Possible roles of HLA-G regulating immune cells in pregnancy and endometrial diseases via KIR2DL4

Endocytosis at the maternal-fetal interface: balancing nutrient transport and pathogen defense

Endocytosis represents a category of regulated active transport mechanisms. These encompass clathrin-dependent and -independent mechanisms, as well as fluid phase micropinocytosis and macropinocytosis, each demonstrating varying degrees of specificity and capacity. Collectively, these mechanisms facilitate the internalization of cargo into cellular vesicles. Pregnancy is one such physiological state during which endocytosis may play critical roles. A successful pregnancy necessitates ongoing communication between maternal and fetal cells at the maternal-fetal interface to ensure immunologic tolerance for the semi-allogenic fetus whilst providing adequate protection against infection from pathogens, such as viruses and bacteria. It also requires transport of nutrients across the maternal-fetal interface, but restriction of potentially harmful chemicals and drugs to allow fetal development. In this context, trogocytosis, a specific form of endocytosis, plays a crucial role in immunological tolerance and infection prevention. Endocytosis is also thought to play a significant role in nutrient and toxin handling at the maternal-fetal interface, though its mechanisms remain less understood. A comprehensive understanding of endocytosis and its mechanisms not only enhances our knowledge of maternal-fetal interactions but is also essential for identifying the pathogenesis of pregnancy pathologies and providing new avenues for therapeutic intervention.

Bioinformatic Analysis of the Significance of the KIR2DL4 Gene in Recurrent Implantation Failure

Related studies have pointed out that Killer immunoglobulin-like receptor 2DL4 (KIR2DL4) was associated with vascular remodeling in early pregnancy, and it might play an important role in immunity. In this study, recurrent implantation failure (RIF)-related GSE58144 dataset was extracted from the Gene Expression Omnibus (GEO) database. Firstly, the immune micro-environment analyses were conducted to analyze the pathogenesis of KIR2DL4 in RIF. Then, the gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) was performed to investigate the function of KIR2DL4. Moreover, the TF-mRNA-miRNA and the co-expression networks were constructed to reveal the potential regulation of KIR2DL4. Furthermore, the genes that were associated with KIR2DL4 and differentially expressed in RIF were obtained and defined as key genes, and the functions of these genes were further explored. KIR2DL4 could be used for clinical diagnosis of RIF, and it was correlated with the changes in the immune micro-environment in RIF. From the perspective of function, KIR2DL4 was associated with complement and coagulation cascades, natural killer cell-mediated cytotoxicity, etc. Moreover, the TF-mRNA-miRNA regulatory network was constructed with KIR2DL4, 9 TFs, and 29 miRNAs. Furthermore, KIR2DL4, ACSM1, IL2RB, and PTPN11 were screened as key genes, which were associated with immune-related functions. This study deeply analyzed the function of KIR2DL4 and its role in RIF, and we found that STAT1 might up-regulate KIR2DL4 by INF-γ/JAK2/STAT1 signaling pathway. Besides, over-expressed KIR2DL4 in the mid-luteal endometrium might influence embryo implantation by affecting the embryo implantation microenvironment, which might help deepen the understanding of the molecular mechanism of RIF.

HLA-G isoforms, HLA-C allotype and their expressions differ between early abortus and placenta in relation to spontaneous abortions

INTRODUCTION

Spontaneous abortion (SAB) affects approximately 10% of clinically recognized pregnancies. Fetal trophobalst invasion and remodeling of maternal spiral arteries is reported to be dependent on crosstalk between HLA-C/HLA-G expressed on extra villous trophoblast (EVTs)and Killer cell Immunoglobin like receptors (KIRs) of decidual NK (dNK). Immune dysfunction in decidua contributes to early miscarriage.

METHODOLOGY

The study used mother neonate paired cord blood and term placenta samples (n = 46), elective abortus (n = 17,gestational age = 10-12 weeks of pregnancy) and SAB abortus (n = 24, gestational age = 12-15 weeks of pregnancy) for HLA-G, KIR2D and HLA-C. In addition, term placenta was collected from women with history of spontaneous pregnancy loss (n = 24) and women with history of live birth (n = 32). SSP-PCR was used for genotyping, RT-PCR for gene expression, copy number variation (CNVs) and HLA-C allotyping and ELISA for protein expression studies.

RESULTS

Membrane bound HLA-G4 isoform proportion was higher 39.28%, p = 0.02) in term placenta. SAB abortus had higher proportion of HLA-G3 (50%),while elective abortus exhibited higher proportion of soluble isoforms (HLA-G5, = 5.9, HLA-G6 = 5.9%, HLA-G7 = 11.8%). Higher inhibitory KIR2DL1 content and copy numbers with lower HLA-C2 in SAB contrasted with higher copy numbers of KIR2DS1(p = 0.001), KIR2DS1+/2DL1+- HLA-C2 combined genotype in healthy placenta. Elevated KIR2D protein levels (p = 0.001), and concurrently, HLA-C levels were upregulated in healthy placenta.

CONCLUSION

Our data supports lower cognate receptor ligand KIR2DS1+/2DL1+ HLA-C2 together with predominance of HLA-G3 isoform in SAB as confounding factors in spontaneous pregnancy loss. HLA-G isoforms and expression differed between first trimester abortus and term placenta suggesting temporal modulation and marks novelty of the study.

HLA-F and LILRB1 Genetic Polymorphisms Associated with Alloimmunisation in Sickle Cell Disease

Red blood cell (RBC) transfusion remains a critical component in caring for the acute and chronic complications of sickle cell disease (SCD). Patient alloimmunisation is the main limitation of transfusion, which can worsen anaemia and lead to delayed haemolytic transfusion reaction or transfusion deadlock. Although biological risk factors have been identified for immunisation, patient alloimmunisation remains difficult to predict. We aimed to characterise genetic alloimmunisation factors to optimise the management of blood products compatible with extended antigen matching to ensure the self-sufficiency of labile blood products. Considering alloimmunisation in other clinical settings, like pregnancy and transplantation, many studies have shown that HLA Ib molecules (HLA-G, -E, and -F) are involved in tolerance mechanism; these molecules are ligands of immune effector cell receptors (LILRB1, LILRB2, and KIR3DS1). Genetic polymorphisms of these ligands and receptors have been linked to their expression levels and their influence on inflammatory and immune response modulation. Our hypothesis was that polymorphisms of HLA Ib genes and of their receptors are associated with alloimmunisation susceptibility in SCD patients. The alloimmunisation profile of thirty-seven adult SCD patients was analysed according to these genetic polymorphisms and transfusion history. Our results suggest that the alloimmunisation of SCD patients is linked to both HLA-F and LILRB1 genetic polymorphisms located in their regulatory region and associated with their protein expression level.

Determination of soluble HLA-G serum levels in patients with adenomyosis and uterine fibroids before and after surgery

Adenomyosis is a benign gynaecological disease caused by the growth of endometrial tissue in the myometrium that affects approximately 30 % of child-bearing-age women. We evaluated the levels of soluble human leukocyte antigen G (sHLA-G) in the serum of patients with adenomyosis before and after treatment. Serum samples of 34 patients with adenomyosis and 31 patients with uterine fibroids were collected before and after the operation and were analysed for sHLA-G levels byELISAassay. The preoperative levels of serum sHLA-G in the adenomyosis group (28.05 ± 2.466 ng/ml) were significantly higher than those in the uterine fibroid group (18.53 ± 1.435 ng/ml) (P < 0.05). Serum sHLA-G levels in the adenomyosis group showed a decreasing trend at different time points after surgery (28.05 ± 14.38 ng/ml, 18.41 ± 8.34 ng/ml, and 14.45 ± 5.77 ng/ml). Adenomyosis patients who underwent total hysterectomy (n = 20) had a more significant decrease in sHLA-G levels in the early postoperative period (2 days post-operative) than those who underwent partial hysterectomy (n = 14). These results suggest that immunologic dysfunctions may be detected in patients with adenomyosis.

Functional prominence of natural killer cells and natural killer T cells in pregnancy and infertility: A comprehensive review and update

During pregnancy, complicated connections are formed between a mother and a fetus. In a successful pregnancy, the maternal-fetal interface is affected by dynamic changes, and the fetus is protected against the mother's immune system. Natural killer (NK) cells are one of the immune system cells in the female reproductive system that play an essential role in the physiology of pregnancy. NK cells not only exist in peripheral blood (PB) but also can exist in the decidua. Studies have suggested multiple roles for these cells, including decidualization, control of trophoblast growth and invasion, embryo acceptance and maintenance by the mother, and facilitation of placental development during pregnancy. Natural killer T (NKT) cells are another group of NK cells that play a crucial role in the maintenance of pregnancy and regulation of the immune system during pregnancy. Studies show that NK and NKT cells are not only effective in maintaining pregnancy but also can be involved in infertility-related diseases. This review focuses on NK and NKT cells biology and provides a detailed description of the functions of these cells in implantation, placentation, and immune tolerance during pregnancy and their role in pregnancy complications.

Strategies to induce natural killer cell tolerance in xenotransplantation

Eliminating major xenoantigens in pig cells has drastically reduced human antibody-mediated hyperacute xenograft rejection (HXR). Despite these advancements, acute xenograft rejection (AXR) remains one of the major obstacles to clinical xenotransplantation, mediated by innate immune cells, including macrophages, neutrophils, and natural killer (NK) cells. NK cells play an ‘effector’ role by releasing cytotoxicity granules against xenogeneic cells and an ‘affecter’ role on other immune cells through cytokine secretion. We highlight the key receptor-ligand interactions that determine the NK cell response to target cells, focusing on the regulation of NK cell activating receptor (NKG2D, DNAM1) and inhibitory receptor (KIR2DL1-4, NKG2A, and LIR-1) signaling pathways. Inhibition of NK cell activity may protect xenografts from cytotoxicity. Recent successful approaches to reducing NK cell-mediated HXR and AXR are reviewed, including genetic modifications of porcine xenografts aimed at improving pig-to-human compatibility. Future directions to promote xenograft acceptance are discussed, including NK cell tolerance in pregnancy and NK cell evasion in viral infection.

Biological Characteristics of HLA-G and Its Role in Solid Organ Transplantation

Organ transplantation is a lifesaving option for patients with advanced diseases. Rejection is regarded as one of the most severe risk factors post-transplantation. A molecule that contributes to immune tolerance and resisting rejection is human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-G, which belongs to the non-classical major histocompatibility complex class (MHC) I family. HLA-G was originally found to play a role during pregnancy to maintain immune tolerance between mother and child. It is expressed in the placenta and detected in several body fluids as soluble factor as well as different membrane isoforms on cells. Recent findings on HLA-G show that it can also play multifaceted roles during transplantation. This review will explain the general characteristics and biological function of HLA-G and summarize the views supporting the tolerogenic and other roles of HLA-G to better understand its role in solid organ transplantation (SOT) and its complications. Finally, we will discuss potential future research on the role of HLA-G in prevention, diagnosis, and treatment in SOT.

The mystery of the life tree: the placenta

The placenta is the interface between the fetal and maternal environments during mammalian gestation, critically safeguarding the health of the developing fetus and the mother. Placental trophoblasts origin from embryonic trophectoderm that differentiates into various trophoblastic subtypes through villous and extravillous pathways. The trophoblasts actively interact with multiple decidual cells and immune cells at the maternal-fetal interface and thus construct fundamental functional units, which are responsible for blood perfusion, maternal-fetal material exchange, placental endocrine, immune tolerance, and adequate defense barrier against pathogen infection. Various pregnant complications are tightly associated with the defects in placental development and function maintenance. In this review, we summarize the current views and our recent progress on the mechanisms underlying the formation of placental functional units, the interactions among trophoblasts and various uterine cells, as well as the placental barrier against pathogen infections during pregnancy. The involvement of placental dysregulation in adverse pregnancy outcomes is discussed.

HLA-G/sHLA-G and HLA-G-Bearing Extracellular Vesicles in Cancers: Potential Role as Biomarkers

As a non-classic major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I molecule, human leukocyte antigen G (HLA-G) is expressed in fetal-maternal interface and immunoprivileged site only in healthy condition, and in pathological conditions such as cancer, it can be de novo expressed. It is now widely accepted that HLA-G is a key molecule in the process of immune escape of cancer cells, which is ubiquitously expressed in the tumor environment. This raises the possibility that it may play an adverse role in tumor immunity. The expression level of HLA-G has been demonstrated to be highly correlated with clinical parameters in many tumors, and its potential significance in the diagnosis and prognosis of cancer has been postulated. However, because HLA-G itself has up to seven different subtypes, and for some subtypes, detected antibodies are few or absent, it is hard to evaluate the actual expression of HLA-G in tumors. In the present work, we described (a) the structure and three main forms of HLA-G, (b) summarized the mechanism of HLA-G in the immune escape of tumor cells, (c) discussed the potential role of HLA-G as a tumor marker, and reviewed (d) the methods for detecting and quantifying HLA-G.

HLA-G: An Important Mediator of Maternal-Fetal Immune-Tolerance

Maternal-fetal immune-tolerance occurs throughout the whole gestational trimester, thus a mother can accept a genetically distinct fetus without immunological aggressive behavior. HLA-G, one of the non-classical HLA class I molecules, is restricted-expression at extravillous trophoblast. It can concordantly interact with various kinds of receptors mounted on maternally immune cells residing in the uterus (e.g. CD4+ T cells, CD8+ T cells, natural killer cells, macrophages, and dendritic cells) for maintaining immune homeostasis of the maternal-fetus interface. HLA-G is widely regarded as the pivotal protective factor for successful pregnancies. In the past 20 years, researches associated with HLA-G have been continually published. Indeed, HLA-G plays a mysterious role in the mechanism of maternal-fetal immune-tolerance. It can also be ectopically expressed on tumor cells, infected sites and other pathologic microenvironments to confer a significant local tolerance. Understanding the characteristics of HLA-G in immunologic tolerance is not only beneficial for pathological pregnancy, but also helpful to the therapy of other immune-related diseases, such as organ transplant rejection, tumor migration, and autoimmune disease. In this review, we describe the biological properties of HLA-G, then summarize our understanding of the mechanisms of fetomaternal immunologic tolerance and the difference from transplant tolerance. Furthermore, we will discuss how HLA-G contributes to the tolerogenic microenvironment during pregnancy. Finally, we hope to find some new aspects of HLA-G in fundamental research or clinical application for the future.

Novel nucleic acid aptamer gold (Au)-nanoparticles (AuNPs-AptHLA-G5-1 and AuNPs-AptHLA-G5-2) to detect the soluble human leukocyte antigen G5 subtype (HLA-G5) in liquid samples

Background

The human leukocyte antigen G5 subtype (HLA-G5) is a major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecule that is selectively expressed at the maternal-foetal tissue interface and is required for the successful implantation of the in vitro fertilized embryo. It is critical to detect HLA-G5, especially HLA-G5 expression in embryo fluid, during in vitro embryo incubation and culture. However, the specificity and sensitivity of traditional ELISA methods to detect sHLA-G5 are insufficient. This work aimed to explore novel nucleic acid aptamer gold (Au)-nanoparticles to detect soluble HLA-G5 in liquid samples.

Methods

Soluble HLA-G5 was obtained using a prokaryotic expression system, and two novel aptamers (HLA-G5-Apt1 and HLA-G5-Apt2) detecting HLA-G5 were screened by the Systematic Evolution of Ligands by Exponential Enrichment (SELEX) method. Small (10 nm) gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) were incubated with AptHLAs to form two novel nucleic acid aptamers: Au-nanoparticles (AuNPs-AptHLA-G5-1 and AuNPs-AptHLA-G5-2).

Results

The results showed that AptHLA-G5-1 and AptHLA-G5-2 have a high affinity for HLA-G5 and can detect its presence in liquid samples. Using the colorimetric sensing method, AuNPs-AptHLA-G1 had a detection limit as low as 20 ng/mL (recovery range between 98.7% to 102.0%), while AuNPs-AptHLA-G2 had a detection limit as low as 20 ng/mL (recovery range between 98.9% to 103.6%).

Conclusions

Our work demonstrates that novel AuNPs are efficient detectors for HLA-G5 and are useful for diagnosis and treatment in the field of obstetrics-gynaecology.

NK-92 cells change their phenotype and function when cocultured with IL-15, IL-18 and trophoblast cells

NK cell development is affected by their cellular microenvironment and cytokines, including IL-15 and IL-18. NK cells can differentiate in secondary lymphoid organs, liver and within the uterus in close contact with trophoblast cells. The aim was to evaluate changes in the NK cell phenotype and function in the presence of IL-15, IL-18 and JEG-3, a trophoblast cell line. When cocultured with JEG-3 cells, IL-15 caused an increase in the number of NKG2D+ NK-92 cells and the intensity of CD127 expression. IL-18 stimulates an increase in the amount of NKp44+ NK-92 cells and in the intensity of NKp44 expression by pNK in the presence of trophoblast cells. NK-92 cell cytotoxic activity against JEG-3 cells increased only in presence of IL-18. Data on changes in the cytotoxic activity of NK-92 cells against JEG-3 cells in the presence of IL-15 and IL-18 indicate the modulation of NK cell function both by the cytokine microenvironment and directly by target cells. IL-15 and IL-18 were present in conditioned media (CM) from 1st and 3rd trimester placentas. In the presence of 1st trimester CM and JEG-3 cells, NK-92 cells showed an increase in the intensity of NKG2D expression. In the presence of 3rd trimester CM and JEG-3 cells, a decrease in the expression of NKG2D by NK-92 cells was observed. Thus, culturing of NK-92 cells with JEG-3 trophoblast cells stimulated a pronounced change in the NK cell phenotype, bringing it closer to the decidual NK cell-like phenotype.

A Brief Analysis of Tissue-Resident NK Cells in Pregnancy and Endometrial Diseases: The Importance of Pharmacologic Modulation

NK cells are lymphocytes involved in the innate and adaptative immune response. These cells are located in peripheral blood and tissues with ample functions, from immune vigilant to tolerogenic reactions. In the endometrium, NK cell populations vary depending on age, hormones, and inflammation. When pregnancy occurs, tissue-resident NK cells and conventional NK cells are recruited to protect the fetus, a tolerogenic response. On the contrary, in the inflamed endometrium, various inflammatory cells down-regulate NK tolerance and impair embryo implantation. Therefore, NK cells’ pharmacological modulation is difficult to achieve. Several strategies have been used, from progesterone, lipid emulsions to steroids; the success has not been as expected. However, new therapeutic approaches have been proposed to decrease the endometrial inflammatory burden and increase pregnancy success based on understanding NK cell physiology.

Immunomodulating functions of human leukocyte antigen-G and its role in graft-versus-host disease after allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation

Allogeneic hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (allo-HSCT) is a potentially curative therapeutic strategy to treat several hematological malignancies and non-hematological malignancies. However, graft-versus-host disease (GVHD) is a frequent and serious transplant-related complication which dramatically restrains the curative effect of allo-HSCT and a significant cause of morbidity and mortality in allogeneic HCT recipients. Effective prevention of GVHD mainly depends on the induction of peripheral immune tolerance. Human leukocyte antigen-G (HLA-G) is a non-classical MHC class I molecule with a strong immunosuppressive function, which plays a prominent role in immune tolerance. HLA-G triggers different reactions depending on the activation state of the immune cells and system. It also exerts a long-term immune tolerance mechanism by inducing regulatory cells. In this present review, we demonstrate the immunomodulatory properties of human leukocyte antigen-G and highlight the role of HLA-G as an immune regulator of GVHD. Furthermore, HLA-G could also serve as a good predictor of GVHD and represent a new therapeutic target for GVHD.

Crosstalk Between Trophoblasts and Decidual Immune Cells: The Cornerstone of Maternal-Fetal Immunotolerance

The success of pregnancy relies on the fine adjustment of the maternal immune system to tolerate the allogeneic fetus. Trophoblasts carrying paternal antigens are the only fetal-derived cells that come into direct contact with the maternal immune cells at the maternal–fetal interface. The crosstalk between trophoblasts and decidual immune cells (DICs) via cell–cell direct interaction and soluble factors such as chemokines and cytokines is a core event contributing to the unique immunotolerant microenvironment. Abnormal trophoblasts–DICs crosstalk can lead to dysregulated immune situations, which is well known to be a potential cause of a series of pregnancy complications including recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA), which is the most common one. Immunotherapy has been applied to RSA. However, its development has been far less rapid or mature than that of cancer immunotherapy. Elucidating the mechanism of maternal–fetal immune tolerance, the theoretical basis for RSA immunotherapy, not only helps to understand the establishment and maintenance of normal pregnancy but also provides new therapeutic strategies and promotes the progress of immunotherapy against pregnancy-related diseases caused by disrupted immunotolerance. In this review, we focus on recent progress in the maternal–fetal immune tolerance mediated by trophoblasts–DICs crosstalk and clinical application of immunotherapy in RSA. Advancement in this area will further accelerate the basic research and clinical transformation of reproductive immunity and tumor immunity.

Roles of HLA-G in the Maternal-Fetal Immune Microenvironment

During pregnancy, the maternal uterus and fetus form a special microenvironment at the maternal-fetal interface to support fetal development. Extravillous trophoblasts (EVTs), differentiated from the fetus, invade into the decidua and interact with maternal cells. Human leukocyte antigen (HLA)-G is a non-classical MHC-I molecule that is expressed abundantly and specifically on EVTs in physiological conditions. Soluble HLA-G (sHLA-G) is also found in maternal blood, amniotic fluid, and cord blood. The abnormal expression and polymorphisms of HLA-G are related to adverse pregnancy outcomes such as preeclampsia (PE) and recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA). Here we summarize current findings about three main roles of HLA-G during pregnancy, namely its promotion of spiral artery remodeling, immune tolerance, and fetal growth, all resulting from its interaction with immune cells. These findings are not only of great significance for the treatment of pregnancy-related diseases but also provide clues to tumor immunology research since HLA-G functions as a checkpoint in tumors.