A cell-penetrating helical peptide as a potential HIV-1 inhibitor

Synthesis of Membrane-Permeable Macrocyclic Peptides via Imidazopyridinium Grafting

Macrocyclic peptides (MPs) are a class of compounds that have been shown to be particularly well suited for engaging difficult protein targets. However, their utility is limited by their generally poor cell permeability and bioavailability. Here, we report an efficient solid-phase synthesis of novel MPs by trapping a reversible intramolecular imine linkage with a 2-formyl- or 2-keto-pyridine to create an imidazopyridinium (IP+)-linked ring. This chemistry is useful for the creation of macrocycles of different sizes and geometries, including head-to-side and side-to-side chain configurations. Many of the IP+-linked MPs exhibit far better passive membrane permeability than expected for "beyond Rule of 5" molecules, in some cases exceeding that of much lower molecular weight, traditional drug molecules. We demonstrate that this chemistry is suitable for the creation of libraries of IP+-linked MPs and show that these libraries can be mined for protein ligands.

Therapeutic stapled peptides: Efficacy and molecular targets

Peptide stapling, by employing a stable, preformed alpha-helical conformation, results in the production of peptides with improved membrane permeability and enhanced proteolytic stability, compared to the original peptides, and provides an effective solution to accelerate the rapid development of peptide drugs. Various reviews present peptide stapling chemistries, anchoring residues and one- or two-component cyclization, however, therapeutic stapled peptides have not been systematically summarized, especially focusing on various disease-related targets. This review highlights the latest advances in therapeutic peptide drug development facilitated by the application of stapling technology, including different stapling techniques, synthetic accessibility, applicability to biological targets, potential for solving biological problems, as well as the current status of development. Stapled peptides as therapeutic drug candidates have been classified and analysed mainly by receptor- and ligand-based stapled peptide design against various diseases, including cancer, infectious diseases, inflammation, and diabetes. This review is expected to provide a comprehensive reference for the rational design of stapled peptides for different diseases and targets to facilitate the development of therapeutic peptides with enhanced pharmacokinetic and biological properties.

Design of inhibitor peptide sequences based on the interfacial knowledge of the protein G-IgG crystallographic complex and their binding studies with IgG

Protein-protein interactions (PPI) have emerged as valuable targets in medicinal chemistry due to their key roles in important biological processes. The modulation of PPI by small peptides offers an excellent opportunity to develop drugs against human diseases. Here, we exploited the knowledge of the binding interface of the IgG-protein G complex (PDB:1FCC) for designing peptides that can inhibit these complexes. Herein, we have designed several closely related peptides, and the comparison of results from experiments and computational studies indicated that all the peptides bind close to the expected binding site on IgG and the complexes are stable. A minimal sequence consisting of 11 amino acids (P5) with binding constants in the range of 100 nM was identified. We propose that the main affinity differences across the series of peptides arose from the presence of polar amino acid residues. Further, the molecular dynamic studies helped to understand the dynamic properties of complexes in terms of flexibility of residues and structural stability at the interface. The ability of P5 to compete with the protein G in recognizing IgG can help in the detection and purification of antibodies. Further, it can serve as a versatile tool for a better understanding of protein-protein interactions.

Discovery and Development of Cyclic Peptide Proteasome Stimulators

The proteasome degrades proteins, which is essential for cellular homeostasis. Ubiquitin independent proteolysis degrades highly disordered and misfolded proteins. A decline of proteasomal activity has been associated with multiple neurodegenerative diseases due to the accumulation of misfolded proteins. In this work, cyclic peptide proteasome stimulators (CyPPSs) that enhance the clearance of misfolded proteins were discovered. In the initial screen of predicted natural products (pNPs), several cyclic peptides were found to stimulate the 20S core particle (20S CP). Development of a robust structural activity relationship led to the identification of potent, cell permeable CyPPSs. In vitro assays revealed that CyPPSs stimulate degradation of highly disordered and misfolded proteins without affecting ordered proteins. Furthermore, using a novel flow-based assay for proteasome activity, several CyPPSs were found to stimulate the 20S CP in cellulo. Overall, this work describes the development of CyPPSs as chemical tools capable of stimulating the proteasome and provides strong support for proteasome stimulation as a therapeutic strategy for neurodegenerative diseases.

Modulation of HIV-1 capsid multimerization by sennoside A and sennoside B via interaction with the NTD/CTD interface in capsid hexamer

Small molecules that bind to the pocket targeted by a peptide, termed capsid assembly inhibitor (CAI), have shown antiviral effects with unique mechanisms of action. We report the discovery of two natural compounds, sennoside A (SA) and sennoside B (SB), derived from medicinal plants that bind to this pocket in the C-terminal domain of capsid (CA CTD). Both SA and SB were identified via a drug-screening campaign that utilized a time-resolved fluorescence resonance energy transfer assay. They inhibited the HIV-1 CA CTD/CAI interaction at sub-micromolar concentrations of 0.18 μM and 0.08 μM, respectively. Mutation of key residues (including Tyr 169, Leu 211, Asn 183, and Glu 187) in the CA CTD decreased their binding affinity to the CA monomer, from 1.35-fold to 4.17-fold. Furthermore, both compounds induced CA assembly in vitro and bound directly to the CA hexamer, suggesting that they interact with CA beyond the CA CTD. Molecular docking showed that both compounds were bound to the N-terminal domain (NTD)/CTD interface between adjacent protomers within the CA hexamer. SA established a hydrogen-bonding network with residues N57, V59, Q63, K70, and N74 of CA1-NTD and Q179 of CA2-CTD. SB formed hydrogen bonds with the N53, N70, and N74 residues of CA1-NTD, and the A177and Q179 residues of CA2-CTD. Both compounds, acting as glue, can bring αH4 in the NTD and αH9 in the CTD of the NTD/CTD interface close to each other. Collectively, our research indicates that SA and SB, which enhance CA assembly, could serve as novel chemical tools to identify agents that modulate HIV-1 CA assembly. These natural compounds may potentially lead to the development of new antiviral therapies with unique mechanisms of action.

Computer-aided drug design in seeking viral capsid modulators

Approved or licensed antiviral drugs have limited applications because of their drug resistance and severe adverse effects. By contrast, by stabilizing or destroying the viral capsid, compounds known as capsid modulators prevent viral replication by acting on new targets and, therefore, overcoming the problem of clinical drug resistance. For example. computer-aided drug design (CADD) methods, using strategies based on structures of biological targets (structure-based drug design; SBDD), such as docking, molecular dynamics (MD) simulations, and virtual screening (VS), have provided opportunities for fast and effective development of viral capsid modulators. In this review, we summarize the application of CADD in the discovery, optimization, and mechanism prediction of capsid-targeting small molecules, providing new insights into antiviral drug discovery modalities. Teaser: Computer-aided drug design will accelerate the development of viral capsid regulators, which brings new hope for the treatment of refractory viral diseases.

A Broad-Spectrum Antiviral Molecule, Protoporphyrin IX, Acts as a Moderator of HIV-1 Capsid Assembly by Targeting the Capsid Hexamer

The capsid protein (CA), an essential component of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1), represents an appealing target for antivirals. Small molecules targeting the CAI-binding cavity in the C-terminal domain of HIV-1 CA (CA CTD) confer potent antiviral activities. In this study, we report that a small molecule, protoporphyrin IX (PPIX), targets the HIV-1 CA by binding to this pocket. PPIX was identified via in vitro drug screening, using a homogeneous and time-resolved fluorescence-based assay. CA multimerization and a biolayer interferometry (BLI) assay showed that PPIX promoted CA multimerization and bound directly to CA. The binding model of PPIX to CA CTD revealed that PPIX forms hydrogen bonds with the L211and E212 residues in the CA CTD. Moreover, the BLI assay demonstrated that this compound preferentially binds to the CA hexamer versus the monomer. The superposition of the CAI CTD-PPIX complex and the hexameric CA structure suggests that PPIX binds to the interface formed by the NTD and the CTD between adjacent protomers in the CA hexamer via the T72 and E212 residues, serving as a glue to enhance the multimerization of CA. Taken together, our studies demonstrate that PPIX, a hexamer-targeted CA assembly enhancer, should be a new chemical probe for the discovery of modulators of the HIV-1 capsid assembly. IMPORTANCE CA and its assembled viral core play essential roles in distinct steps during HIV-1 replication, including reverse transcription, integration, nuclear entry, virus assembly, and maturation through CA-CA or CA-host factor interactions. These functions of CA are fundamental for HIV-1 pathogenesis, making it an appealing target for antiviral therapy. In the present study, we identified protoporphyrin IX (PPIX) as a candidate CA modulator that can promote CA assembly and prefers binding the CA hexamer versus the monomer. PPIX, like a glue, bound at the interfaces between CA subunits to accelerate CA multimerization. Therefore, PPIX could be used as a new lead for a CA modulator, and it holds potential research applications.

Rational design of stapled antimicrobial peptides

The global increase in antimicrobial drug resistance has dramatically reduced the effectiveness of traditional antibiotics. Structurally diverse antibiotics are urgently needed to combat multiple-resistant bacterial infections. As part of innate immunity, antimicrobial peptides have been recognized as the most promising candidates because they comprise diverse sequences and mechanisms of action and have a relatively low induction rate of resistance. However, because of their low chemical stability, susceptibility to proteases, and high hemolytic effect, their usage is subject to many restrictions. Chemical modifications such as D-amino acid substitution, cyclization, and unnatural amino acid modification have been used to improve the stability of antimicrobial peptides for decades. Among them, a side-chain covalent bridge modification, the so-called stapled peptide, has attracted much attention. The stapled side-chain bridge stabilizes the secondary structure, induces protease resistance, and increases cell penetration and biological activity. Recent progress in computer-aided drug design and artificial intelligence methods has also been used in the design of stapled antimicrobial peptides and has led to the successful discovery of many prospective peptides. This article reviews the possible structure-activity relationships of stapled antimicrobial peptides, the physicochemical properties that influence their activity (such as net charge, hydrophobicity, helicity, and dipole moment), and computer-aided methods of stapled peptide design. Antimicrobial peptides under clinical trial: Pexiganan (NCT01594762, 2012-05-07). Omiganan (NCT02576847, 2015-10-13).

The discovery and design of novel HIV-1 capsid modulators and future perspectives

INTRODUCTION

Although combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) has achieved significant success in treating HIV, the emergence of multidrug-resistant viruses and cumulative medication toxicity make it necessary to find new classes of antiretroviral agents with novel mechanisms of action. With high sequence conservation, the HIV-1 capsid (CA) protein has attracted attention as a prospective therapeutic target due to its crucial structural and regulatory functions in the HIV-1 replication cycle.

AREA COVERED

Herein, the authors provide a cutting-edge overview of current advances in the design and discovery of CA modulators, PF74, GS-6207 and their derivativeswhich targets a therapeutically attractive NTD-CTD interprotomer pocket within the hexameric configuration of HIV-1 CA. The discovery and development of these compounds, and derivatives thereof, have provided valuable information for the design of second-generation CA-targeting antivirals.

EXPERT OPINION

Despite some successes in designing and discovering HIV-1 CA modulators, more studies are required to decipher which chemical groups confer specific desirable properties. The future of CA-modulating compounds may lie in covalent inhibition and the creation of proteolysis-targeting chimeras (PROTACs). Moreover, biological interrogation of the process of CA uncoating, virus-host interactions, and studies on the lattice-binding restriction factors may improve our knowledge of HIV-1 CA and support the design of new antiviral agents.

Cell-Penetrating Antimicrobial Peptides with Anti-Infective Activity against Intracellular Pathogens

Cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) are natural or engineered peptide sequences with the intrinsic ability to internalize into a diversity of cell types and simultaneously transport hydrophilic molecules and nanomaterials, of which the cellular uptake is often limited. In addition to this primordial activity of cell penetration without membrane disruption, multivalent antimicrobial activity accompanies some CPPs. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) with cell-penetrability exert their effect intracellularly, and they are of great interest. CPPs with antimicrobial activity (CPAPs) comprise a particular class of bioactive peptides that arise as promising agents against difficult-to-treat intracellular infections. This short review aims to present the antibacterial, antiparasitic, and antiviral effects of various cell-penetrating antimicrobial peptides currently documented. Examples include the antimicrobial effects of different CPAPs against bacteria that can propagate intracellularly, like Staphylococcus sp., Streptococcus sp., Chlamydia trachomatis, Escherichia coli, Mycobacterium sp., Listeria sp., Salmonella sp. among others. CPAPs with antiviral effects that interfere with the intracellular replication of HIV, hepatitis B, HPV, and herpes virus. Additionally, CPAPs with activity against protozoa of the genera Leishmania, Trypanosoma, and Plasmodium, the etiological agents of Leishmaniasis, Chagas' Disease, and Malaria, respectively. The information provided in this review emphasizes the potential of multivalent CPAPs, with anti-infective properties for application against various intracellular infections. So far, CPAPs bear a promise of druggability for the translational medical use of CPPs alone or in combination with chemotherapeutics. Moreover, CPAPs could be an exciting alternative for pharmaceutical design and treating intracellular infectious diseases.

Mapping the N-Terminal Hexokinase-I Binding Site onto Voltage-Dependent Anion Channel-1 To Block Peripheral Nerve Demyelination

The voltage-dependent anion channel (VDAC), the most abundant protein on the outer mitochondrial membrane, is implicated in ATP, ion and metabolite exchange with cell compartments. In particular, the VDAC participates in cytoplasmic and mitochondrial Ca²⁺ homeostasis. Notably, the Ca²⁺ efflux out of Schwann cell mitochondria is involved in peripheral nerve demyelination that underlies most peripheral neuropathies. Hexokinase (HK) isoforms I and II, the main ligands of the VDAC, possess a hydrophobic N-terminal structured in α-helix (NHKI) that is necessary for the binding to the VDAC. To gain further insight into the molecular basis of HK binding to the VDAC, we developed and optimized peptides based on the NHKI sequence. These modifications lead to an increase of the peptide hydrophobicity and helical content that enhanced their ability to prevent peripheral nerve demyelination. Our results provide new insights into the molecular basis of VDAC/HK interaction that could lead to the development of therapeutic compounds for demyelinating peripheral neuropathies.

Leveraging the therapeutic, biological, and self-assembling potential of peptides for the treatment of viral infections

Peptides and peptide-based materials have an increasing role in the treatment of viral infections through their use as active pharmaceutical ingredients, targeting moieties, excipients, carriers, or structural components in drug delivery systems. The discovery of peptide-based therapeutic compounds, coupled with the development of new stabilization and formulation strategies, has led to a resurgence of antiviral peptide therapeutics over the past two decades. The ability of peptides to bind cell receptors and to facilitate membrane penetration and subsequent intracellular trafficking enables their use in various antiviral systems for improved targeting efficiency and treatment efficacy. Importantly, the self-assembly of peptides into well-defined nanostructures provides a vast library of discrete constructs and supramolecular biomaterials for systemic and local delivery of antiviral agents. We review here the recent progress in exploiting the therapeutic, biological, and self-assembling potential of peptides, peptide conjugates, and their supramolecular assemblies in treating human viral infections, with an emphasis on the treatment strategies for Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV).

Genomewide Analysis and Biological Characterization of Cathelicidins with Potent Antimicrobial Activity and Low Cytotoxicity from Three Bat Species

Cathelicidins are potent antimicrobial peptides with broad spectrum antimicrobial activity in many vertebrates and an important component of the innate immune system. However, our understanding of the genetic variations and biological characteristics of bat cathelicidins is limited. In this study, we performed genome-level analysis of the antimicrobial peptide cathelicidins from seven bat species in the six families, listed 19 cathelicidin-like sequences, and showed that the number of functional cathelicidin genes differed among bat species. Based on the identified biochemical characteristics of bat cathelicidins, three cathelicidins, HA-CATH (from Hipposideros armiger), ML-CATH (from Myotis lucifugus), and PD-CATH (from Phyllostomus discolor), with clear antimicrobial signatures were chemically synthesized and evaluated antimicrobial activity. HA-CATH showed narrow-spectrum antibacterial activity against a panel of 12 reference bacteria, comprising 6 Gram-negative and 6 Gram-positive strains. However, ML-CATH and PD-CATH showed potent antibacterial activity against a broad spectrum of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) of 1 and 3 μg/mL, respectively, against Staphylococcus aureus. ML-CATH and PD-CATH also showed antifungal activities against Candida albicans and Cryptococcus cuniculi with MIC of 5 to 40 μg/mL, respectively, and 80% inhibition of the metabolism of Mucor hiemalis hyphae at 80 μg/mL, while displaying minimal cytotoxicity to HaCaT cells. Taken together, although the spectrum and efficacy of bat cathelicidins were species-dependent, the antimicrobial activity of ML-CATH and PD-CATH was comparable to that of other highly active cathelicidins in vertebrates while having negligible cytotoxicity to mammalian cells. ML-CATH and PD-CATH can be exploited as promising candidates for the development of antimicrobial therapeutics.

Antiviral compounds modulate elasticity, strength and material fatigue of a virus capsid framework

This study investigates whether the biochemical and antiviral effects of organic compounds that bind different sites in the mature human immunodeficiency virus capsid may be related to the modulation of different mechanical properties of the protein lattice from which the capsid is built. Mechanical force was used as a probe to quantify, in atomic force microscopy experiments at physiological pH and ionic strength, ligand-mediated changes in capsid lattice elasticity, breathing, strength against local dislocation by mechanical stress, and resistance to material fatigue. The results indicate that the effects of the tested compounds on assembly or biochemical stability can be linked, from a physics-based perspective, to their interference with the mechanical behavior of the viral capsid framework. The antivirals CAP-1 and CAI-55 increased the intrinsic elasticity and breathing of the capsid protein lattice and may entropically decrease the probability of the capsid protein to assemble into a functionally competent conformation. Antiviral PF74 increased the resistance of the capsid protein lattice to disruption by mechanical stress and material fatigue and may enthalpically strengthen the basal capsid lattice against breakage and disintegration. This study provides proof of concept that the interrogation of the mechanical properties of the nanostructured protein material that makes a virus capsid may provide fundamental insights into the biophysical action of capsid-binding antiviral agents. The implications for drug design by specifically targeting the biomechanics of viruses are discussed.

Stapled peptides as potential inhibitors of SARS‐CoV‐2 binding to the hACE2 receptor

Stapled peptides are synthetic peptidomimetics of bioactive sites in folded proteins which carry chemical links, introduced during peptide synthesis, designed to retain the secondary structure in the native protein molecule. Stapled peptides have been investigated as potential modulators of protein–protein interactions for over two decades. The potential use of stapled peptides as inhibitors of viral entry, and therefore as antiviral therapeutics, has been established for several important viruses causing disease in humans, such as the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV‐1), respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), and Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus. Several independent research initiatives have investigated the inhibitory effect of stapled peptides on binding of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS‐CoV‐2), the causative agent of COVID‐19, to its receptor, angiotensin‐converting‐enzyme 2 (ACE2). These stapled peptides, which mimic Helix 1 of the human ACE2 receptor, have demonstrated mixed ability to prevent infection with SARS‐CoV‐2 in cell‐based studies.

Application of the All-Hydrocarbon Stapling Technique in the Design of Membrane-Active Peptides

The threats of drug resistance and new emerging pathogens have led to an urgent need to develop alternative treatment therapies. Recently, considerable research efforts have focused on membrane-active peptides (MAPs), a category of peptides in drug discovery with antimicrobial, anticancer, and cell penetration activities that have demonstrated their potential to be multifunctional agents. Nonetheless, natural MAPs have encountered various disadvantages, which mainly include poor bioavailability, the lack of a secondary structure in short peptides, and high production costs for long peptide sequences. Hence, an "all-hydrocarbon stapling system" has been applied to these peptides and proven to effectively stabilize the helical conformations, improving proteolytic resistance and increasing both the potency and the cell permeability. In this review, we summarized and categorized the advances made using this powerful technique in the development of stapled MAPs. Furthermore, outstanding issues and suggestions for future design within each subcategory were thoroughly discussed.

Targeting the Virus Capsid as a Tool to Fight RNA Viruses

Several strategies have been developed to fight viral infections, not only in humans but also in animals and plants. Some of them are based on the development of efficient vaccines, to target the virus by developed antibodies, others focus on finding antiviral compounds with activities that inhibit selected virus replication steps. Currently, there is an increasing number of antiviral drugs on the market; however, some have unpleasant side effects, are toxic to cells, or the viruses quickly develop resistance to them. As the current situation shows, the combination of multiple antiviral strategies or the combination of the use of various compounds within one strategy is very important. The most desirable are combinations of drugs that inhibit different steps in the virus life cycle. This is an important issue especially for RNA viruses, which replicate their genomes using error-prone RNA polymerases and rapidly develop mutants resistant to applied antiviral compounds. Here, we focus on compounds targeting viral structural capsid proteins, thereby inhibiting virus assembly or disassembly, virus binding to cellular receptors, or acting by inhibiting other virus replication mechanisms. This review is an update of existing papers on a similar topic, by focusing on the most recent advances in the rapidly evolving research of compounds targeting capsid proteins of RNA viruses.

Unprotected peptide macrocyclization and stapling via a fluorine-thiol displacement reaction

We report the discovery of a facile peptide macrocyclization and stapling strategy based on a fluorine thiol displacement reaction (FTDR), which renders a class of peptide analogues with enhanced stability, affinity, cellular uptake, and inhibition of cancer cells. This approach enabled selective modification of the orthogonal fluoroacetamide side chains in unprotected peptides in the presence of intrinsic cysteines. The identified benzenedimethanethiol linker greatly promoted the alpha helicity of a variety of peptide substrates, as corroborated by molecular dynamics simulations. The cellular uptake of benzenedimethanethiol stapled peptides appeared to be universally enhanced compared to the classic ring-closing metathesis (RCM) stapled peptides. Pilot mechanism studies suggested that the uptake of FTDR-stapled peptides may involve multiple endocytosis pathways in a distinct pattern in comparison to peptides stapled by RCM. Consistent with the improved cell permeability, the FTDR-stapled lead Axin and p53 peptide analogues demonstrated enhanced inhibition of cancer cells over the RCM-stapled analogues and the unstapled peptides.

Strategies capable of stapling unprotected peptides in a straightforward, chemoselective, and clean manner, as well as promoting cellular uptake are of great interest. Here the authors report a peptide macrocyclization and stapling strategy which satisfies those criteria, based on a fluorine thiol displacement reaction.

Cell-penetrating peptides improve pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of anticancer drugs

This review concentrates on the research concerning conjugates of anticancer drugs with versatile cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs). For a better insight into the relationship between the components of the constructs, it starts with the characteristic of the peptides and considers its following aspects: mechanisms of cellular internalization, interaction with cancer-modified membranes, selectivity against tumor tissue. Also, CPPs with anticancer activity have been distinguished and summarized with their mechanisms of action. With respect to the conjugates, the preclinical studies (in vitro, in vivo) indicated that they possess several merits in comparison to the parent drugs. They concerned not only better cellular internalization but also other improvements in pharmacokinetics (e.g. access to the brain tissue) and pharmacodynamics (e.g. overcoming drug resistance). The anticancer activity of the conjugates was usually superior to that of the unconjugated drug. Certain anticancer CPPs and conjugates entered clinical trials.

Rotten to the core: antivirals targeting the HIV-1 capsid core

The capsid core of HIV-1 is a large macromolecular assembly that surrounds the viral genome and is an essential component of the infectious virus. In addition to its multiple roles throughout the viral life cycle, the capsid interacts with multiple host factors. Owing to its indispensable nature, the HIV-1 capsid has been the target of numerous antiretrovirals, though most capsid-targeting molecules have not had clinical success until recently. Lenacapavir, a long-acting drug that targets the HIV-1 capsid, is currently undergoing phase 2/3 clinical trials, making it the most successful capsid inhibitor to-date. In this review, we detail the role of the HIV-1 capsid protein in the virus life cycle, categorize antiviral compounds based on their targeting of five sites within the HIV-1 capsid, and discuss their molecular interactions and mechanisms of action. The diverse range of inhibition mechanisms provides insight into possible new strategies for designing novel HIV-1 drugs and furthers our understanding of HIV-1 biology.

Potential of cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs) in delivery of antiviral therapeutics and vaccines

Viral infections are a great threat to human health. Currently, there are no effective vaccines and antiviral drugs against the majority of viral diseases, suggesting the need to develop novel and effective antiviral agents. Since the intracellular delivery of antiviral agents, particularly the impermeable molecules, such as peptides, proteins, and nucleic acids, are essential to exert their therapeutic effects, using a delivery system is highly required. Among various delivery systems, cell-penetrating peptides (CPPs), a group of short peptides with the unique ability of crossing cell membrane, offer great potential for the intracellular delivery of various biologically active cargoes. The results of numerous in vitro and in vivo studies with CPP conjugates demonstrate their promise as therapeutic agents in various medical fields including antiviral therapy. The CPP-mediated delivery of various antiviral agents including peptides, proteins, nucleic acids, and nanocarriers have been associated with therapeutic efficacy both in vitro and in vivo. This review describes various aspects of viruses including their biology, pathogenesis, and therapy and briefly discusses the concept of CPP and its potential in drug delivery. Particularly, it will highlight a variety of CPP applications in the management of viral infections.

Human Coronaviruses: Counteracting the Damage by Storm

Over the past 18 years, three highly pathogenic human (h) coronaviruses (CoVs) have caused severe outbreaks, the most recent causative agent, SARS-CoV-2, being the first to cause a pandemic. Although much progress has been made since the COVID-19 pandemic started, much about SARS-CoV-2 and its disease, COVID-19, is still poorly understood. The highly pathogenic hCoVs differ in some respects, but also share some similarities in clinical presentation, the risk factors associated with severe disease, and the characteristic immunopathology associated with the progression to severe disease. This review aims to highlight these overlapping aspects of the highly pathogenic hCoVs-SARS-CoV, MERS-CoV, and SARS-CoV-2-briefly discussing the importance of an appropriately regulated immune response; how the immune response to these highly pathogenic hCoVs might be dysregulated through interferon (IFN) inhibition, antibody-dependent enhancement (ADE), and long non-coding RNA (lncRNA); and how these could link to the ensuing cytokine storm. The treatment approaches to highly pathogenic hCoV infections are discussed and it is suggested that a greater focus be placed on T-cell vaccines that elicit a cell-mediated immune response, using rapamycin as a potential agent to improve vaccine responses in the elderly and obese, and the potential of stapled peptides as antiviral agents.

Capsid-specific nanobody effects on HIV-1 assembly and infectivity

The capsid (CA) domain of the HIV-1 precursor Gag (PrGag) protein plays multiple roles in HIV-1 replication, and is central to the assembly of immature virions, and mature virus cores. CA proteins themselves are composed of N-terminal domains (NTDs) and C-terminal domains (CTDs). We have investigated the interactions of CA with anti-CA nanobodies, which derive from the antigen recognition regions of camelid heavy chain-only antibodies. The one CA NTD-specific and two CTD-specific nanobodies we analyzed proved sensitive and specific HIV-1 CA detection reagents in immunoassays. When co-expressed with HIV-1 Gag proteins in cells, the NTD-specific nanobody was efficiently assembled into virions and did not perturb virus assembly. In contrast, the two CTD-specific nanobodies reduced PrGag processing, virus release and HIV-1 infectivity. Our results demonstrate the feasibility of Gag-targeted nanobody inhibition of HIV-1.

The Role of Capsid in the Early Steps of HIV-1 Infection: New Insights into the Core of the Matter

In recent years, major advances in research and experimental approaches have significantly increased our knowledge on the role of the HIV-1 capsid in the virus life cycle, from reverse transcription to integration and gene expression. This makes the capsid protein a good pharmacological target to inhibit HIV-1 replication. This review covers our current understanding of the role of the viral capsid in the HIV-1 life cycle and its interaction with different host factors that enable reverse transcription, trafficking towards the nucleus, nuclear import and integration into host chromosomes. It also describes different promising small molecules, some of them in clinical trials, as potential targets for HIV-1 therapy.

Identification of a Potential Inhibitor of the FIV p24 Capsid Protein and Characterization of Its Binding Site

Feline immunodeficiency virus (FIV) is a veterinary infective agent for which there is currently no efficient drug available. Drugs targeting the lentivirus capsid are currently under development for the treatment of human immunodeficiency virus 1 (HIV-1). Here we describe a lead compound that interacts with the FIV capsid. This compound, 696, modulates the in vitro assembly of and stabilizes the assembled capsid protein. To decipher the mechanism of binding of this compound to the protein, we performed the first nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) assignment of the FIV p24 capsid protein. Experimental NMR chemical shift perturbations (CSPs) observed after the addition of 696 enabled the characterization of a specific binding site for 696 on p24. This site was further analyzed by molecular modeling of the protein:compound interaction, demonstrating a strong similarity with the binding sites of existing drugs targeting the HIV-1 capsid protein. Taken together, we characterized a promising capsid-interacting compound with a low cost of synthesis, for which derivatives could lead to the development of efficient treatments for FIV infection. More generally, our strategy combining the NMR assignment of FIV p24 with NMR CSPs and molecular modeling will be useful for the analysis of future compounds targeting p24 in the quest to identify an efficient treatment for FIV.

Potential "biopeptidal" therapeutics for severe respiratory syndrome coronaviruses: a review of antiviral peptides, viral mechanisms, and prospective needs

Although great advances have been made on large-scale manufacturing of vaccines and antiviral-based drugs, viruses persist as the major cause of human diseases nowadays. The recent pandemic of coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) mounts a lot of stress on the healthcare sector and the scientific society to search continuously for novel components with antiviral possibility. Herein, we narrated the different tactics of using biopeptides as antiviral molecules that could be used as an interesting alternative to treat COVID-19 patients. The number of peptides with antiviral effects is still low, but such peptides already displayed huge potentials to become pharmaceutically obtainable as antiviral medications. Studies showed that animal venoms, mammals, plant, and artificial sources are the main sources of antiviral peptides, when bioinformatics tools are used. This review spotlights bioactive peptides with antiviral activities against human viruses, especially the coronaviruses such as severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) virus, Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) virus, and severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2 or SARS-nCOV19). We also showed the data about well-recognized peptides that are still under investigations, while presenting the most potent ones that may become medications for clinical use.

Construction of diverse peptide structural architectures via chemoselective peptide ligation

Herein, we report the development of a facile synthetic strategy for constructing diverse peptide structural architectures via chemoselective peptide ligation. The key advancement involved is to utilize the benzofuran moiety as the peptide salicylaldehyde ester surrogate, and Dap-Ser/Lys-Ser dipeptide as the hydroxyl amino functionality, which could be successfully introduced at the side chain of peptides enabling peptide ligation. With this method, the side chain-to-side chain cyclic peptide, branched/bridged peptides, tailed cyclic peptides and multi-cyclic peptides have been designed and successfully synthesized with native peptidic linkages at the ligation sites. This strategy has provided an alternative strategic opportunity for synthetic peptide development. It also serves as an inspiration for the structural design of PPI inhibitors with new modalities.

Three Major Phosphoacceptor Sites in HIV-1 Capsid Protein Enhances its Structural Stability and Resistance Against the Inhibitor: Explication Through Molecular Dynamics Simulation, Molecular Docking and DFT Analysis

BACKGROUND

Human Immunodeficiency Virus 1 (HIV-1) is a lentivirus, which causes various HIV-associated infections. The HIV-1 core dissociation is essential for viral cDNA synthesis and phosphorylation of HIV-1 capsid protein (HIV-1 CA) plays an important role in it.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to explicate the role of three phosphoserine sites i.e. Ser109, Ser149 and Ser178 in the structural stability of HIV-1 CA, and it's binding with GS-CA1, a novel potent inhibitor.

METHODS

Eight complexes were analyzed and Molecular Dynamics (MD) simulations were performed to observe the stability of HIV-1 CA in the presence and absence of phosphorylation of serine residues at four different temperatures i.e. 300K, 325K, 340K and 350K, along with molecular docking and DFT analysis.

RESULTS

The structures showed maximum stability in the presence of phosphorylated serine residue. However, GS-CA1 docked most strongly with the native structure of HIV-1 CA i.e. binding affinity was -8.5 kcal/mol (Ki = 0.579 µM).

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that the phosphorylation of these three serine residues weakens the binding of GS-CA1 with CA and casts derogatory effect on inhibition potential of this inhibitor, but it supports the stability of HIV-1 CA structure that can enhance regulation and replication of HIV-1 in host cells.

An insight on medicinal aspects of novel HIV-1 capsid protein inhibitors

A capsid is the protein shell of a virus, encircling its genetic material. The HIV capsid is erected from a single protein, known as capsid protein. The capsid of HIV-1 significantly involved in many processes of the virus life cycle, which makes it as a novel target for the new inhibitors. Recently many novel HIV-1 inhibitors binding to capsid proteins have been reported successfully. Most of these inhibitors can inhibit or accelerate the disassembly or assembly of the capsid, and some of them can inhibit reverse transcription. Unfortunately, none of them are currently approved by U.S. FDA. However, GS-6207, an inhibitor binds to the NTD-CTD interface with potent antiviral activity and the long metabolic cycle, is expected to be the first approved drug targeting HIV-1 capsid. Herein, we provide a concise report focusing on the recent prospective of HIV-1 capsid inhibitors in medicinal chemistry in order to enlighten drug design.

Visualizing HIV-1 Capsid and Its Interactions with Antivirals and Host Factors

Understanding of the construction and function of the HIV capsid has advanced considerably in the last decade. This is due in large part to the development of more sophisticated structural techniques, particularly cryo-electron microscopy (cryoEM) and cryo-electron tomography (cryoET). The capsid is known to be a pleomorphic fullerene cone comprised of capsid protein monomers arranged into 200-250 hexamers and 12 pentamers. The latter of these induce high curvature necessary to close the cone at both ends. CryoEM/cryoET, NMR, and X-ray crystallography have collectively described these interactions to atomic or near-atomic resolutions. Further, these techniques have helped to clarify the role the HIV capsid plays in several parts of the viral life cycle, from reverse transcription to nuclear entry and integration into the host chromosome. This includes visualizing the capsid bound to host factors. Multiple proteins have been shown to interact with the capsid. Cyclophilin A, nucleoporins, and CPSF6 promote viral infectivity, while MxB and Trim5α diminish the viral infectivity. Finally, structural insights into the intra- and intermolecular interactions that govern capsid function have enabled development of small molecules, peptides, and truncated proteins to disrupt or stabilize the capsid to inhibit HIV replication. The most promising of these, GS6207, is now in clinical trial.

Structure, Function, and Interactions of the HIV-1 Capsid Protein

The capsid (CA) protein of the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) is an essential structural component of a virion and facilitates many crucial life cycle steps through interactions with host cell factors. Capsid shields the reverse transcription complex from restriction factors while it enables trafficking to the nucleus by hijacking various adaptor proteins, such as FEZ1 and BICD2. In addition, the capsid facilitates the import and localization of the viral complex in the nucleus through interaction with NUP153, NUP358, TNPO3, and CPSF-6. In the later stages of the HIV-1 life cycle, CA plays an essential role in the maturation step as a constituent of the Gag polyprotein. In the final phase of maturation, Gag is cleaved, and CA is released, allowing for the assembly of CA into a fullerene cone, known as the capsid core. The fullerene cone consists of ~250 CA hexamers and 12 CA pentamers and encloses the viral genome and other essential viral proteins for the next round of infection. As research continues to elucidate the role of CA in the HIV-1 life cycle and the importance of the capsid protein becomes more apparent, CA displays potential as a therapeutic target for the development of HIV-1 inhibitors.

Photo-induced radical thiol-ene chemistry: a versatile toolbox for peptide-based drug design

While the global market for peptide/protein-based therapeutics is witnessing significant growth, the development of peptide drugs remains challenging due to their low oral bioavailability, poor membrane permeability, and reduced metabolic stability. However, a toolbox of chemical approaches has been explored for peptide modification to overcome these obstacles. In recent years, there has been a revival of interest in photoinduced radical thiol-ene chemistry as a powerful tool for the construction of therapeutic peptides.

Hydrocarbon-Stapled Peptide Based-Nanoparticles for siRNA Delivery

Small interfering RNAs (siRNAs) are promising molecules for developing new therapies based on gene silencing; however, their delivery into cells remains an issue. In this study, we took advantage of stapled peptide technology that has emerged as a valuable strategy to render natural peptides more structured, resistant to protease degradation and more bioavailable, to develop short carriers for siRNA delivery. From the pool of stapled peptides that we have designed and synthesized, we identified non-toxic vectors that were able to efficiently encapsulate siRNA, transport them into the cell and induce gene silencing. Remarkably, the most efficient stapled peptide (JMV6582), is composed of only eight amino-acids and contains only two cationic charges.

Automated Design of Macrocycles for Therapeutic Applications: From Small Molecules to Peptides and Proteins

Macrocycles and cyclic peptides are increasingly attractive therapeutic modalities as they often have improved affinity, are able to bind to extended protein surfaces, and otherwise have favorable properties. Macrocyclization of a known binder may stabilize its bioactive conformation and improve its metabolic stability, cell permeability, and in certain cases oral bioavailability. Herein, we present implementation and application of an approach that automatically generates, evaluates, and proposes cyclizations utilizing a library of well-established chemical reactions and reagents. Using the three-dimensional (3D) conformation of the linear molecule in complex with a target protein as the starting point, this approach identifies attachment points, generates linkers, evaluates their geometric compatibility, and ranks the resulting molecules with respect to their predicted conformational stability and interactions with the target protein. As we show here with prospective and retrospective case studies, this procedure can be applied for the macrocyclization of small molecules and peptides and even PROteolysis TArgeting Chimeras (PROTACs) and proteins.

Drugs, host proteins and viral proteins: how their promiscuities shape antiviral design

The reciprocal nature of drug specificity and target specificity implies that the same is true for their respective promiscuities. Protein promiscuity has two broadly different types of footprint in drug design. The first is relaxed specificity of binding sites for substrates, inhibitors, effectors or cofactors. The second involves protein-protein interactions of regulatory processes such as signal transduction and transcription, and here protein intrinsic disorder plays an important role. Both viruses and host cells exploit intrinsic disorder for their survival, as do the design and discovery programs for antivirals. Drug action, strictly speaking, always relies upon promiscuous activity, with drug promiscuity enlarging its scope. Drug repurposing searches for additional promiscuity on the part of both the drug and the target in the host. Understanding the subtle nuances of these promiscuities is critical in the design of novel and more effective antivirals.

HIV-1 Maturation: Lessons Learned from Inhibitors

Since the emergence of HIV and AIDS in the early 1980s, the development of safe and effective therapies has accompanied a massive increase in our understanding of the fundamental processes that drive HIV biology. As basic HIV research has informed the development of novel therapies, HIV inhibitors have been used as probes for investigating basic mechanisms of HIV-1 replication, transmission, and pathogenesis. This positive feedback cycle has led to the development of highly effective combination antiretroviral therapy (cART), which has helped stall the progression to AIDS, prolong lives, and reduce transmission of the virus. However, to combat the growing rates of virologic failure and toxicity associated with long-term therapy, it is important to diversify our repertoire of HIV-1 treatments by identifying compounds that block additional steps not targeted by current drugs. Most of the available therapeutics disrupt early events in the replication cycle, with the exception of the protease (PR) inhibitors, which act at the virus maturation step. HIV-1 maturation consists of a series of biochemical changes that facilitate the conversion of an immature, noninfectious particle to a mature infectious virion. These changes include proteolytic processing of the Gag polyprotein by the viral protease (PR), structural rearrangement of the capsid (CA) protein, and assembly of individual CA monomers into hexamers and pentamers that ultimately form the capsid. Here, we review the development and therapeutic potential of maturation inhibitors (MIs), an experimental class of anti-HIV-1 compounds with mechanisms of action distinct from those of the PR inhibitors. We emphasize the key insights into HIV-1 biology and structure that the study of MIs has provided. We will focus on three distinct groups of inhibitors that block HIV-1 maturation: (1) compounds that block the processing of the CA-spacer peptide 1 (SP1) cleavage intermediate, the original class of compounds to which the term MI was applied; (2) CA-binding inhibitors that disrupt capsid condensation; and (3) allosteric integrase inhibitors (ALLINIs) that block the packaging of the viral RNA genome into the condensing capsid during maturation. Although these three classes of compounds have distinct structures and mechanisms of action, they share the ability to block the formation of the condensed conical capsid, thereby blocking particle infectivity.

Design, Synthesis, and Mechanism Study of Benzenesulfonamide-Containing Phenylalanine Derivatives as Novel HIV-1 Capsid Inhibitors with Improved Antiviral Activities

The HIV-1 CA protein has gained remarkable attention as a promising therapeutic target for the development of new antivirals, due to its pivotal roles in HIV-1 replication (structural and regulatory). Herein, we report the design and synthesis of three series of benzenesulfonamide-containing phenylalanine derivatives obtained by further structural modifications of PF-74 to aid in the discovery of more potent and drug-like HIV-1 CA inhibitors. Structure-activity relationship studies of these compounds led to the identification of new phenylalanine derivatives with a piperazinone moiety, represented by compound 11l, which exhibited anti-HIV-1_NL4-3 activity 5.78-fold better than PF-74. Interestingly, 11l also showed anti-HIV-2_ROD activity (EC₅₀ = 31 nM), with almost 120 times increased potency over PF-74. However, due to the higher significance of HIV-1 as compared to HIV-2 for the human population, this manuscript focuses on the mechanism of action of our compounds in the context of HIV-1. SPR studies on representative compounds confirmed CA as the binding target. The action stage determination assay demonstrated that these inhibitors exhibited antiviral activities with a dual-stage inhibition profile. The early-stage inhibitory activity of compound 11l was 6.25 times more potent as compared to PF-74 but appeared to work via the accelerating capsid core assembly rather than stabilization. However, the mechanism by which they exert their antiviral activity in the late stage appears to be the same as PF-74 with less infectious HIV-1 virions produced in their presence, as judged p24 content studies. MD simulations provided the key rationale for the promising antiviral potency of 11l. Additionally, 11l exhibited a modest increase in HLM and human plasma metabolic stabilities as compared to PF-74, as well as a moderately improved pharmacokinetic profile, favorable oral bioavailability, and no acute toxicity. These studies provide insights and serve as a starting point for subsequent medicinal chemistry efforts in optimizing these promising HIV inhibitors.

Recent Advances in HIV-1 Gag Inhibitor Design and Development

Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) treatment with combination antiretroviral therapy (cART) has improved the life quality of many patients since its implementation. However, resistance mutations and the accumulation of severe side effects associated with cART remain enormous challenges that need to be addressed with the continual design and redesign of anti-HIV drugs. In this review, we focus on the importance of the HIV-1 Gag polyprotein as the master coordinator of HIV-1 assembly and maturation and as an emerging drug target. Due to its multiple roles in the HIV-1 life cycle, the individual Gag domains are attractive but also challenging targets for inhibitor design. However, recent encouraging developments in targeting the Gag domains such as the capsid protein with highly potent and potentially long-acting inhibitors, as well as the exploration and successful targeting of challenging HIV-1 proteins such as the matrix protein, have demonstrated the therapeutic viability of this important protein. Such Gag-directed inhibitors have great potential for combating the AIDS pandemic and to be useful tools to dissect HIV-1 biology.

Natural-product-library-based screening for discovery of capsid C-terminal domain targeted HIV-1 inhibitors

Antiretroviral therapy (ART) can effectively suppress replication of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and limit disease progression. However, ART is unable to eradicate the virus, and the requirement for lifelong treatment may have side effects and may lead to the development of resistance. New approaches to prevent and treat HIV-1 infection should therefore be developed. HIV-1 capsid (CA) protein is an unexploited but attractive target for antiviral drug development. The hydrophobic cavity of the C-terminal domain of CA (CA CTD) has been validated as a potential target for antiviral drugs. Binding of compounds to this conserved non-polar groove in CA CTD allosterically disrupts the CA assembly. This study screened 2080 natural products to identify potential antiviral agents for further development to combat HIV-1 infection. From the primary screen at a fixed concentration of 50 µM, 16 compounds were found to be effective against this target. Six compounds observed in the primary screen were confirmed in dose-response experiments, and were tested against HIV-1-induced cytopathic effects. Two compounds were found to inhibit HIV-1 replication, and the most active compound - rubranol - inhibited viral replication at a moderate micromolar concentration (EC₅₀ = 15.85 μM). The binding modes of rubranol and hirsutanonol to CA CTD were analysed by molecular docking, providing insight for the design of drugs targeting HIV-1 CA. This study reports, for the first time, identification of natural products that showed potential as anti-HIV-1 agents by targeting the conserved hydrophobic cavity of HIV-1 CA CTD.

Stapled peptide targeting the CDK4/Cyclin D interface combined with Abemaciclib inhibits KRAS mutant lung cancer growth

CDK4/cyclin D kinase constitutes an attractive pharmacological target for development of anticancer therapeutics, in particular in KRAS-mutant lung cancer patients, who have a poor prognosis and no targeted therapy available yet. Although several ATP-competitive inhibitors of CDK4 have been developed for anticancer therapeutics, they suffer from limited specificity and efficacy. Methods: As an alternative to ATP-competitive inhibitors we have designed a stapled peptide to target the main interface between CDK4 and cyclin D, and have characterized its physico-chemical properties and affinity to bind cyclin D1. Results: We have validated a positive correlation between CDK4/cyclin D level and KRAS mutation in lung cancer patients. The stapled peptide enters cells rapidly and efficiently, and inhibits CDK4 kinase activity and proliferation in lung cancer cells. Its intrapulmonary administration in mice enables its retention in orthotopic lung tumours and complete inhibition of their growth when co-administered with Abemaciclib. Conclusion: The stapled peptide targeting the main interface between CDK4 and cyclin D provides promising therapeutic perspectives for patients with lung cancer.

A Physical Organic Approach to Tuning Reagents for Selective and Stable Methionine Bioconjugation

We report a data-driven, physical organic approach to the development of new methionine-selective bioconjugation reagents with tunable adduct stabilities. Statistical modeling of structural features described by intrinsic physical organic parameters was applied to the development of a predictive model and to gain insight into features driving the stability of adducts formed from the chemoselective coupling of oxaziridine and methionine thioether partners through Redox Activated Chemical Tagging (ReACT). From these analyses, a correlation between sulfimide stabilities and sulfimide ν (C═O) stretching frequencies was revealed. We exploited the rational gains in adduct stability exposed by this analysis to achieve the design and synthesis of a bis-oxaziridine reagent for peptide stapling. Indeed, we observed that a macrocyclic peptide formed by ReACT stapling at methionine exhibited improved uptake into live cells compared to an unstapled congener, highlighting the potential utility of this unique chemical tool for thioether modification. This work provides a template for the broader use of data-driven approaches to bioconjugation chemistry and other chemical biology applications.

A HTRF based competitive binding assay for screening specific inhibitors of HIV-1 capsid assembly targeting the C-Terminal domain of capsid

Due to its multifaceted essential roles in virus replication and extreme genetic fragility, the human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) capsid (CA) protein is a valued therapeutic target. However, CA is as yet unexploited clinically, as there are no antiviral agents that target it currently on the market. To facilitate the identification of potential HIV-1 CA inhibitors, we established a homogeneous time-resolved fluorescence (HTRF) assay to screen for small molecules that target a biologically active and specific binding pocket in the C-terminal domain of HIV-1 CA (CA CTD). The assay, which is based on competition of small molecules for the binding of a known CA inhibitor (CAI) to the CA CTD, exhibited a signal-to-background ratio (S/B) > 10 and a Z' value > 0.9. In a pilot screen of three kinase inhibitor libraries containing 464 compounds, we identified one compound, TX-1918, as a low micromolecular inhibitor of the HIV-1 CA CTD-CAI interaction (IC₅₀ = 3.81 μM) that also inhibited viral replication at moderate micromolar concentration (EC₅₀ = 15.16 μM) and inhibited CA assembly in vitro. Based on the structure of TX-1918, an additional compound with an antiviral EC₅₀ of 6.57 μM and cellular cytotoxicity CC₅₀ of 102.55 μM was obtained from a compound similarity search. Thus, the HTRF-based assay has properties that are suitable for screening large compound libraries to identify novel anti-HIV-1 inhibitors targeting the CA CTD.

Coronavirus envelope protein: current knowledge

BACKGROUND

Coronaviruses (CoVs) primarily cause enzootic infections in birds and mammals but, in the last few decades, have shown to be capable of infecting humans as well. The outbreak of severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) in 2003 and, more recently, Middle-East respiratory syndrome (MERS) has demonstrated the lethality of CoVs when they cross the species barrier and infect humans. A renewed interest in coronaviral research has led to the discovery of several novel human CoVs and since then much progress has been made in understanding the CoV life cycle. The CoV envelope (E) protein is a small, integral membrane protein involved in several aspects of the virus' life cycle, such as assembly, budding, envelope formation, and pathogenesis. Recent studies have expanded on its structural motifs and topology, its functions as an ion-channelling viroporin, and its interactions with both other CoV proteins and host cell proteins.

MAIN BODY

This review aims to establish the current knowledge on CoV E by highlighting the recent progress that has been made and comparing it to previous knowledge. It also compares E to other viral proteins of a similar nature to speculate the relevance of these new findings. Good progress has been made but much still remains unknown and this review has identified some gaps in the current knowledge and made suggestions for consideration in future research.

CONCLUSIONS

The most progress has been made on SARS-CoV E, highlighting specific structural requirements for its functions in the CoV life cycle as well as mechanisms behind its pathogenesis. Data shows that E is involved in critical aspects of the viral life cycle and that CoVs lacking E make promising vaccine candidates. The high mortality rate of certain CoVs, along with their ease of transmission, underpins the need for more research into CoV molecular biology which can aid in the production of effective anti-coronaviral agents for both human CoVs and enzootic CoVs.

Targeting HIV-TB coinfection by developing novel piperidin-4-substituted imines: Design, synthesis, in vitro and in silico studies

Tuberculosis is the "Achilles heel" of the human immunodeficiency (HIV) ministration. HIV-positive people are 16-27 times more prone to contract tuberculosis. But the adverse interaction between antiretroviral drugs and antitubercular drugs has made it necessary to look for a single drug regimen for HIV-TB coinfection. Piperidine derivatives have been reported as anti-HIV and anti-TB agents. This inspired us to design, synthesize, and characterize a series of 3,5-bis(furan-2-ylmethylidene)-piperidin-4-substituted imines (R1-R25) and these were further screened for in vitro antitubercular activity against Mycobacterium tuberculosis H37Rv and anti-HIV activity. Molecular docking studies showed energetically favorable binding interactions with both EACP reductase (1ZID.pdb) and reverse-transcriptase (1REV.pdb) targets. The compounds R7, R12, R17, R18, R19, R20 were found to be more potent as anti-TB agents than ethambutol (MIC 3.125 μg/ml). Compound R7 was found to be moderately active with an IC₅₀ of 2.1 ± 0.04 μM in multicycle infection assays, in comparison with the standard drug, zidovudine (IC₅₀  = 5.7 ± 0.04 nM), used as anti-HIV drug. The cytotoxicity assay was done on Vero, MT-2, and TZM-bl cells to assess the safety of these compounds and they were found to be safe. From the above results, R7 seems to be a promising lead for anti-HIV and anti-TB activity.

Multiple Roles of HIV-1 Capsid during the Virus Replication Cycle

Human immunodeficiency virus-1 capsid (HIV-1 CA) is involved in different stages of the viral replication cycle. During virion assembly, CA drives the formation of the hexameric lattice in immature viral particles, while in mature virions CA monomers assemble in cone-shaped cores surrounding the viral RNA genome and associated proteins. In addition to its functions in late stages of the viral replication cycle, CA plays key roles in a number of processes during early phases of HIV-1 infection including trafficking, uncoating, recognition by host cellular proteins and nuclear import of the viral pre-integration complex. As a result of efficient cooperation of CA with other viral and cellular proteins, integration of the viral genetic material into the host genome, which is an essential step for productive viral infection, successfully occurs. In this review, we will summarize available data on CA functions in HIV-1 replication, describing in detail its roles in late and early phases of the viral replication cycle.

Inhibitors of the HIV-1 capsid, a target of opportunity

PURPOSE OF REVIEW

To summarize recent advances in the discovery of chemical inhibitors targeting the HIV capsid and research on their mechanisms of action.

RECENT FINDINGS

HIV infection is critically dependent on functions of the viral capsid. Numerous studies have reported the identification of a variety of compounds that bind to the capsid protein; some of these inhibit reverse transcription and nuclear entry, steps required for infection. Other capsid-targeting compounds appear to act by perturbing capsid assembly, resulting in noninfectious progeny virions. Inhibitors may bind to several different positions on the capsid protein, including sites in both protein domains. However, the antiviral activity of many reported capsid-targeting inhibitors has not been definitively linked to capsid binding. Until recently, the low-to-moderate potency of reported capsid-targeting inhibitors has precluded their further clinical development. In 2017, GS-CA1, a highly potent capsid inhibitor, was described that holds promise for clinical development.

SUMMARY

Small molecules that bind to the viral capsid protein can be potent inhibitors of HIV infection. Capsid-targeting drugs are predicted to exhibit high barriers to viral resistance, and ongoing work in this area is contributing to an understanding of the molecular biology of HIV uncoating and maturation.

In-solution enrichment identifies peptide inhibitors of protein-protein interactions

The use of competitive inhibitors to disrupt protein-protein interactions (PPIs) holds great promise for the treatment of disease. However, the discovery of high-affinity inhibitors can be a challenge. Here we report a platform for improving the affinity of peptide-based PPI inhibitors using non-canonical amino acids. The platform utilizes size exclusion-based enrichment from pools of synthetic peptides (1.5-4 kDa) and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry-based peptide sequencing to identify high-affinity binders to protein targets, without the need for 'reporter' or 'encoding' tags. Using this approach-which is inherently selective for high-affinity binders-we realized gains in affinity of up to ~100- or ~30-fold for binders to the oncogenic ubiquitin ligase MDM2 or HIV capsid protein C-terminal domain, which inhibit MDM2-p53 interaction or HIV capsid protein C-terminal domain dimerization, respectively. Subsequent macrocyclization of select MDM2 inhibitors rendered them cell permeable and cytotoxic toward cancer cells, demonstrating the utility of the identified compounds as functional PPI inhibitors.

Macrocyclic Peptides as Drug Candidates: Recent Progress and Remaining Challenges

Peptides as a therapeutic modality attract much attention due to their synthetic accessibility, high degree of specific binding, and the ability to target protein surfaces traditionally considered "undruggable". Unfortunately, at the same time, other pharmacological properties of a generic peptide, such as metabolic stability and cell permeability, are quite poor, which limits the success of de novo discovered biologically active peptides as drug candidates. Here, we review how macrocyclization as well as the incorporation of nonproteogenic amino acids and various conjugation strategies may be utilized to improve on these characteristics to create better drug candidates. We analyze recent progress and remaining challenges in improving individual pharmacological properties of bioactive peptides, and offer our opinion on interfacing these, often conflicting, considerations, to create balanced drug candidates as a potential way to make further progress in this area.