across years in the same geographical areas. Despite the WND reoccurrence in the Old World, the overwintering mechanisms are not well known, and the role of local resident birds or mosquitoes in this context is poorly understood. A recent new epidemiological scenario is the spread of lineage 2 strain across European and Mediterranean countries in regions where lineage 1 strain is still circulating creating favourable conditions for genetic reassortments and emergence of new strains. This paper summarizes the main epidemiological findings on WNV occurrence in Europe and in the Mediterranean Basin from 2009 to 2013, considering potential future spread patterns.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daria Di Sabatino
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Rossana Bruno
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Francesca Sauro
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Maria Luisa Danzetta
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Francesca Cito
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Simona Iannetti
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Valeria Narcisi
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Fabrizio De Massis
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
| | - Paolo Calistri
- Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale dell'Abruzzo e del Molise “G. Caporale,” 64100 Teramo, Italy
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