Altered Cerebral Perfusion in Infants Born Preterm Compared with Infants Born Full Term

Evaluation of the effect of intraventricular haemorrhage on cerebral perfusion in preterm neonates using three-dimensional pseudo-continuous arterial spin labelling

BACKGROUND

Intraventricular haemorrhage (IVH) often arises as a cerebral complication directly related to preterm birth. The impaired autoregulation of cerebral blood flow is closely associated with IVH in preterm neonates. Three-dimensional pseudo-continuous arterial spin labelling (3D-pCASL) is a noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) technique used for evaluating cerebral perfusion.

OBJECTIVE

This study aimed to compare cerebral blood flow values among three distinct groups using 3D-pCASL: preterm neonates with and without IVH and preterm neonates at term-equivalent age.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A total of 101 preterm neonates who underwent conventional MRI and 3D-pCASL were included in this study. These neonates were categorised into three groups: 12 preterm neonates with IVH, 52 preterm neonates without IVH, and 37 healthy neonates at term-equivalent age. Cerebral blood flow measurements were obtained from six brain regions of interest (ROIs)-the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, basal ganglia, and thalamus-in the right and left hemispheres.

RESULTS

The cerebral blood flow values measured in all ROIs of preterm neonates with IVH were significantly lower than those of neonates at term-equivalent age (all P<0.05). Additionally, the cerebral blood flow in the temporal lobe was lower in preterm neonates without IVH than in neonates at term-equivalent age (16.87±5.01 vs. 19.76±5.47 ml/100 g/min, P=0.012). Furthermore, a noteworthy positive correlation was observed between post-menstrual age and cerebral blood flow in the temporal lobe (P=0.037), basal ganglia (P=0.010), and thalamus (P=0.010).

CONCLUSION

The quantitative cerebral blood flow values, as measured by 3D-pCASL, highlighted that preterm neonates with IVH had decreased cerebral perfusion. This finding underscores the potential of 3D-pCASL as a technique for evaluating the developmental aspects of the brain in preterm neonates.

Functional assessment of brain development in fetuses that subsequently deliver very preterm: An MRI pilot study

OBJECTIVES

To evaluate changes occurring in the fetal brain prior to very preterm delivery using MRI T2* relaxometry, an indirect assessment of tissue perfusion.

METHOD

Fetuses that subsequently delivered spontaneously <32 weeks gestation and a control cohort were identified from pre-existing datasets. Participants had undergone a 3T MRI assessment including T2* relaxometry of the fetal brain using a 2D multi-slice gradient echo single shot echo planar imaging sequence. T2* maps were generated, supratentorial brain tissue was manually segmented and mean T2* values were generated. Groups were compared using quadratic regression.

RESULTS

Twenty five fetuses that subsequently delivered <32 weeks and 67 that delivered at term were included. Mean gestation at MRI was 24.5 weeks (SD 3.3) and 25.4 weeks (SD 3.1) and gestation at delivery 25.5 weeks (SD 3.4) and 39.7 weeks (SD 1.2) in the preterm and term cohorts respectively. Brain mean T2* values were significantly lower in fetuses that subsequently delivered before 32 weeks gestation (p < 0.001).

CONCLUSION

Alterations in brain maturation appear to occur prior to preterm delivery. Further work is required to explore these associations, but these findings suggest a potential window for therapeutic neuroprotective agents in fetuses at high risk of preterm delivery in the future.

Measuring Quantitative Cerebral Blood Flow in Healthy Children: A Systematic Review of Neuroimaging Techniques

Cerebral blood flow (CBF) is an important hemodynamic parameter to evaluate brain health. It can be obtained quantitatively using medical imaging modalities such as magnetic resonance imaging and positron emission tomography (PET). Although CBF in adults has been widely studied and linked with cerebrovascular and neurodegenerative diseases, CBF data in healthy children are sparse due to the challenges in pediatric neuroimaging. An understanding of the factors affecting pediatric CBF and its normal range is crucial to determine the optimal CBF measuring techniques in pediatric neuroradiology. This review focuses on pediatric CBF studies using neuroimaging techniques in 32 articles including 2668 normal subjects ranging from birth to 18 years old. A systematic literature search was conducted in PubMed, Embase, and Scopus and reported following the preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA). We identified factors (such as age, gender, mood, sedation, and fitness) that have significant effects on pediatric CBF quantification. We also investigated factors influencing the CBF measurements in infants. Based on this review, we recommend best practices to improve CBF measurements in pediatric neuroimaging. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: 1 TECHNICAL EFFICACY: Stage 2.

Cerebral perfusion differences are linked to executive function performance in very preterm-born children and adolescents

Children and adolescents born very preterm are at risk of cognitive impairment, particularly affecting executive functions. To date, the neural correlates of these cognitive differences are not yet fully understood, although converging evidence points to a pattern of structural and functional brain alterations, including reduced brain volumes, altered connectivity, and altered brain activation patterns. In very preterm neonates, alterations in brain perfusion have also been reported, but the extent to which these perfusion alterations persist into later childhood is not yet known. This study evaluated global and regional brain perfusion, measured with arterial spin labelling (ASL) MRI, in 26 very preterm children and adolescents and 34 term-born peers. Perfusion was compared between groups and relative to executive function (EF) scores, derived from an extensive EF battery assessing working memory, cognitive flexibility, and planning. Very preterm children and adolescents showed regions of altered perfusion, some of which were also related to EF scores. Most of these regions were located in the right hemisphere and included regions like the thalamus and hippocampus, which are known to play a role in executive functioning and can be affected by prematurity. In addition, perfusion decreased with age during adolescence and showed a significant interaction between birth status and sex, such that very preterm girls showed lower perfusion than term-born girls, but this trend was not seen in boys. Taken together, our results indicate a regionally altered perfusion in very preterm children and adolescents, with age and sex related changes during adolescence.

Early development of the functional brain network in newborns

During the prenatal period and the first postnatal years, the human brain undergoes rapid growth, which establishes a preliminary infrastructure for the subsequent development of cognition and behavior. To understand the underlying processes of brain functioning and identify potential sources of developmental disorders, it is essential to uncover the developmental rules that govern this critical period. In this study, graph theory modeling and network science analysis were employed to investigate the impact of age, gender, weight, and typical and atypical development on brain development. Local and global topologies of functional connectomes obtained from rs-fMRI data were collected from 421 neonates aged between 31 and 45 postmenstrual weeks who were in natural sleep without any sedation. The results showed that global efficiency, local efficiency, clustering coefficient, and small-worldness increased with age, while modularity and characteristic path length decreased with age. The normalized rich-club coefficient displayed a U-shaped pattern during development. The study also examined the global and local impacts of gender, weight, and group differences between typical and atypical cases. The findings presented some new insights into the maturation of functional brain networks and their relationship with cognitive development and neurodevelopmental disorders.

Development of neonatal brain functional centrality and alterations associated with preterm birth

Formation of the functional connectome in early life underpins future learning and behavior. However, our understanding of how the functional organization of brain regions into interconnected hubs (centrality) matures in the early postnatal period is limited, especially in response to factors associated with adverse neurodevelopmental outcomes such as preterm birth. We characterized voxel-wise functional centrality (weighted degree) in 366 neonates from the Developing Human Connectome Project. We tested the hypothesis that functional centrality matures with age at scan in term-born babies and is disrupted by preterm birth. Finally, we asked whether neonatal functional centrality predicts general neurodevelopmental outcomes at 18 months. We report an age-related increase in functional centrality predominantly within visual regions and a decrease within the motor and auditory regions in term-born infants. Preterm-born infants scanned at term equivalent age had higher functional centrality predominantly within visual regions and lower measures in motor regions. Functional centrality was not related to outcome at 18 months old. Thus, preterm birth appears to affect functional centrality in regions undergoing substantial development during the perinatal period. Our work raises the question of whether these alterations are adaptive or disruptive and whether they predict neurodevelopmental characteristics that are more subtle or emerge later in life.

Cerebral blood flow patterns in preterm and term neonates assessed with pseudo-continuous arterial spin labeling perfusion MRI

In preterm (PT) infants, regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) disturbances may predispose to abnormal brain maturation even without overt brain injury. Therefore, it would be informative to determine the spatial distribution of grey matter (GM) CBF in PT and full-term (FT) newborns at term-equivalent age (TEA) and to assess the relationship between the features of the CBF pattern and both prematurity and prematurity-related brain lesions. In this prospective study, we obtained measures of CBF in 66 PT (51 without and 15 with prematurity-related brain lesions) and 38 FT newborns through pseudo-continuous arterial spin labeling (pCASL) MRI acquired at TEA. The pattern of GM CBF was characterized by combining an atlas-based automated segmentation of structural MRI with spatial normalization and hierarchical clustering. The effects of gestational age (GA) at birth and brain injury on the CBF pattern were investigated. We identified 4 physiologically-derived clusters of brain regions that were labeled Fronto-Temporal, Parieto-Occipital, Insular-Deep GM (DGM) and Sensorimotor, from the least to the most perfused. We demonstrated that GM perfusion was associated with GA at birth in the Fronto-Temporal and Sensorimotor clusters, positively and negatively, respectively. Moreover, the presence of periventricular leukomalacia was associated with significantly increased Fronto-Temporal GM perfusion and decreased Insular-DGM perfusion, while the presence of germinal matrix hemorrhage appeared to mildly decrease the Insular-DGM perfusion. Prematurity and prematurity-related brain injury heterogeneously affect brain perfusion. ASL MRI may, therefore, have strong potential as a noninvasive tool for the accurate stratification of individuals at risk of domain-specific impairment.

[Influence of bronchopulmonary dysplasia on cerebral blood flow in preterm infants: a prospective study based on arterial spin labeling]

OBJECTIVES

To investigate local cerebral blood perfusion in preterm infants with bronchopulmonary dysplasia (BPD) based on cerebral blood flow (CBF) values of arterial spin labeling (ASL).

METHODS

A prospective study was conducted on 90 preterm infants with a gestational age of <32 weeks and a birth weight of <1 500 g who were born in the Department of Obstetrics and admitted to the Department of Neonatology in the Third Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University from August 2021 to June 2022. All of the infants underwent cranial MRI and ASL at the corrected gestational age of 35-40 weeks. According to the presence or absence of BPD, they were divided into a BPD group with 45 infants and a non-BPD group with 45 infants. The two groups were compared in terms of the CBF values of the same regions of interest (frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, thalamus, and basal ganglia) on ASL image.

RESULTS

Compared with the non-BPD group, the BPD group had a significantly lower 1-minute Apgar score, a significantly longer duration of assisted ventilation, and a significantly higher incidence rate of fetal distress (P<0.05). After control for the confounding factors such as corrected age and age at the time of cranial MRI by multiple linear regression analysis, compared with the non-BPD group, the BPD group still had higher CBF values of the frontal lobe, temporal lobe, parietal lobe, occipital lobe, basal ganglia, and thalamus at both sides (P<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

BPD can increase cerebral blood perfusion in preterm infants, which might be associated with hypoxia and a long duration of assisted ventilation in the early stage.

A novel Ontology-guided Attribute Partitioning ensemble learning model for early prediction of cognitive deficits using quantitative Structural MRI in very preterm infants

Structural magnetic resonance imaging studies have shown that brain anatomical abnormalities are associated with cognitive deficits in preterm infants. Brain maturation and geometric features can be used with machine learning models for predicting later neurodevelopmental deficits. However, traditional machine learning models would suffer from a large feature-to-instance ratio (i.e., a large number of features but a small number of instances/samples). Ensemble learning is a paradigm that strategically generates and integrates a library of machine learning classifiers and has been successfully used on a wide variety of predictive modeling problems to boost model performance. Attribute (i.e., feature) bagging method is the most commonly used feature partitioning scheme, which randomly and repeatedly draws feature subsets from the entire feature set. Although attribute bagging method can effectively reduce feature dimensionality to handle the large feature-to-instance ratio, it lacks consideration of domain knowledge and latent relationship among features. In this study, we proposed a novel Ontology-guided Attribute Partitioning (OAP) method to better draw feature subsets by considering the domain-specific relationship among features. With the better-partitioned feature subsets, we developed an ensemble learning framework, which is referred to as OAP-Ensemble Learning (OAP-EL). We applied the OAP-EL to predict cognitive deficits at 2 years of age using quantitative brain maturation and geometric features obtained at term equivalent age in very preterm infants. We demonstrated that the proposed OAP-EL approach significantly outperformed the peer ensemble learning and traditional machine learning approaches.

Multidelay ASL of the pediatric brain

Arterial spin labeling (ASL) is a powerful noncontrast MRI technique for evaluation of cerebral blood flow (CBF). A key parameter in single-delay ASL is the choice of postlabel delay (PLD), which refers to the timing between the labeling of arterial free water and measurement of flow into the brain. Multidelay ASL (MDASL) utilizes several PLDs to improve the accuracy of CBF calculations using arterial transit time (ATT) correction. This approach is particularly helpful in situations where ATT is unknown, including young subjects and slow-flow conditions. In this article, we discuss the technical considerations for MDASL, including labeling techniques, quantitative metrics, and technical artefacts. We then provide a practical summary of key clinical applications with real-life imaging examples in the pediatric brain, including stroke, vasculopathy, hypoxic-ischemic injury, epilepsy, migraine, tumor, infection, and metabolic disease.

Dear reviewers: Responses to common reviewer critiques about infant neuroimaging studies

The field of adult neuroimaging relies on well-established principles in research design, imaging sequences, processing pipelines, as well as safety and data collection protocols. The field of infant magnetic resonance imaging, by comparison, is a young field with tremendous scientific potential but continuously evolving standards. The present article aims to initiate a constructive dialog between researchers who grapple with the challenges and inherent limitations of a nascent field and reviewers who evaluate their work. We address 20 questions that researchers commonly receive from research ethics boards, grant, and manuscript reviewers related to infant neuroimaging data collection, safety protocols, study planning, imaging sequences, decisions related to software and hardware, and data processing and sharing, while acknowledging both the accomplishments of the field and areas of much needed future advancements. This article reflects the cumulative knowledge of experts in the FIT’NG community and can act as a resource for both researchers and reviewers alike seeking a deeper understanding of the standards and tradeoffs involved in infant neuroimaging.

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The field of infant MRI is young with evolving standards.

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We address 20 questions that researchers commonly receive reviewers.

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These come from research ethics boards, grant, and manuscript reviewers.

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This article reflects the cumulative knowledge of experts in the FIT’NG community.

MRI of the Neonatal Brain: A Review of Methodological Challenges and Neuroscientific Advances

In recent years, exploration of the developing brain has become a major focus for researchers and clinicians in an attempt to understand what allows children to acquire amazing and unique abilities, as well as the impact of early disruptions (eg, prematurity, neonatal insults) that can lead to a wide range of neurodevelopmental disorders. Noninvasive neuroimaging methods such as MRI are essential to establish links between the brain and behavioral changes in newborns and infants. In this review article, we aim to highlight recent and representative studies using the various techniques available: anatomical MRI, quantitative MRI (relaxometry, diffusion MRI), multiparametric approaches, and functional MRI. Today, protocols use 1.5 or 3T MRI scanners, and specialized methodologies have been put in place for data acquisition and processing to address the methodological challenges specific to this population, such as sensitivity to motion. MR sequences must be adapted to the brains of newborns and infants to obtain relevant good soft-tissue contrast, given the small size of the cerebral structures and the incomplete maturation of tissues. The use of age-specific image postprocessing tools is also essential, as signal and contrast differ from the adult brain. Appropriate methodologies then make it possible to explore multiple neurodevelopmental mechanisms in a precise way, and assess changes with age or differences between groups of subjects, particularly through large-scale projects. Although MRI measurements only indirectly reflect the complex series of dynamic processes observed throughout development at the molecular and cellular levels, this technique can provide information on brain morphology, structural connectivity, microstructural properties of gray and white matter, and on the functional architecture. Finally, MRI measures related to clinical, behavioral, and electrophysiological markers have a key role to play from a diagnostic and prognostic perspective in the implementation of early interventions to avoid long-term disabilities in children. EVIDENCE LEVEL: 2 TECHNICAL EFFICACY STAGE: 1.

Multiparametric Analysis of Cerebral Development in Preterm Infants Using Magnetic Resonance Imaging

Objectives

The severity of neurocognitive impairment increases with prematurity. However, its mechanisms remain poorly understood. Our aim was firstly to identify multiparametric magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) markers that differ according to the degree of prematurity, and secondly to evaluate the impact of clinical complications on these markers.

Materials and Methods

We prospectively enrolled preterm infants who were divided into two groups according to their degree of prematurity: extremely preterm (<28 weeks' gestational age) and very preterm (28-32 weeks' gestational age). They underwent a multiparametric brain MRI scan at term-equivalent age including morphological, diffusion tensor and arterial spin labeling (ASL) perfusion sequences. We quantified overall and regional volumes, diffusion parameters, and cerebral blood flow (CBF). We then compared the parameters for the two groups. We also assessed the effects of clinical data and potential MRI morphological abnormalities on those parameters.

Results

Thirty-four preterm infants were included. Extremely preterm infants (n = 13) had significantly higher frontal relative volumes (p = 0.04), frontal GM relative volumes (p = 0.03), and regional CBF than very preterm infants, but they had lower brainstem and insular relative volumes (respectively p = 0.008 and 0.04). Preterm infants with WM lesions on MRI had significantly lower overall GM CBF (13.3 ± 2 ml/100 g/min versus 17.7 ± 2.5, < ml/100 g/min p = 0.03).

Conclusion

Magnetic resonance imaging brain scans performed at term-equivalent age in preterm infants provide quantitative imaging parameters that differ with respect to the degree of prematurity, related to brain maturation.

Longitudinal Trajectories of Regional Cerebral Blood Flow in Very Preterm Infants during Third Trimester Ex Utero Development Assessed with MRI

Background The third trimester of gestation is a crucial phase of rapid brain development, but little has been reported on the trajectories of cerebral blood flow (CBF) in preterm infants in this period. Purpose To quantify regional CBF in very preterm infants longitudinally across the ex utero third trimester and to determine its relationship with clinical factors associated with brain injury and premature birth. Materials and Methods In this prospective study, very preterm infants were enrolled for three longitudinal MRI scans, and 22 healthy full-term infants were enrolled for one term MRI scan between November 2016 and February 2019. Global and regional CBF in the cortical gray matter, white matter, deep gray matter, and cerebellum were measured using arterial spin labeling with postlabeling delay of 2025 msec at 1.5 T and 3.0 T. Brain injury and clinical risk factors in preterm infants were investigated to determine associations with CBF. Generalized estimating equations were used to account for correlations between repeated measures in the same individual. Results A total of 75 preterm infants (mean postmenstrual age [PMA]: 29.5 weeks ± 2.3 [standard deviation], 34.9 weeks ± 0.8, and 39.3 weeks ± 2.0 for each scan; 43 male infants) and 22 full-term infants (mean PMA, 42.1 weeks ± 2.0; 13 male infants) were evaluated. In preterm infants, global CBF was 11.9 mL/100 g/min ± 0.2 (standard error). All regional CBF increased significantly with advancing PMA (P ≤ .02); the cerebellum demonstrated the most rapid CBF increase and the highest mean CBF. Lower CBF was associated with intraventricular hemorrhage in all regions (P ≤ .05) and with medically managed patent ductus arteriosus in the white matter and deep gray matter (P = .03). Mean CBF of preterm infants at term-equivalent age was significantly higher compared with full-term infants (P ≤ .02). Conclusion Regional cerebral blood flow increased significantly in preterm infants developing in an extrauterine environment across the third trimester and was associated with intraventricular hemorrhage and patent ductus arteriosus. © RSNA, 2021 Online supplemental material is available for this article.

The Developing Human Connectome Project: typical and disrupted perinatal functional connectivity

The Developing Human Connectome Project is an Open Science project that provides the first large sample of neonatal functional MRI data with high temporal and spatial resolution. These data enable mapping of intrinsic functional connectivity between spatially distributed brain regions under normal and adverse perinatal circumstances, offering a framework to study the ontogeny of large-scale brain organization in humans. Here, we characterize in unprecedented detail the maturation and integrity of resting state networks (RSNs) at term-equivalent age in 337 infants (including 65 born preterm). First, we applied group independent component analysis to define 11 RSNs in term-born infants scanned at 43.5–44.5 weeks postmenstrual age (PMA). Adult-like topography was observed in RSNs encompassing primary sensorimotor, visual and auditory cortices. Among six higher-order, association RSNs, analogues of the adult networks for language and ocular control were identified, but a complete default mode network precursor was not. Next, we regressed the subject-level datasets from an independent cohort of infants scanned at 37–43.5 weeks PMA against the group-level RSNs to test for the effects of age, sex and preterm birth. Brain mapping in term-born infants revealed areas of positive association with age across four of six association RSNs, indicating active maturation in functional connectivity from 37 to 43.5 weeks PMA. Female infants showed increased connectivity in inferotemporal regions of the visual association network. Preterm birth was associated with striking impairments of functional connectivity across all RSNs in a dose-dependent manner; conversely, connectivity of the superior parietal lobules within the lateral motor network was abnormally increased in preterm infants, suggesting a possible mechanism for specific difficulties such as developmental coordination disorder, which occur frequently in preterm children. Overall, we found a robust, modular, symmetrical functional brain organization at normal term age. A complete set of adult-equivalent primary RSNs is already instated, alongside emerging connectivity in immature association RSNs, consistent with a primary-to-higher order ontogenetic sequence of brain development. The early developmental disruption imposed by preterm birth is associated with extensive alterations in functional connectivity.

Association between cerebral oxygen saturation and brain injury in neonates receiving therapeutic hypothermia for neonatal encephalopathy

OBJECTIVE

To assess the association of cerebral oxygen saturation (CrSO₂) collected by near infrared spectroscopy (NIRS) during therapeutic hypothermia (TH) and rewarming with evidence of brain injury on post-rewarming MRI.

STUDY DESIGN

This retrospective cohort study included 49 infants, who received TH for mild to severe neonatal encephalopathy. Of those, 26 presented with brain injury assessed by a novel MRI grading system, whereas 23 had normal MRI scans.

RESULTS

CrSO₂ increased significantly from the first to the second day of TH in infants with brain injury, whereas it remained stable in patients with normal MRI. Increasing mean CrSO₂ values during rewarming was associated with brain injury (aOR 1.14; 95% CI 1.00-1.28), specifically with gray matter (GM) injury (aOR 1.23; 95% CI 1.02-1.49). The area under the ROC curve showed an excellent discrimination for GM involvement.

CONCLUSION

Clinically applied NIRS during TH and rewarming can assist in identifying the risk for brain injury.

Cerebral Blood Flow Monitoring in High-Risk Fetal and Neonatal Populations

Cerebrovascular pressure autoregulation promotes stable cerebral blood flow (CBF) across a range of arterial blood pressures. Cerebral autoregulation (CA) is a developmental process that reaches maturity around term gestation and can be monitored prenatally with both Doppler ultrasound and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques. Postnatally, there are key advantages and limitations to assessing CA with Doppler ultrasound, MRI, and near-infrared spectroscopy. Here we review these CBF monitoring techniques as well as their application to both fetal and neonatal populations at risk of perturbations in CBF. Specifically, we discuss CBF monitoring in fetuses with intrauterine growth restriction, anemia, congenital heart disease, neonates born preterm and those with hypoxic-ischemic encephalopathy. We conclude the review with insights into the future directions in this field with an emphasis on collaborative science and precision medicine approaches.

Arterial spin labeling perfusion in neonates

Abnormal brain perfusion is a key mechanism underlying neonatal brain injury. Understanding the mechanisms leading to brain perfusion changes in high-risk neonates and how these alterations may influence brain development is key to improve therapeutic strategies preventing brain injury and the neurodevelopmental outcome of these infants. To date, several studies demonstrated that Arterial Spin Labeling is a reliable tool to accurately and non-invasively analyze brain perfusion, facilitating the understanding of normal and pathological mechanisms underlying neonatal brain maturation and injury. This paper provides an overview of the normal pattern of brain perfusion on Arterial Spin Labeling in term and preterm neonates, and reviews perfusion abnormalities associated with common neonatal neurological disorders.

Cerebral blood flow in 5- to 8-month-olds: Regional tissue maturity is associated with infant affect

Infancy is marked by rapid neural and emotional development. The relation between brain function and emotion in infancy, however, is not well understood. Methods for measuring brain function predominantly rely on the BOLD signal; however, interpretation of the BOLD signal in infancy is challenging because the neuronal-hemodynamic relation is immature. Regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) provides a context for the infant BOLD signal and can yield insight into the developmental maturity of brain regions that may support affective behaviors. This study aims to elucidate the relations among rCBF, age, and emotion in infancy. One hundred and seven mothers reported their infants' (infant age M ± SD = 6.14 ± 0.51 months) temperament. A subsample of infants completed MRI scans, 38 of whom produced usable perfusion MRI during natural sleep to quantify rCBF. Mother-infant dyads completed the repeated Still-Face Paradigm, from which infant affect reactivity and recovery to stress were quantified. We tested associations of infant age at scan, temperament factor scores, and observed affect reactivity and recovery with voxel-wise rCBF. Infant age was positively associated with CBF in nearly all voxels, with peaks located in sensory cortices and the ventral prefrontal cortex, supporting the formulation that rCBF is an indicator of tissue maturity. Temperamental Negative Affect and recovery of positive affect following a stressor were positively associated with rCBF in several cortical and subcortical limbic regions, including the orbitofrontal cortex and inferior frontal gyrus. This finding yields insight into the nature of affective neurodevelopment during infancy. Specifically, infants with relatively increased prefrontal cortex maturity may evidence a disposition toward greater negative affect and negative reactivity in their daily lives yet show better recovery of positive affect following a social stressor.

Reduction of severe intraventricular hemorrhage, a tertiary single-center experience: incidence trends, associated risk factors, and hospital policy

OBJECTIVES

To determine the incidence, trends, maternal and neonatal risk factors of severe intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH) among infants born 24-32 weeks and/or < 1500 g, and to evaluate the impact of changing of hospital policies and unit clinical practice on the IVH incidence.

STUDY DESIGN

Retrospective chart review of preterm infants with a gestational age (GA) of 24-32⁶ weeks and/or weight of < 1500 g born at King Abdulaziz Medical City-Riyadh (KAMC-R), Saudi Arabia, from 2016 to 2018. Multivariate logistic regression model was constructed to determine the probability of developing severe IVH and identify associations with maternal and neonatal risk factors.

RESULTS

Among 640 infants, the overall incidence of severe IVH was 6.4% (41 infants), and its rate decreased significantly, from 9.4% in 2016 to 4.5% and 5% in 2017 and 2018 (p = 0.044). Multivariate analysis revealed that caesarian section delivery decreased the risk of severe IVH in GA group 24-27 weeks (p = 0.045). Furthermore use of inotropes (p = 0.0004) and surfactant (p = 0.0003) increased the risk of severe IVH. Despite increasing use of inotropes (p = 0.024), surfactant therapy (p = 0.034), and need for delivery room intubation (p = 0.015), there was a significant reduction in the incidence of severe IVH following the change in unit clinical practice and hospital policy (p = 0.007).

CONCLUSION

Cesarean section was associated with decreased all grades of IVH and severe IVH, while use of inotropes was associated with increased severe IVH. The changes in hospital and unit policy were correlated with decreased IVH during the study period.

Imaging of the Newborn Brain

Neuroimaging enables the evaluation of many aspects of brain maturation, and detection of abnormalities such as malformation and injury. MRI is integral to the diagnostic work-up of congenital and acquired disorders of the central nervous system in newborns, and imaging findings are central to prognostication. This paper reviews techniques to optimize assessment of maturity of the neonatal brain, as well as abnormalities and injuries of the newborn brain that are associated with abnormal neurocognitive development.

Altered Functional Brain Network Integration, Segregation, and Modularity in Infants Born Very Preterm at Term-Equivalent Age

OBJECTIVES

To determine the functional network organization of the brain in infants born very preterm at term-equivalent age and to relate network alterations to known clinical risk factors for poor neurologic outcomes in prematurity.

STUDY DESIGN

Resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging data from 66 infants born very preterm (gestational age <32 weeks and birth weight <1500 g) and 66 healthy neonates born at full term, acquired as part of a prospective, cross-sectional study, were compared at term age using graph theory. Features of resting-state networks, including integration, segregation, and modularity, were derived from correlated hemodynamic activity arising from 93 cortical and subcortical regions of interest and compared between groups.

RESULTS

Despite preserved small-world topology and modular organization, resting-state networks of infants born very preterm at term-equivalent age were less segregated and less integrated than those of infants born full term. Chronic respiratory illness (ie, bronchopulmonary dysplasia and the length of oxygen support) was associated with decreased global efficiency and increased path lengths (P < .05). In both cohorts, 4 functional modules with similar composition were observed (parietal/temporal, frontal, subcortical/limbic, and occipital). The density of connections in 3 of the 4 modules was decreased in the very preterm network (P < .01); however, in the occipital/visual cortex module, connectivity was increased in infants born very preterm relative to control infants (P < .0001).

CONCLUSIONS

Early exposure to the ex utero environment is associated with altered resting-state network functional organization in infants born very preterm at term-equivalent age, likely reflecting disrupted brain maturational processes.

Early inotropes use is associated with higher risk of death and/or severe brain injury in extremely premature infants

Introduction: Extremely premature infants are susceptible to fluctuations in cerebral blood flow due to immaturity of cerebral autoregulation. Inotropes may cause rapid changes to systemic blood pressure and consequently cerebral blood flow, especially within the first 72 hours of life. This period is recognized to carry the greatest risk for cerebral hemorrhage. This study evaluates the incidence of death and/or severe brain injury in extremely preterm infants treated with inotropes in the first 72 hours of life.Methods: Prospective cohort study of infants born ≤29⁺⁰ weeks gestational age (GA) between January 2013 and December 2016. Severe brain injury was defined based on head ultrasound as presence of: grade III or IV intraventricular hemorrhage (IVH), moderate to severe post-hemorrhagic ventricular dilatation (PHVD), or cystic periventricular leukomalacia (cPVL). The association between inotrope use and death and/or brain injury was explored via logistic regression controlling for predefined confounding risk factors.Results: Of 497 eligible infants, 97 (19.5%) received inotropes during the first 72 hours. GA at birth, birth weight (BW), and 5-minute Apgar scores were lower among infants who received early inotropes compared to those not treated with inotropes. A stepwise logistic regression of the predefined confounding factors showed GA, exposure for antenatal steroids, and admission hypothermia to be significant confounding factors. Adjusting for those factors, early use of inotropes was associated with increased risk of death and/or severe brain injury (AOR 4.5; 95%CI: 2.4-8.5), severe brain injury (AOR 4.2; 95% CI: 1.9-8.9), and IVH of any grade (AOR 2.9; 95%CI: 1.7-4.9).Conclusion: Early inotropes use was associated with higher risk of death and/or severe brain injury. Strict indications and strategies for minimizing inotrope use while preventing hypotension should be implemented in the early postnatal care of infants at risk for severe brain injury.

Cerebral Perfusion Is Perturbed by Preterm Birth and Brain Injury

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Early disturbances in systemic and cerebral hemodynamics are thought to mediate prematurity-related brain injury. However, the extent to which CBF is perturbed by preterm birth is unknown. Our aim was to compare global and regional CBF in preterm infants with and without brain injury on conventional MR imaging using arterial spin-labeling during the third trimester of ex utero life and to examine the relationship between clinical risk factors and CBF.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We prospectively enrolled preterm infants younger than 32 weeks' gestational age and <1500 g and performed arterial spin-labeling MR imaging studies. Global and regional CBF in the cerebral cortex, thalami, pons, and cerebellum was quantified. Preterm infants were stratified into those with and without structural brain injury. We further categorized preterm infants by brain injury severity: moderate-severe and mild.

RESULTS

We studied 78 preterm infants: 31 without brain injury and 47 with brain injury (29 with mild and 18 with moderate-severe injury). Global CBF showed a borderline significant increase with increasing gestational age at birth (P = .05) and trended lower in preterm infants with brain injury (P = .07). Similarly, regional CBF was significantly lower in the right thalamus and midpons (P < .05) and trended lower in the midtemporal, left thalamus, and anterior vermis regions (P < .1) in preterm infants with brain injury. Regional CBF in preterm infants with moderate-severe brain injury trended lower in the midpons, right cerebellar hemisphere, and dentate nuclei compared with mild brain injury (P < .1). In addition, a significant, lower regional CBF was associated with ventilation, sepsis, and cesarean delivery (P < .05).

CONCLUSIONS

We report early disturbances in global and regional CBF in preterm infants following brain injury. Regional cerebral perfusion alterations were evident in the thalamus and pons, suggesting regional vulnerability of the developing cerebro-cerebellar circuitry.

Regional microstructural organization of the cerebral cortex is affected by preterm birth

Objectives

To compare regional cerebral cortical microstructural organization between preterm infants at term-equivalent age (TEA) and healthy full-term newborns, and to examine the impact of clinical risk factors on cerebral cortical micro-organization in the preterm cohort.

Study design

We prospectively enrolled very preterm infants (gestational age (GA) at birth<32 weeks; birthweight<1500 g) and healthy full-term controls. Using non-invasive 3T diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) metrics, we quantified regional micro-organization in ten cerebral cortical areas: medial/dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, anterior/posterior cingulate cortex, insula, posterior parietal cortex, motor/somatosensory/auditory/visual cortex. ANCOVA analyses were performed controlling for sex and postmenstrual age at MRI.

Results

We studied 91 preterm infants at TEA and 69 full-term controls. Preterm infants demonstrated significantly higher diffusivity in the prefrontal, parietal, motor, somatosensory, and visual cortices suggesting delayed maturation of these cortical areas. Additionally, postnatal hydrocortisone treatment was related to accelerated microstructural organization in the prefrontal and somatosensory cortices.

Conclusions

Preterm birth alters regional microstructural organization of the cerebral cortex in both neurocognitive brain regions and areas with primary sensory/motor functions. We also report for the first time a potential protective effect of postnatal hydrocortisone administration on cerebral cortical development in preterm infants.