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Vural M, Mohammadi M, Seufert L, Han S, Crispin X, Fridberger A, Berggren M, Tybrandt K. Soft Electromagnetic Vibrotactile Actuators with Integrated Vibration Amplitude Sensing. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2023. [PMID: 37327497 DOI: 10.1021/acsami.3c05045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Soft vibrotactile devices have the potential to expand the functionality of emerging electronic skin technologies. However, those devices often lack the necessary overall performance, sensing-actuation feedback and control, and mechanical compliance for seamless integration on the skin. Here, we present soft haptic electromagnetic actuators that consist of intrinsically stretchable conductors, pressure-sensitive conductive foams, and soft magnetic composites. To minimize joule heating, high-performance stretchable composite conductors are developed based on in situ-grown silver nanoparticles formed within the silver flake framework. The conductors are laser-patterned to form soft and densely packed coils to further minimize heating. Soft pressure-sensitive conducting polymer-cellulose foams are developed and integrated to tune the resonance frequency and to provide internal resonator amplitude sensing in the resonators. The above components together with a soft magnet are assembled into soft vibrotactile devices providing high-performance actuation combined with amplitude sensing. We believe that soft haptic devices will be an essential component in future developments of multifunctional electronic skin for future human-computer and human-robotic interfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mert Vural
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, ITN, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Mohsen Mohammadi
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, ITN, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Laura Seufert
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Shaobo Han
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Xavier Crispin
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, ITN, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Anders Fridberger
- Department of Biomedical and Clinical Sciences, Linköping University, 581 83 Linköping, Sweden
| | - Magnus Berggren
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, ITN, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
| | - Klas Tybrandt
- Laboratory of Organic Electronics, Department of Science and Technology, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
- Wallenberg Wood Science Center, ITN, Linköping University, 602 21 Norrköping, Sweden
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Hosseinaee Z, Le M, Bell K, Reza PH. Towards non-contact photoacoustic imaging [review]. PHOTOACOUSTICS 2020; 20:100207. [PMID: 33024694 PMCID: PMC7530308 DOI: 10.1016/j.pacs.2020.100207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2020] [Revised: 06/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/10/2020] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
Photoacoustic imaging (PAI) takes advantage of both optical and ultrasound imaging properties to visualize optical absorption with high resolution and contrast. Photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) is usually categorized with all-optical microscopy techniques such as optical coherence tomography or confocal microscopes. Despite offering high sensitivity, novel imaging contrast, and high resolution, PAM is not generally an all-optical imaging method unlike the other microscopy techniques. One of the significant limitations of photoacoustic microscopes arises from their need to be in physical contact with the sample through a coupling media. This physical contact, coupling, or immersion of the sample is undesirable or impractical for many clinical and pre-clinical applications. This also limits the flexibility of photoacoustic techniques to be integrated with other all-optical imaging microscopes for providing complementary imaging contrast. To overcome these limitations, several non-contact photoacoustic signal detection approaches have been proposed. This paper presents a brief overview of current non-contact photoacoustic detection techniques with an emphasis on all-optical detection methods and their associated physical mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zohreh Hosseinaee
- PhotoMedicine Labs, Department of System Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Martin Le
- PhotoMedicine Labs, Department of System Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Kevan Bell
- PhotoMedicine Labs, Department of System Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
- IllumiSonics Inc., Department of Systems Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
| | - Parsin Haji Reza
- PhotoMedicine Labs, Department of System Design Engineering, University of Waterloo, Ontario, N2L 3G1, Canada
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Kazieva TV, Gubskiy KL, Kuznetsov AP, Reshetov VN. 3D push-pull heterodyne interferometer for SPM metrology. APPLIED OPTICS 2019; 58:4000-4006. [PMID: 31158154 DOI: 10.1364/ao.58.004000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
A three-coordinate heterodyne laser interferometer has been developed to measure the displacement of the probe microscope scanner with a subnanometer resolution that provides traceability of measurements to the standard of meter through the wavelength of a stabilized He-Ne laser. Main sources of errors are investigated, and their influence is minimized so that the resulting measurement uncertainty of the system does not exceed 0.2 nm, and the resolution is 0.01 nm. The investigation of metrological characteristics of the three-coordinate interferometer was carried out with a scanning probe microscopy (SPM) NanoScan-3D using TGZ-type calibration gratings. The values measured with SPM fell within the 95% confidence interval given by Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB) (Germany). SPM equipped with a laser interferometer was used to measure the characteristics of dynamic etalons of geometric dimensions.
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Burwood GWS, Fridberger A, Wang RK, Nuttall AL. Revealing the morphology and function of the cochlea and middle ear with optical coherence tomography. Quant Imaging Med Surg 2019; 9:858-881. [PMID: 31281781 PMCID: PMC6571188 DOI: 10.21037/qims.2019.05.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2019] [Accepted: 05/09/2019] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) has revolutionized physiological studies of the hearing organ, the vibration and morphology of which can now be measured without opening the surrounding bone. In this review, we provide an overview of OCT as used in the otological research, describing advances and different techniques in vibrometry, angiography, and structural imaging.
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Affiliation(s)
- George W. S. Burwood
- Department of Otolaryngology, Oregon Hearing Research Center/HNS, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Anders Fridberger
- Department of Otolaryngology, Oregon Hearing Research Center/HNS, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, Section for Neurobiology, Linköping University, Linköping, Sweden
| | - Ruikang K. Wang
- Department of Bioengineering and Department of Ophthalmology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Alfred L. Nuttall
- Department of Otolaryngology, Oregon Hearing Research Center/HNS, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR, USA
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Abstract
Low-frequency hearing is critically important for speech and music perception, but no mechanical measurements have previously been available from inner ears with intact low-frequency parts. These regions of the cochlea may function in ways different from the extensively studied high-frequency regions, where the sensory outer hair cells produce force that greatly increases the sound-evoked vibrations of the basilar membrane. We used laser interferometry in vitro and optical coherence tomography in vivo to study the low-frequency part of the guinea pig cochlea, and found that sound stimulation caused motion of a minimal portion of the basilar membrane. Outside the region of peak movement, an exponential decline in motion amplitude occurred across the basilar membrane. The moving region had different dependence on stimulus frequency than the vibrations measured near the mechanosensitive stereocilia. This behavior differs substantially from the behavior found in the extensively studied high-frequency regions of the cochlea.
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Teudt IU, Richter CP. Basilar membrane and tectorial membrane stiffness in the CBA/CaJ mouse. J Assoc Res Otolaryngol 2014; 15:675-94. [PMID: 24865766 PMCID: PMC4164692 DOI: 10.1007/s10162-014-0463-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2012] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The mouse has become an important animal model in understanding cochlear function. Structures, such as the tectorial membrane or hair cells, have been changed by gene manipulation, and the resulting effect on cochlear function has been studied. To contrast those findings, physical properties of the basilar membrane (BM) and tectorial membrane (TM) in mice without gene mutation are of great importance. Using the hemicochlea of CBA/CaJ mice, we have demonstrated that tectorial membrane (TM) and basilar membrane (BM) revealed a stiffness gradient along the cochlea. While a simple spring mass resonator predicts the change in the characteristic frequency of the BM, the spring mass model does not predict the frequency change along the TM. Plateau stiffness values of the TM were 0.6 ± 0.5, 0.2 ± 0.1, and 0.09 ± 0.09 N/m for the basal, middle, and upper turns, respectively. The BM plateau stiffness values were 3.7 ± 2.2, 1.2 ± 1.2, and 0.5 ± 0.5 N/m for the basal, middle, and upper turns, respectively. Estimations of the TM Young's modulus (in kPa) revealed 24.3 ± 25.2 for the basal turns, 5.1 ± 4.5 for the middle turns, and 1.9 ± 1.6 for the apical turns. Young's modulus determined at the BM pectinate zone was 76.8 ± 72, 23.9 ± 30.6, and 9.4 ± 6.2 kPa for the basal, middle, and apical turns, respectively. The reported stiffness values of the CBA/CaJ mouse TM and BM provide basic data for the physical properties of its organ of Corti.
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Affiliation(s)
- I. U. Teudt
- />Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Searle Building 12-561; 303 East Chicago Avenue, 60611-3008 Chicago, IL USA
- />Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, University Clinic Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
- />Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, Asklepios Clinic Altona, Hamburg, Germany
| | - C. P. Richter
- />Department of Otolaryngology—Head and Neck Surgery, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, Searle Building 12-561; 303 East Chicago Avenue, 60611-3008 Chicago, IL USA
- />Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
- />Hugh Knowles Center, Department of Communication Sciences and Disorders, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL USA
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Zhang E, Chen B, Yan L, Yang T, Hao Q, Dong W, Li C. Laser heterodyne interferometric signal processing method based on rising edge locking with high frequency clock signal. OPTICS EXPRESS 2013; 21:4638-4652. [PMID: 23481996 DOI: 10.1364/oe.21.004638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A novel phase measurement method composed of the rising-edge locked signal processing and the digital frequency mixing is proposed for laser heterodyne interferometer. The rising-edge locked signal processing, which employs a high frequency clock signal to lock the rising-edges of the reference and measurement signals, not only can improve the steepness of the rising-edge, but also can eliminate the error counting caused by multi-rising-edge phenomenon in fringe counting. The digital frequency mixing is realized by mixing the digital interference signal with a digital base signal that is different from conventional frequency mixing with analogue signals. These signal processing can improve the measurement accuracy and enhance anti-interference and measurement stability. The principle and implementation of the method are described in detail. An experimental setup was constructed and a series of experiments verified the feasibility of the method in large displacement measurement with high speed and nanometer resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Enzheng Zhang
- School of Optoelectronics, Beijing Institute of Technology, Beijing 100081, China
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Hakizimana P, Brownell WE, Jacob S, Fridberger A. Sound-induced length changes in outer hair cell stereocilia. Nat Commun 2013; 3:1094. [PMID: 23033070 PMCID: PMC3594849 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms2100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Accepted: 08/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Hearing relies on mechanical stimulation of stereocilia bundles on the sensory cells of the inner ear. When sound hits the ear, these stereocilia pivot about a neck-like taper near their base. More than three decades of research have established that sideways deflection of stereocilia is essential for converting mechanical stimuli into electrical signals. Here we show that mammalian outer hair cell stereocilia not only move sideways but also change length during sound stimulation. Currents that enter stereocilia through mechanically sensitive ion channels control the magnitude of both length changes and bundle deflections in a reciprocal manner: the smaller the length change, the larger is the bundle deflection. Thus, the transduction current is important for maintaining the resting mechanical properties of stereocilia. Hair cell stimulation is most effective when bundles are in a state that ensures minimal length change.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Hakizimana
- Department of Clinical Science, Intervention and Technology, Karolinska Institutet, M1 Karolinska University Hospital, SE-17176 Stockholm, Sweden
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Noise-induced alterations in cochlear mechanics, electromotility, and cochlear amplification. Pflugers Arch 2012; 465:907-17. [DOI: 10.1007/s00424-012-1198-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2012] [Revised: 11/19/2012] [Accepted: 12/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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Nuttall AL, Fridberger A. Instrumentation for studies of cochlear mechanics: from von Békésy forward. Hear Res 2012; 293:3-11. [PMID: 22975360 PMCID: PMC3483786 DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2012.08.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2012] [Revised: 08/13/2012] [Accepted: 08/21/2012] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Georg von Békésy designed the instruments needed for his research. He also created physical models of the cochlea allowing him to manipulate the parameters (such as volume elasticity) that could be involved in controlling traveling waves. This review is about the specific devices that he used to study the motion of the basilar membrane thus allowing the analysis that lead to his Nobel Prize Award. The review moves forward in time mentioning the subsequent use of von Békésy's methods and later technologies important for motion studies of the organ of Corti. Some of the seminal findings and the controversies of cochlear mechanics are mentioned in relation to the technical developments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfred L Nuttall
- Oregon Hearing Research Center, Dept. of Otolaryngology, Oregon Health & Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Rd., Portland, OR, USA.
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Wang F, Long Z, Zhang B, Zhao M. High resolution heterodyne interferometer based on time-to-digital converter. THE REVIEW OF SCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS 2012; 83:045112. [PMID: 22559581 DOI: 10.1063/1.4704357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
A new heterodyne interferometer is presented, which adopts time-to-digital converter (TDC) measuring the time intervals of zero crossings of heterodyne signal for phase demodulation. Thanks to the 0.1 ns time resolution of TDC and linear phase demodulation, it can achieve high resolution and avoids nonlinear measuring distortion in other indirect high precise phase demodulation methods, such as pulse width modulation (PWM) and in-phase∕quadrature (I∕Q) method.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fei Wang
- Department of Physics, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan 430074, China
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12
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Jacob S, Pienkowski M, Fridberger A. The endocochlear potential alters cochlear micromechanics. Biophys J 2011; 100:2586-94. [PMID: 21641303 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpj.2011.05.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2011] [Revised: 05/02/2011] [Accepted: 05/03/2011] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Acoustic stimulation gates mechanically sensitive ion channels in cochlear sensory hair cells. Even in the absence of sound, a fraction of these channels remains open, forming a conductance between hair cells and the adjacent fluid space, scala media. Restoring the lost endogenous polarization of scala media in an in vitro preparation of the whole cochlea depolarizes the hair cell soma. Using both digital laser interferometry and time-resolved confocal imaging, we show that this causes a structural refinement within the organ of Corti that is dependent on the somatic electromotility of the outer hair cells (OHCs). Specifically, the inner part of the reticular lamina up to the second row of OHCs is pulled toward the basilar membrane, whereas the outer part (third row of OHCs and the Hensen's cells) unexpectedly moves in the opposite direction. A similar differentiated response pattern is observed for sound-evoked vibrations: restoration of the endogenous polarization decreases vibrations of the inner part of the reticular lamina and results in up to a 10-fold increase of vibrations of the outer part. We conclude that the endogenous polarization of scala media affects the function of the hearing organ by altering its geometry, mechanical and electrical properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefan Jacob
- Center for Hearing and Communication Research, Karolinska Institutet, Department of Clinical Neuroscience, M1 Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
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Brownell WE, Jacob S, Hakizimana P, Ulfendahl M, Fridberger A. Membrane cholesterol modulates cochlear electromechanics. Pflugers Arch 2011; 461:677-86. [PMID: 21373862 PMCID: PMC3098987 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-011-0942-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2010] [Revised: 02/10/2011] [Accepted: 02/15/2011] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Changing the concentration of cholesterol in the plasma membrane of isolated outer hair cells modulates electromotility and prestin-associated charge movement, suggesting that a similar manipulation would alter cochlear mechanics. We examined cochlear function before and after depletion of membrane cholesterol with methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) in an excised guinea pig temporal bone preparation. The mechanical response of the cochlear partition to acoustic and/or electrical stimulation was monitored using laser interferometry and time-resolved confocal microscopy. The electromechanical response in untreated preparations was asymmetric with greater displacements in response to positive currents. Exposure to MβCD increased the magnitude and asymmetry of the response, without changing the frequency tuning of sound-evoked mechanical responses or cochlear microphonic potentials. Sodium salicylate reversibly blocked the enhanced electromechanical response in cholesterol depleted preparations. The increase of sound-evoked vibrations during positive current injection was enhanced following MβCD in some preparations. Imaging was used to assess cellular integrity which remained unchanged after several hours of exposure to MβCD in several preparations. The enhanced electromechanical response reflects an increase in outer hair cell electromotility and may reveal features of cholesterol distribution and trafficking in outer hair cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- William E Brownell
- Bobby R. Alford Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
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