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Brown GA, Jones M, Cole B, Shawdon A, Duffield R. Self-Reported Menstrual Health, Symptomatology, and Perceived Effects of the Menstrual Cycle for Elite Junior and Senior Football Players. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2024; 19:1012-1020. [PMID: 39089677 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2023-0522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2023] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/16/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
PURPOSE To describe the self-reported menstrual health, symptomatology, and perceived effects of the menstrual cycle on athletic performance for national and international Australian football (soccer) players. METHODS Players from national and domestic teams were invited to complete an online questionnaire regarding menstrual health, use of hormonal contraceptives (HCs), negative symptomatology, and perceived disruption of the menstrual cycle to performance. Descriptive statistics and binomial regressions with odds ratios (OR) were used to report the relationship of menstrual-related variables with perceived performance disruption. RESULTS A total of 199 players (20.9 [5.1] y) completed the questionnaire, with 18% of players reporting using HCs. One primary amenorrhea case was detected, and 26% of players reported menarche at age ≥15 years. For non-HC users, the prevalence of secondary amenorrhea was 2%, oligomenorrhea was 19%, and heavy menstrual bleeding was 11%. Ninety-seven percent of players reported experiencing physical or affective menstrual symptoms (5 [1.3] per player), and 40% of all players reported that menstrual symptoms impacted their ability to work, study, train, or compete. Furthermore, 40% of players perceived their training or performance to be disrupted by the menstrual cycle. Increasing number of menstrual symptoms (OR = 1.43; 95% CI, 1.28-1.62; P < .001), heavy menstrual bleeding (OR = 12.73; 95% CI, 3.4-82.8; P < .001), and pelvic pain (OR = 3.40; 95% CI, 1.7-7.2; P < .001) increased the likelihood of perceiving the menstrual cycle to disrupt performance. CONCLUSION Heavy menstrual bleeding and HC use were low among this cohort of national and international footballers, whereas amenorrhea and oligomenorrhoea were comparable with other football populations. Nearly all players reported menstrual symptoms, and increased symptomatology was associated with greater perceived effects on performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgia A Brown
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
- Football Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Mark Jones
- Football Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | | | - Anik Shawdon
- Australian Professional Leagues, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Rob Duffield
- School of Sport, Exercise and Rehabilitation, Faculty of Health, University of Technology Sydney, Ultimo, NSW, Australia
- Football Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
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Williams N, Griffin G, Wall M, Bradfield Z. The sexual and reproductive health knowledge of women in Australia: A scoping review. Health Promot J Austr 2024. [PMID: 39097983 DOI: 10.1002/hpja.908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2023] [Revised: 05/28/2024] [Accepted: 07/18/2024] [Indexed: 08/06/2024] Open
Abstract
ISSUE ADDRESSED Sexual and reproductive health (SRH) knowledge influences health literacy and promotes positive health behaviours. This scoping review explores the SRH knowledge of women in Australia and reports on knowledge assessment, ways of learning, enablers and barriers, and interventions to improve knowledge. METHODS Seven databases were searched for eligible articles published in English between 2012 and 2022. RESULTS Eighty-five sources were included for analysis. Data were mapped by knowledge topic and population group and charted against four review objectives. Assessment of knowledge was the primary focus in 59% of sources. Two sources used a validated knowledge assessment tool. Knowledge was assessed using self-assessment, a measurement of correctness, or both. Women learnt about SRH through a range of sources, including healthcare providers, peers, family, internet, and school. Enablers and barriers spanned information content, delivery, timing, accessibility, interactions with those providing information, cultural and gendered norms, pre-migration experiences, and functional health literacy. Nine sources reported on interventions to facilitate SRH knowledge. CONCLUSIONS This review identified topics, population groups, and gaps in assessment of SRH knowledge of women in Australia. Overall, the measurement of women's SRH knowledge is largely conducted using unvalidated tools focusing on specific topics. SO WHAT?: It is recommended a validated tool be developed to comprehensively assess the SRH knowledge of women in Australia allowing for intersectional population analysis and exploration of knowledge conceptualisation. This would enable assessment of interventions aiming to improve SRH knowledge thereby facilitating improved health literacy and outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalie Williams
- Department of Nursing and Midwifery Education and Research, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Subiaco, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Nursing, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Georgia Griffin
- Department of Nursing and Midwifery Education and Research, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Subiaco, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Megan Wall
- Department of Nursing and Midwifery Education and Research, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Subiaco, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Zoe Bradfield
- Department of Nursing and Midwifery Education and Research, King Edward Memorial Hospital, Subiaco, Western Australia, Australia
- School of Nursing, Curtin University, Bentley, Western Australia, Australia
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Hunt KN, Kelly AG, Faubion L, Melikian R, Pearson C, Plowden TC, Files JA, Chamorro Dauer LV, Marshall AL, Blakemore JK. Fertility Knowledge and Educational Experiences of Graduating Medical Students: A Multi-Institution Survey. J Womens Health (Larchmt) 2024; 33:1095-1101. [PMID: 38578025 DOI: 10.1089/jwh.2023.1016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/06/2024] Open
Abstract
Objective: Our goal was to assess the fertility knowledge and educational experiences of graduating U.S. medical students to evaluate areas of improvement for future educational interventions. Design: Web-based cross-sectional survey. Subjects: Medical students graduating in 2023 from the University of Miami Miller School of Medicine (SOM), New York University (NYU) Grossman SOM, Wayne State University SOM, Perelman SOM at the University of Pennsylvania, and Mayo Clinic Alix SOM. Main Outcome Measures: Fertility-related knowledge and educational experiences of U.S. medical students in their final year of school. Results: In total, 117 students (14.4%) completed the survey. The average knowledge score was 78%. Twenty-three (22%) overestimated the age of most precipitous fertility decline, and 50 (52%) overestimated the chance of getting pregnant for a 40-year-old person with ovaries. One-third of students (30, 32%) incorrectly believe that physicians have equivalent infertility rates to the general population. Students were less cognizant of male fertility issues, incorrectly believing there was no negative impact on male fertility by age (43, 42%) among other factors. Seventy-five (81%) reported less than 5 hours of fertility-related education in medical school. Only one-third (32%) were satisfied or very satisfied with the fertility education they received. In an open-response question, students expressed interest in additional education on transgender and cancer patient care, fertility preservation, assisted reproductive technologies, and reproductive life planning in medicine. Conclusions: There is a need and an opportunity for medical education programs to enhance fertility education. Giving students and trainees the knowledge required to make informed decisions for their family-building purposes and improving their ability to counsel patients adequately should be a goal of future educational endeavors. The data collected in this study will serve as a guide for the development of fertility-related learning modules for medical students and trainees.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelby N Hunt
- University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Amelia G Kelly
- NYU Langone Fertility Center, NYU Langone Health, New York, New York, USA
| | - Laura Faubion
- Mayo Clinic Alix School of Medicine, Rochester, Minnesota, USA
| | | | - Claire Pearson
- Department of Emergency Medicine, Wayne State University, Detroit, Michigan, USA
| | - Torie C Plowden
- Department of Gynecologic Surgery and Obstetrics, USU, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Julia A Files
- Department of Medicine, Mayo Clinic, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA
| | - Laura V Chamorro Dauer
- Department of Pediatrics, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Ariela L Marshall
- Department of Hematology, Oncology, and Transplantation, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, Minnesota, USA
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Oester C, Norris D, Scott D, Pedlar C, Bruinvels G, Lovell R. Inconsistencies in the perceived impact of the menstrual cycle on sport performance and in the prevalence of menstrual cycle symptoms: A scoping review of the literature. J Sci Med Sport 2024; 27:373-384. [PMID: 38508888 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2024.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2023] [Revised: 02/16/2024] [Accepted: 02/29/2024] [Indexed: 03/22/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES This scoping review aimed to summarize the findings of studies regarding the perceived impact of the menstrual cycle on athletic performance, as well as the prevalence of negative menstrual cycle symptoms. DESIGN Scoping review. METHODS Three databases were searched and the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic reviews and Meta Analyses extension for Scoping Reviews (PRISMA-ScR) was used as guidance. RESULTS A total of 39 studies were included in the final analysis. Between 2.8 and 100 % of athletes reported their performance being negatively impacted by their menstrual cycle, and the main reason was the occurrence of menstrual cycle symptoms. Additionally, a large variability in the prevalence of menstrual cycle symptoms was reported in the different studies mainly due to methodological differences and recall biases. CONCLUSIONS Similarly, as to what has been reported in reviews summarizing performance outcomes during different menstrual cycle phases, this review highlights the high degree of variability between how athletes perceive to be impacted by their menstrual/hormonal contraceptive cycle. REGISTRATION The protocol of this scoping review was registered at the Open Science Framework on 14 September 2023 (osf.io/efu9x).
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Affiliation(s)
- Chelsea Oester
- Western Sydney University, School of Health Sciences, Australia.
| | - Dean Norris
- Western Sydney University, School of Health Sciences, Australia. https://twitter.com/DNorrisSC
| | - Dawn Scott
- Washington Spirit, USA. https://twitter.com/DawnScott06
| | - Charles Pedlar
- St Mary's University, Faculty of Sport, Health and Applied Science, United Kingdom; National University of Ireland, Orreco Business Innovation Unit, Ireland; University College of London, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, United Kingdom. https://twitter.com/PedlarCR
| | - Georgie Bruinvels
- St Mary's University, Faculty of Sport, Health and Applied Science, United Kingdom; National University of Ireland, Orreco Business Innovation Unit, Ireland; University College of London, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, United Kingdom. https://twitter.com/GBruinvels
| | - Ric Lovell
- Western Sydney University, School of Health Sciences, Australia; University of Wollongong, Faculty of Science, Medicine and Health, Australia. https://twitter.com/Ric_Lovell
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Clarke A, Leabeater A, Suppiah H, Roberts A. The effectiveness of a short course to improve coaches' knowledge on considerations for female athletes. J Sports Sci 2024; 42:701-707. [PMID: 38832578 DOI: 10.1080/02640414.2024.2360839] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Accepted: 05/23/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024]
Abstract
This study aimed to assess the effectiveness of an online short course in improving the knowledge and confidence of coaching and support staff when working with female athletes. A mixed-methods survey design was used, where participants completed surveys pre-, post-, and 6 months following an 8-week online course. Qualitative responses were analysed inductively using thematic analysis based on two pre-identified themes. Of the 92 participants who completed both pre- and post-course surveys, 72% (n = 66) were female and 67% (n = 62) were from team sports. Perceived knowledge and confidence improved following the course (p < 0.001) and were above pre-course values 6-months post (p < 0.001). A-priori theme Course Expectations generated two sub-themes: 'Empowering [me] to empower and support [them]', and "Sharing knowledge and experiences". A-priori theme Changes in Practice had subthemes of "Relaxing into it" and "Embedding support structures". Participants indicated that they enjoyed learning from a variety of content experts as well as other participants in an online format. Future courses aimed at coaching/support staff should design and deliver accessible programs aligned with the learning preferences of these individuals. When delivering specific education regarding supporting female athletes, targeting and encouraging men to participate may be beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthea Clarke
- Sport, Performance, and Nutrition Research Group, School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Alana Leabeater
- Sport, Performance, and Nutrition Research Group, School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Haresh Suppiah
- Sport, Performance, and Nutrition Research Group, School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
| | - Alex Roberts
- Sport, Performance, and Nutrition Research Group, School of Allied Health, Human Services and Sport, La Trobe University, Bundoora, Australia
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Dupuit M, Meignié A, Chassard T, Blanquet L, LeHeran J, Delaunay T, Bernardeau E, Toussaint JF, Duclos M, Antero J. On-Field Methodological Approach to Monitor the Menstrual Cycle and Hormonal Phases in Elite Female Athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2023; 18:1169-1178. [PMID: 37666497 DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/15/2023] [Indexed: 09/06/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVES Currently, there are no guidelines for implementing the monitoring of menstrual status, including the natural menstrual cycle (NC) or oral contraception (OC), in a sport setting. We aimed to provide a feasible, on-field methodological approach for monitoring NC and OC in female athletes. METHODS We developed a smartphone app with daily questionnaires to monitor both NC and OC phases in 19 elite female soccer players (23.7 [4.4] y) over 7 months. Adherence and compliance were evaluated. The NC and OC phases were based on calendar data to establish an individual menstrual profile for each athlete. RESULTS The initial questionnaire revealed that the vast majority of female players (80%) were interested in monitoring their menstrual status. The online monitoring yielded high athlete adherence (87.0% [14.2%]) with a slight decrease over the winter break and at the end of the championship, which necessitated adaptations to promote compliance. Monitoring identified the specific menstrual pattern of each athlete and highlighted large interindividual variability. CONCLUSION This study assesses, for the first time, the interest of female players in monitoring their menstrual status. It provides a new methodological approach, as well as guidelines for optimizing on-field monitoring. It also anticipates some obstacles sport staff may encounter when trying to implement such follow-up. It is essential to better understand the menstrual profile of athletes and determine its potential impacts on well-being and performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marine Dupuit
- Laboratory of Metabolic Adaptations to Exercise Under Physiological and Pathological Conditions (AME2P), Université Clermont Auvergne (UCA), Clermont-Ferrand, France
- Institute for Research in Medicine and Epidemiology of Sports (IRMES, EA7329), INSEP, Paris, France
| | - Alice Meignié
- Institute for Research in Medicine and Epidemiology of Sports (IRMES, EA7329), INSEP, Paris, France
| | - Tom Chassard
- Institute for Research in Medicine and Epidemiology of Sports (IRMES, EA7329), INSEP, Paris, France
| | - Ludivine Blanquet
- Institute for Research in Medicine and Epidemiology of Sports (IRMES, EA7329), INSEP, Paris, France
| | | | | | | | - Jean-François Toussaint
- Institute for Research in Medicine and Epidemiology of Sports (IRMES, EA7329), INSEP, Paris, France
- CIMS, Hôtel-Dieu, Assistance Publique-Hôpitaux de Paris, Paris, France
- Université Paris Cité, Paris, France
| | - Martine Duclos
- Sport Medicine and Functional Explorations, University Hospital of Clermont-Ferrand (CHU), Clermont-Ferrand, France
- Unité de Nutrition Humaine (UNH), Université Clermont Auvergne (UCA), INRA, Clermont-Ferrand, France
| | - Juliana Antero
- Institute for Research in Medicine and Epidemiology of Sports (IRMES, EA7329), INSEP, Paris, France
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Ackerman KE, Rogers MA, Heikura IA, Burke LM, Stellingwerff T, Hackney AC, Verhagen E, Schley S, Saville GH, Mountjoy M, Holtzman B. Methodology for studying Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs): a narrative review by a subgroup of the International Olympic Committee (IOC) consensus on REDs. Br J Sports Med 2023; 57:1136-1147. [PMID: 37752010 DOI: 10.1136/bjsports-2023-107359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/18/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
In the past decade, the study of relationships among nutrition, exercise and the effects on health and athletic performance, has substantially increased. The 2014 introduction of Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs) prompted sports scientists and clinicians to investigate these relationships in more populations and with more outcomes than had been previously pursued in mostly white, adolescent or young adult, female athletes. Much of the existing physiology and concepts, however, are either based on or extrapolated from limited studies, and the comparison of studies is hindered by the lack of standardised protocols. In this review, we have evaluated and outlined current best practice methodologies to study REDs in an attempt to guide future research.This includes an agreement on the definition of key terms, a summary of study designs with appropriate applications, descriptions of best practices for blood collection and assessment and a description of methods used to assess specific REDs sequelae, stratified as either Preferred, Used and Recommended or Potential Researchers can use the compiled information herein when planning studies to more consistently select the proper tools to investigate their domain of interest. Thus, the goal of this review is to standardise REDs research methods to strengthen future studies and improve REDs prevention, diagnosis and care.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn E Ackerman
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Division of Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Margot Anne Rogers
- Australian Institute of Sport, Bruce, South Australia, Australia
- University of Canberra Research Institute for Sport and Exercise (UCRISE), Canberra, Australian Capital Territory, Australia
| | - Ida A Heikura
- Canadian Sport Institute-Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Louise M Burke
- Mary McKillop Institute for Health Research, Australian Catholic University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Trent Stellingwerff
- Canadian Sport Institute-Pacific, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
- Department of Exercise Science, Physical & Health Education, University of Victoria, Victoria, British Columbia, Canada
| | - Anthony C Hackney
- Exercise and Sport Science, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA
| | - Evert Verhagen
- Amsterdam Collaboration on Health and Safety in Sports and Department of Public and Occupational Health, VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Stacey Schley
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Division of Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Grace H Saville
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Division of Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Margo Mountjoy
- Family Medicine, McMaster University Michael G DeGroote School of Medicine, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
- Games Group, International Olympic Committee, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Bryan Holtzman
- Wu Tsai Female Athlete Program, Division of Sports Medicine, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
- Department of Pediatrics, Mass General for Children, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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8
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Ahokas EK, Hanstock HG, Löfberg I, Nyman M, Wenning P, Kyröläinen H, Mikkonen RS, Ihalainen JK. Nocturnal Heart Rate Variability in Women Discordant for Hormonal Contraceptive Use. Med Sci Sports Exerc 2023; 55:1342-1349. [PMID: 36893303 DOI: 10.1249/mss.0000000000003158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/11/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The aim of this study was to investigate within-cycle differences in nocturnal heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) in naturally menstruating women (NM) and women using combined hormonal contraceptives (CU) or progestin-only hormonal contraceptives (PU). METHODS Physically active participants were recruited into three groups: NM ( n = 19), CU ( n = 11), and PU ( n = 12). Participants' HR and HRV (with Bodyguard 2 HRV monitor) and blood hormones were monitored during one menstrual cycle (MC) (NM group) or for 4 wk (CU and PU groups). Estradiol, progesterone, and luteinizing hormone were analyzed from fasting blood samples collected four times in the NM (M1 = bleeding, M2 = follicular phase, M3 = ovulation, and M4 = luteal phase) and PU groups (M1 = lowest E 2 , M2 = M1 + 7 d, M3 = M1 + 14 d, and M4 = M1 + 21 d) and twice in the CU group (active and inactive pill phases). After every blood sample, nightly HR and HRV were recorded and examined as an average from two nights. RESULTS Hormonal concentrations differed ( P < 0.05) between MC phases in the NM and PU groups, but not ( P ≥ 0.116) between the active and the inactive phases in the CU group. In the NM and PU groups, some of the HRV values were higher, whereas in the NM group, HR was lower during M2 compared with M3 ( P < 0.049) and M4 ( P < 0.035). In the CU group, HRV values ( P = 0.014-0.038) were higher, and HR was lower ( P = 0.038) in the inactive phase compared with the first week of the active phase. CONCLUSIONS The MC and the hormonal cycle phases influence autonomic nervous system balance, which is reflected in measurements of nocturnal HR and HRV. This should be considered when monitoring recovery in physically active individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Essi K Ahokas
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - Helen G Hanstock
- Department of Health Sciences, Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Mid Sweden University, Östersund, SWEDEN
| | - Ida Löfberg
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - Mari Nyman
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - Piia Wenning
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | - Heikki Kyröläinen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
| | | | - Johanna K Ihalainen
- Faculty of Sport and Health Sciences, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, FINLAND
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McGawley K, Sargent D, Noordhof D, Badenhorst CE, Julian R, Govus AD. Improving menstrual health literacy in sport. J Sci Med Sport 2023:S1440-2440(23)00143-3. [PMID: 37407335 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsams.2023.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2023] [Revised: 05/29/2023] [Accepted: 06/14/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Menstrual health represents a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being in relation to a woman's menstrual cycle. From a health literacy perspective, knowledge acquisition and expertise are dependent upon the degree to which an individual can find, access, understand, critically analyse, and apply health information. Therefore, menstrual health literacy can be used to describe the state of knowledge acquisition and application specific to menstrual health-related issues. Menstrual health literacy is low among female athletes, their coaches, and practitioners, and few evidence-informed education or implementation strategies exist to improve menstrual health literacy in sport. Moreover, athletes seldom discuss their menstrual cycles or hormonal contraceptive use with their coaches, despite experiencing menstrual symptoms and/or disturbances and perceiving their menstrual cycles/hormonal contraceptive use to affect performance. Barriers to communication about menstrual cycle- and hormonal contraceptive-related topics include a perceived lack of knowledge among athletes, coaches, and practitioners, concerns about how conversations on these issues will affect interpersonal relationships, and a lack of formal and informal discussion forums. Whilst evidence relating to the effects of the menstrual cycle phase and hormonal contraceptive use on training and performance is currently limited, with existing studies often lacking methodological rigour, impactful steps can still be made to support female athletes. This cornerstone review highlights the current state of menstrual health literacy among athletes, coaches, and practitioners, and provides recommendations for improving menstrual health literacy in sport.
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Affiliation(s)
- K McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, Sweden. https://twitter.com/KerryMcGawley
| | - D Sargent
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, United Kingdom. https://twitter.com/DebbyDls4
| | - D Noordhof
- Centre for Elite Sports Research, Department of Neuromedicine and Movement Science, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, Norway. https://twitter.com/DionneNoordhof
| | - C E Badenhorst
- School of Sport, Exercise and Nutrition, Massey University, New Zealand. https://twitter.com/claire_bades
| | - R Julian
- School of Sport and Exercise, University of Gloucestershire, United Kingdom; University of Münster, Institute of Sport and Exercise Sciences, Department of Neuromotor Behavior and Exercise, Germany. https://twitter.com/RossJulian88
| | - A D Govus
- Discipline of Sport and Exercise Science, Department of Sport, Exercise, and Nutrition Science, La Trobe University, Australia.
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10
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Doohan MA, King N, White MJ, Stewart IB. Trends in menstrual cycle symptoms, physical activity avoidance, and hormonal contraceptive use in a general population of adult women. SEXUAL & REPRODUCTIVE HEALTHCARE 2023; 36:100853. [PMID: 37167827 DOI: 10.1016/j.srhc.2023.100853] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2023] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Research examining symptoms and side effects of the menstrual cycle on physical activity performance and participation has almost exclusively focussed on elite and athletic populations. The current study aimed to i) identify any differences in symptomatic experiences of the menstrual cycle between hormonal contraceptive users and non-users, ii) gain insight into hormonal contraceptive use, iii) describe perceived symptomatic influences on physical activity engagement, and iv) identify perceived levels of knowledge and understanding around the menstrual cycle. METHODS An online questionnaire was completed by 881 adult females aged between 18 and 55 years. Questionnaire items related to hormonal contraceptive use, habitual physical activity levels, experiences and symptoms of the menstrual cycle, and sources of information resulting in knowledge and understanding of the menstrual cycle. RESULTS More than half of all participants (52%) identified themselves as being recreationally active, and the most commonly reported menstrual symptoms were abdominal cramps, lethargy, abdominal bloating, lower back pain, and heavy bleeding. Of all respondents, 48.1% were using some form of hormonal contraception, 66% of which were using a version of a combined oral contraceptive pill. DISCUSSION Consistent with previous studies, 90% of respondents regularly experienced adverse menstrual symptoms, including abdominal cramps, lethargy, abdominal bloating, lower back pain, and heavy bleeding. Menstrual symptoms were frequently identified as influential factors in the avoidance of, and reduced performance in, physical activity. Almost half of all participants were using some form of hormonal contraception, a noticeably larger proportion than has been previously documented in studies examining non-athletic populations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meg A Doohan
- Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
| | - Neil King
- Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Melanie J White
- Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; School of Psychology and Counselling, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Ian B Stewart
- Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia; School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
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11
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Bergström M, Rosvold M, Sæther SA. "I hardly have a problem […] I have my period quite rarely too": Female football players' and their coaches' perceptions of barriers to communication on menstrual cycle. Front Sports Act Living 2023; 5:1127207. [PMID: 37033882 PMCID: PMC10076858 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2023.1127207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2022] [Accepted: 03/06/2023] [Indexed: 04/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Symptoms related to the menstrual cycle (MC) affect the performance level and health of female athletes in various ways. Previous research has reported MC symptoms such as pain, mood disturbance, reduced coordination and competition distraction as well as diminished performance levels and an increased injury risk among female elite athletes. Despite this, the coach-athlete communication related to the female hormonal cycle is limited. The aim of the present study was to explore the perceptions of MC communication in a group of junior elite football players and their male coaches in a case study of one youth football team in a specific club in Norway. Methods The study used a qualitative approach with semi-structured interviews. In total, 8 female junior elite players (aged 16-20) from a Norwegian football team and 2 of their male coaches participated in the study. Results The data analysis revealed two main communication barriers: 1. interpersonal barriers (e.g., false assumptions about the coach/athletes and social discomfort) and 2. knowledge barriers (e.g., unaware/perceptions of insufficient knowledge levels). Discussion As the players seemed to be unaware of their insufficient MC knowledge (e.g., failed to see a connection between the MC and their health and performance level), the coaches perceived their knowledge as insufficient and coped mainly by outsourcing MC communication to female staff and apps. Hence, the MC communication was hindered by both the athletes and the coaches (e.g., mutual avoidance). In line with previous research, this study supports that there is a need for developing effective strategies to overcome the interpersonal barriers and knowledge gaps.
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12
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Mkumbuzi NS, Dlamini SB, Chibhabha F, Govere FM, Manda-Taylor L. The menstrual cycle and football: The experiences of African women football players. SCI MED FOOTBALL 2022; 6:626-632. [PMID: 36540914 DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2021.2005252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The menstrual cycle is a normal biological process in women and girls. However, it is often the reason why they tend to be excluded from football medicine research. Consequently, our understanding of the menstrual cycle and football performance is still limited, especially in African women football players. AIM The study aimed to explore African women football players' current and historical menstrual cycle status, menstrual symptoms, lived experiences, and perceptions of the menstrual cycle. METHODS Women football players at the COSAFA Women's Championship 2020 completed demographic questionnaires and the Moos Menstrual Distress Questionnaire. RESULTS The main findings were that 90% of the players did not use contraceptives, . Most of the players had access to their preferred choice of sanitary product; however, 36% used alternatives such as old rags during their periods, . The most commonly reported symptoms during menses were abdominal cramps (53%), headache (41%), mood swings (41%) and irritability (47%). Further, players reported irritability (48%), mood swings (52%), and breast tenderness (48%) in the week before their period. CONCLUSION The low use of contraceptives is likely due to community level socio-cultural factors. While the use of old rags as impromptu sanitary products is likely because they cannot always afford their preferred choice. Menstrual symptoms can affect training and competition; therefore, team support personnel should be aware of the menstrual cycle's implications for African women football players and their effect on athletic performance and well-being. Additionally, team support personnel ought to be mindful of African women football players' socio-economic and religio-cultural contexts and their interaction with biological processes such as the menstrual cycle and contraceptive use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nonhlanhla S Mkumbuzi
- Health through Physical Activity, Lifestyle and Sport Research Centre (HPALS). Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa.,African Evaluation and Research Development, Johannesburg
| | - Senanile B Dlamini
- Health through Physical Activity, Lifestyle and Sport Research Centre (HPALS). Department of Human Biology, University of Cape Town, Cape Town, South Africa
| | - Fidelis Chibhabha
- Anatomy Department, Faculty of Medicine, Midlands State University, Gweru, Zimbabwe
| | | | - Lucinda Manda-Taylor
- Department of Health Systems and Policy, School of Public Health and Family Medicine, University of Malawi, Zomba, Malawi
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13
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Bruinvels G, Blagrove RC, Goldsmith E, Shaw L, Martin D, Piasecki J. How Lifestyle Changes during the COVID-19 Global Pandemic Affected the Pattern and Symptoms of the Menstrual Cycle. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:13622. [PMID: 36294200 PMCID: PMC9602509 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph192013622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2022] [Revised: 10/14/2022] [Accepted: 10/18/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
This research investigated the implications that the COVID-19 pandemic had on the menstrual cycle and any contributing factors to these changes. A questionnaire was completed by 559 eumenorrheic participants, capturing detail on menstrual cycle symptoms and characteristics prior to and during the COVID-19 pandemic lockdown period. Over half of all participants reported to have experienced lack of motivation (61.5%), focus (54.7%) and concentration (57.8%). 52.8% of participants reported an increase in cycle length. Specifically, there was an increase in the median cycle length reported of 5 days (minimum 2 days, maximum 32 days), with a median decrease of 3 days (minimum 2 days and maximum 17 days). A lack of focus was significantly associated with a change in menstrual cycle length (p = 0.038) reported to have increased by 61% of participants. Changes to eating patterns of white meat (increase p = 0.035, decrease p = 0.003) and processed meat (increase p = 0.002 and decrease p = 0.001) were significantly associated with a change in menstrual cycle length. It is important that females and practitioners become aware of implications of environmental stressors and the possible long-term effects on fertility. Future research should continue to investigate any long-lasting changes in symptoms, as well as providing education and support for females undergoing any life stressors that may implicate their menstrual cycle and/or symptoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Georgie Bruinvels
- Orreco, Ltd., London TW1 3DY, UK
- Faculty of Medical Sciences, University College London, London WC1E 6BT, UK
| | - Richard C. Blagrove
- School of Sport, Exercise and Health Sciences, Loughborough University, Loughborough LE11 3TU, UK
| | | | - Laurence Shaw
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
| | - Daniel Martin
- School of Sport and Exercise Sciences, University of Lincoln, Lincoln LN6 7GA, UK
| | - Jessica Piasecki
- School of Science and Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
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14
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Quinn KM, Roberts L, Cox AJ, Borg DN, Pennell EN, McKeating DR, Fisher JJ, Perkins AV, Minahan C. Blood oxidative stress biomarkers in women: influence of oral contraception, exercise, and N-acetylcysteine. Eur J Appl Physiol 2022; 122:1949-1964. [PMID: 35674828 PMCID: PMC9287208 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-022-04964-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/16/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Purpose To compare physiological responses to submaximal cycling and sprint cycling performance in women using oral contraceptives (WomenOC) and naturally cycling women (WomenNC) and to determine whether N-acetylcysteine (NAC) supplementation mediates these responses. Methods Twenty recreationally trained women completed five exercise trials (i.e., an incremental cycling test, a familiarisation trial, a baseline performance trial and two double-blind crossover intervention trials). During the intervention trials participants supplemented with NAC or a placebo 1 h before exercise. Cardiopulmonary parameters and blood biochemistry were assessed during 40 min of fixed-intensity cycling at 105% of gas-exchange threshold and after 1-km cycling time-trial. Results WomenOC had higher ventilation (β [95% CI] = 0.07 L·min−1 [0.01, 0.14]), malondialdehydes (β = 12.00 mmol·L−1 [6.82, 17.17]) and C-reactive protein (1.53 mg·L−1 [0.76, 2.30]), whereas glutathione peroxidase was lower (β = 22.62 mU·mL−1 [− 41.32, − 3.91]) compared to WomenNC during fixed-intensity cycling. Plasma thiols were higher at all timepoints after NAC ingestion compared to placebo, irrespective of group (all p < 0.001; d = 1.45 to 2.34). For WomenNC but not WomenOC, the exercise-induced increase in malondialdehyde observed in the placebo trial was blunted after NAC ingestion, with lower values at 40 min (p = 0.018; d = 0.73). NAC did not affect cycling time-trial performance. Conclusions Blood biomarkers relating to oxidative stress and inflammation are elevated in WomenOC during exercise. There may be an increased strain on the endogenous antioxidant system during exercise, since NAC supplementation in WomenOC did not dampen the exercise-induced increase in malondialdehyde. Future investigations should explore the impact of elevated oxidative stress on exercise adaptations or recovery from exercise in WomenOC. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1007/s00421-022-04964-w.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karlee M Quinn
- Griffith Sports Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia. .,Sport Performance Innovation and Knowledge Excellence Unit, Queensland Academy of Sport, Nathan, QLD, 4111, Australia.
| | - Llion Roberts
- Griffith Sports Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia.,Sport Performance Innovation and Knowledge Excellence Unit, Queensland Academy of Sport, Nathan, QLD, 4111, Australia.,School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Amanda J Cox
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
| | - David N Borg
- The Hopkins Centre, Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Brisbane, QLD, 4102, Australia
| | - Evan N Pennell
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
| | - Daniel R McKeating
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
| | - Joshua J Fisher
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
| | - Anthony V Perkins
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
| | - Clare Minahan
- Griffith Sports Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
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15
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McNamara A, Harris R, Minahan C. 'That time of the month' … for the biggest event of your career! Perception of menstrual cycle on performance of Australian athletes training for the 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games. BMJ Open Sport Exerc Med 2022; 8:e001300. [PMID: 35505980 PMCID: PMC9014077 DOI: 10.1136/bmjsem-2021-001300] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 03/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Objective This study explored the perceived effect of the menstrual cycle (MC) on the performance of Australian female athletes, preparing for the Tokyo Olympic and/or Paralympic Games. Methods 195 female athletes, nominated by 24 National Sporting Organisations as preparing for the Tokyo Olympic and/or Paralympic Games, completed an online questionnaire (‘MCq perceptions’). The MCq perceptions investigated menstrual symptoms, hormonal contraceptive (HC) use and a preferred competition window within the MC. Results Two-thirds (65.6%) athletes reported that their MC affected their performance; in training (65.6%) compared with competition (58.0%). Aesthetic-sport athletes were most likely to perceive their performance to be affected by their MC (RR=1.40) compared with endurance (RR=0.88) and strength-sport (RR=1.04) athletes. Athletes experiencing three or more symptoms were twice as likely to identify as affected. Athletes who reported pain (RR=1.89) or the use of analgesia (RR=1.45) were more likely to identify as affected by their MC. A preferred competition window was identified by athletes as ‘just after your period’ (41.5%). For athletes not using HC, this window was identified by 53.7%. Conclusion In Australia, elite-female athletes perceive their MC to affect their performance, and many have a preferred performance window. Performance-focused strategies should be created for ‘affected’ athletes, aiming to provide these athletes with education, and where appropriate, control over predictability, timing and symptoms of their MC.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alice McNamara
- Australasian College of Sport and Exercise Physicians, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Victorian Institute of Sport, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Rachel Harris
- Australasian College of Sport and Exercise Physicians, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,Australian Institute of Sport, Belconnen, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.,Perth Orthopaedics and Sports Medicine Research Institute, Perth, Western Australia, Australia
| | - Clare Minahan
- Australian Institute of Sport, Belconnen, Australian Capital Territory, Australia.,Griffith Sports Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, Queensland, Australia
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16
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Impact of the Menstrual Cycle Phases on the Movement Patterns of Sub-Elite Women Soccer Players during Competitive Matches. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2022; 19:ijerph19084465. [PMID: 35457332 PMCID: PMC9025339 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph19084465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 04/05/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to evaluate the influence of the menstrual cycle phases on the movement patterns of sub-elite women soccer players during competitive matches over three consecutive seasons. Individual movement data were analyzed and compared in eight players from the second French League at the early follicular (EF), late follicular (LF) and mid-luteal (ML) phases of their menstrual cycle, determined by the calendar method. The movement patterns, expressed as meters per minute, were recorded during competitive matches using devices placed on the player’s ankle. Our results showed significantly lower distances covered at moderate and high velocity in the EF phase than in the LF and ML phases (Cohen’s d effect size = 1.03 and 0.79, respectively). The total distance covered during matches and the number of sprints also were reduced during EF compared with LF (d = 0.78 and 0.7, respectively). Overall, the total distance and distance covered at low velocity were significantly lower during the second half-time of the matches (d = 1.51), but no menstrual cycle phase × game period interaction was noted. In conclusion, our study suggests that EF may impact the movement pattern of sub-elite women soccer players during competitive matches, without any modulation of this effect by the playing time. Despite the low sample size, these results can be useful for coaches and support staff to modulate training loads and player rotation during soccer games.
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17
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Witkoś J, Hartman-Petrycka M. The Female Athlete Triad-the impact of running and type of diet on the regularity of the menstrual cycle assessed for recreational runners. PeerJ 2022; 10:e12903. [PMID: 35256915 PMCID: PMC8898003 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.12903] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/17/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The Female Athlete Triad (FAT) included three interrelated conditions including disordered eating, amenorrhea, and osteoporosis. The American College of Sports Medicine updated the definition of FAT to reflect the interdependence of low energy availability with or without eating disorders. The main aim of the study was to assess the impact of recreational running on potential disturbances in the regularity of women's menstrual cycles. Additionally, this work compared differences in the menstrual cycle between women runners and women who did not regularly practice sports. The respondents were also asked about the type of diet they consumed. Methods A total of 360 women took part in the research. This group included 217 runners and 143 control. The authors' questionnaire was used in the research. Results When compared to the control group, the runners had an increased frequency of menstrual cycles of <24 days (10.14% vs. 3.50%), fewer typical cycles of 25-31 days (75.58% vs. 86.71%), had fewer regular cycles per year (9.62 vs. 11.22), shorter duration of bleeding (4.79 vs. 5.27 days), and an increased frequency of painless menstruation (23.96% vs. 7.69%). A positive predictor of menstrual cycle disorders was the use of a 'special diet' (R:1.67; 95% C:0.47-2.87). Conclusions The runners had shorter and less regular monthly cycles and shorter and more often painless menstrual bleeding when compared to the control group. The frequency of menstrual disorders in runners was increased by following a 'special diet'. The frequency of menstrual cycle disorders in runners, however, did not differ significantly from the control group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Witkoś
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Science, Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski Krakow University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Magdalena Hartman-Petrycka
- Department of Basic Biomedical Science, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences in Sosnowiec, Medical University of Silesia, Katowice, Poland
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18
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Indian Endurance Athletes’ Menstrual Cycle: Practices, Knowledge, Communication, Health, and Changes in Perceptions Across the Phases. Int J Sports Physiol Perform 2022; 17:1706-1715. [DOI: 10.1123/ijspp.2022-0131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Purpose: To describe menstrual cycle (MC)-related practices, knowledge, communication, and health in Indian endurance athletes and to investigate the changes in their perception of sleep quality, readiness to train, training quality, fitness, and performance across the MC. Methods: Data on female Indian athletes (N = 96, age 22 [3] y) competing in 7 endurance sports at (inter)national and state level were collected using an online questionnaire. A Friedman rank sum test was used to assess changes in sleep quality, readiness to train, training quality, fitness, and performance across MC phases (ie, during, immediately after, and just before the bleeding phase). Results: Most of the athletes showed poor MC-related practices and suboptimal knowledge and communication about the MC. Despite no clear signs of serious health conditions, many athletes (63.5%) experienced irregular bleeding phases, particularly during periods with high exercise intensity or high training volume (54.4%). Perceived sleep quality, readiness to train, fitness, performance, and the quality of high-intensity and strength training changed significantly throughout the MC (P < .001), with a higher prevalence of a positive perception immediately after the bleeding phase. The perceived quality of low-intensity training did not change significantly throughout the MC (P = .244). Conclusions: Knowledge and communication about the MC were found to be poor in Indian endurance athletes, who reported that the MC significantly influenced their sleep quality, readiness to train, training quality, fitness, and performance.
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19
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Höök M, Bergström M, Sæther SA, McGawley K. "Do Elite Sport First, Get Your Period Back Later." Are Barriers to Communication Hindering Female Athletes? INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph182212075. [PMID: 34831828 PMCID: PMC8623003 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph182212075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2021] [Revised: 11/06/2021] [Accepted: 11/12/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Competitive female athletes perceive their hormonal cycles to affect their training, competition performance and overall well-being. Despite this, athletes rarely discuss hormonal-cycle-related issues with others. The aim of this study was to gain an in-depth understanding of the perceptions and experiences of endurance athletes and their coaches in relation to barriers to athlete-coach communication about female hormonal cycles. Thirteen Swedish national-/international-level female cross-country skiers (age 25.8 ± 3.6 y) and eight of their coaches (two women and six men; age 47.8 ± 7.5 y) completed an online survey relating to their educational background, prior knowledge about female hormonal cycles and a coach-athlete relationship questionnaire (CART-Q). They then participated in an online education session about female hormonal cycles and athletic performance before participating in semi-structured focus-group interviews. Thematic analyses revealed three main barriers to communication: knowledge, interpersonal, and structural. In addition, the results suggested that a good coach-athlete relationship may facilitate open communication about female hormonal cycles, while low levels of knowledge may hinder communication. To overcome the perceived barriers to communication, a model is proposed to improve knowledge, develop interpersonal relationships and strengthen structural systems through educational exchanges and forums for open discussion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martina Höök
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, 831 25 Östersund, Sweden; (M.H.); (M.B.)
- Swedish Ski Association, 791 31 Falun, Sweden
| | - Max Bergström
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, 831 25 Östersund, Sweden; (M.H.); (M.B.)
| | - Stig Arve Sæther
- Department of Sociology and Political Science, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, NTNU, Dragvoll, 7491 Trondheim, Norway;
| | - Kerry McGawley
- Swedish Winter Sports Research Centre, Department of Health Sciences, Mid Sweden University, 831 25 Östersund, Sweden; (M.H.); (M.B.)
- Correspondence:
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20
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Influence of Female Sex Hormones on Ultra-Running Performance and Post-Race Recovery: Role of Testosterone. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:ijerph181910403. [PMID: 34639701 PMCID: PMC8508191 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph181910403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/28/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
In recent years, increasing numbers of women have participated in extremely long races. In adult males, there is a clear association between physiological levels of endogenous sex hormones and physical performance. However, the influence of plasmatic sex hormones and the effects of different types of hormonal contraception (HC) on the modulation of physical performance in adult females remain to be fully clarified. Eighteen female ultra-endurance athletes were recruited to participate in the study. Different variables were studied, including hematological parameters, body mass index, and body composition. Strength measurements were obtained using the squat-jump and hand-grip test. A repeated-measures analysis demonstrated significant differences in hematological values of CK and LDH pre-race as compared to immediately post-race and after 24/48 h. Furthermore, statistical differences were found in squat-jump and hand-grip test results after the ultramarathon. Testosterone, estradiol, and the testosterone/estrogen ratio were significantly correlated with muscle fatigue and were found to be indirect markers of muscle damage. A multivariate analysis demonstrated the protective role of testosterone against muscle damage and severe fatigue. Fluctuations in endogenous testosterone levels were correlated with greater fatigability and muscle damage after the competition. Adjusting the menstrual cycle with HC would not provide any further benefit to the athlete's competitive capacity.
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21
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Anemia in Sports: A Narrative Review. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:life11090987. [PMID: 34575136 PMCID: PMC8472039 DOI: 10.3390/life11090987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Revised: 09/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent years have brought about new understandings regarding the pathogenesis of anemia in sports. From hemodilution and redistribution considered to contribute to the so-called “sports anemia” to iron deficiency caused by increased demands, dietary restrictions, decreased absorption, increased losses, hemolysis, and sequestration, to genetic determinants of different types of anemia (some related to sport), the anemia in athletes deserves a careful and multifactorial approach. Dietary factors that reduce iron absorption (e.g., phytate, polyphenols) and that augment iron’s bioavailability (e.g., ascorbic acid) should be considered. Celiac disease, more prevalent in female athletes, may underlie an unexplained iron deficiency anemia. Iron loss during exercise occurs in several ways: sweating, hematuria, gastrointestinal bleeding, inflammation, and intravascular and extravascular hemolysis. From a practical point of view, assessing iron status, especially in the athletes at risk for iron deficiency (females, adolescents, in sports with dietary restrictions, etc.), may improve the iron balance and possibly the performance. Hemoglobin and serum ferritin are measures that are easily employable for the evaluation of patients’ iron status. Cutoff values should probably be further assessed with respect to the sex, age, and type of sport. A healthy gut microbiome influences the iron status. Athletes at risk of iron deficiency should perform non-weight-bearing, low-intensity sports to avoid inducing hemolysis.
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22
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Castanier C, Bougault V, Teulier C, Jaffré C, Schiano-Lomoriello S, Vibarel-Rebot N, Villemain A, Rieth N, Le-Scanff C, Buisson C, Collomp K. The Specificities of Elite Female Athletes: A Multidisciplinary Approach. Life (Basel) 2021; 11:622. [PMID: 34206866 PMCID: PMC8303304 DOI: 10.3390/life11070622] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 06/21/2021] [Accepted: 06/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Female athletes have garnered considerable attention in the last few years as more and more women participate in sports events. However, despite the well-known repercussions of female sex hormones, few studies have investigated the specificities of elite female athletes. In this review, we present the current but still limited data on how normal menstrual phases, altered menstrual phases, and hormonal contraception affect both physical and cognitive performances in these elite athletes. To examine the implicated mechanisms, as well as the potential performances and health risks in this population, we then take a broader multidisciplinary approach and report on the causal/reciprocal relationships between hormonal status and mental and physical health in young (18-40 years) healthy females, both trained and untrained. We thus cover the research on both physiological and psychological variables, as well as on the Athlete Biological Passport used for anti-doping purposes. We consider the fairly frequent discrepancies and summarize the current knowledge in this new field of interest. Last, we conclude with some practical guidelines for eliciting improvements in physical and cognitive performance while minimizing the health risks for female athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carole Castanier
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | | | - Caroline Teulier
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | | | - Sandrine Schiano-Lomoriello
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Nancy Vibarel-Rebot
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Aude Villemain
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Nathalie Rieth
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Christine Le-Scanff
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
| | - Corinne Buisson
- Département des Analyses, AFLD, 92290 Chatenay-Malabry, France;
| | - Katia Collomp
- CIAMS, Université Paris-Saclay, 91405 Orsay, France; (C.C.); (C.T.); (S.S.-L.); (N.V.-R.); (A.V.); (N.R.); (C.L.-S.)
- CIAMS, Université d’Orléans, 45067 Orléans, France
- Département des Analyses, AFLD, 92290 Chatenay-Malabry, France;
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Quinn KM, Cox AJ, Roberts L, Pennell EN, McKeating DR, Fisher JJ, Perkins AV, Minahan C. Temporal changes in blood oxidative stress biomarkers across the menstrual cycle and with oral contraceptive use in active women. Eur J Appl Physiol 2021; 121:2607-2620. [PMID: 34106325 DOI: 10.1007/s00421-021-04734-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 06/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE To examine the temporal changes in blood oxidative stress biomarkers in recreationally-trained women that were naturally-cycling (WomenNC) or using oral contraceptives (WomenOC) across one month. METHODS Blood samples were acquired at three timepoints of the menstrual cycle (1: early-follicular, 2: late-follicular and 3: mid-luteal) and oral contraceptive packet (1: InactiveOC, 2: Mid-activeOC and 3: Late-activeOC) for determination of estradiol, progesterone, oxidative stress, C-reactive protein (CRP) and other cardiometabolic biomarkers in plasma and serum. RESULTS There was a Group by Time effect on estradiol (p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.64) and progesterone (p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.77). Malondialdehyde, lipid hydroperoxides and CRP concentrations were higher in WomenOC during Late-activeOC compared to InactiveOC (+ 96%, + 23% and + 104%, respectively, p < 0.05). However, there were no changes in these biomarkers across the menstrual cycle in WomenNC (p > 0.05). At all timepoints (i.e., 1, 2 and 3), WomenOC had elevated lipid hydroperoxides (+ 28, + 48% and + 50%) and CRP (+ 71%, + 117% and + 130%) compared to WomenNC (p < 0.05, partial η2 > 0.25). There was no Group by Time effect on non-enzymatic antioxidants or glutathione peroxidase; however, glutathione peroxidase was lower in WomenOC, i.e., main effect of group (p < 0.05, partial η2 > 0.20). CONCLUSION These findings demonstrate that WomenOC not only have higher oxidative stress and CRP than WomenNC, but also a transient increase across one month of habitual oral contraceptive use. Since changes in oxidative stress and CRP often relate to training stress and recovery, these outcomes may have implications to workload monitoring practices in female athletes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karlee M Quinn
- Griffith Sports Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia.
- Sport Performance Innovation and Knowledge Excellence Unit, Queensland Academy of Sport, Brisbane, 4111, Australia.
| | - Amanda J Cox
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, 4222, Australia
- Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Gold Coast, 4222, Australia
| | - Llion Roberts
- Griffith Sports Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
- Sport Performance Innovation and Knowledge Excellence Unit, Queensland Academy of Sport, Brisbane, 4111, Australia
- School of Human Movement and Nutrition Sciences, University of Queensland, Brisbane, 4072, Australia
| | - Evan N Pennell
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, 4222, Australia
| | - Daniel R McKeating
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, 4222, Australia
| | - Joshua J Fisher
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, 4222, Australia
| | - Anthony V Perkins
- School of Medical Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast, 4222, Australia
| | - Clare Minahan
- Griffith Sports Science, Griffith University, Gold Coast Campus, Gold Coast, QLD, 4222, Australia
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24
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Parker LJ, Elliott-Sale KJ, Hannon MP, Morton JP, Close GL. An audit of hormonal contraceptive use in Women’s Super League soccer players; implications on symptomology. SCI MED FOOTBALL 2021; 6:153-158. [DOI: 10.1080/24733938.2021.1921248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lloyd J. Parker
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
- Everton Football Club, USM Finch Farm, Halewood Liverpool, Liverpool, UK
| | - Kirsty J. Elliott-Sale
- Sport Health and Performance Enhancement Research Centre, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham, UK
| | - Marcus P. Hannon
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - James P. Morton
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Graeme L. Close
- Research Institute for Sport and Exercise Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
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25
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Clarke AC, Bruinvels G, Julian R, Inge P, Pedlar CR, Govus AD. Hormonal Contraceptive Use in Football Codes in Australia. Front Sports Act Living 2021; 3:634866. [PMID: 33718869 PMCID: PMC7947621 DOI: 10.3389/fspor.2021.634866] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/19/2021] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
The recent launch of the new National elite women's football competitions in Australia has seen a 20-50% increase in grassroots female participation. With the growing participation across grassroots to elite competitions, understanding the health of female athletes should be prioritized. In elite level athletes, hormonal contraceptive (HC) use is common (~50%), however, little is known about the prevalence and reasons for use and disuse of HC in elite female football athletes. As such, the impact of HC use is often not considered when monitoring the health of female footballers. This study involved a subset of data collected as part of a larger questionnaire investigating menstrual cycle function, hormonal contraception use, and the interaction with training load volume and perceived performance in elite female football code athletes. A total of 177 participants completed the questionnaire across three football codes within Australia (rugby league, rugby union/sevens, Australian football). One third (n = 58) of athletes were currently using HC, predominately in the form of an oral contraceptive pill (OC, n = 47). Reasons for use included: to avoid pregnancy (71%); to control/regulate cycle (38%); and to reduce menstrual pain (36%). However, most athletes using an OC (89%) could not identify the type of pill used (e.g., mono-, bi-, or triphasic). The main reason for disuse was due to the negative side effects (n = 23), such as mood swings, weight gain, and depression/anxiety. Comparing HC users and non-users, there were no statistical differences in the number of reported menstrual symptoms, use of medication to relieve menstrual pain, or frequency for needing to adapt training due to their menstrual cycle (p > 0.05). Since most athletes were unaware of the type of OC they used, female football athletes require further education about the different types of HC, and specifically OC, available to them. Similarities in the symptoms experienced, pain management, and training adaptation requirements between groups suggests that HC use may not have the intended outcome for certain athletes. As such, greater awareness of athlete's personal experiences with the menstrual cycle, how HC may influence their experience, and acknowledgment of non-pharmacological methods to help manage menstrual cycle related symptoms are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthea C Clarke
- Sport and Exercise Science, School of Allied Health, Human Nutrition, and Sport, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Georgie Bruinvels
- Orreco Ltd., Business Innovation Centre, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland.,Faculty of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Mary's University, Twickenham, United Kingdom
| | - Ross Julian
- Department of Neuromotor Behavior and Exercise, Institute of Sport Science, Westfaelische Wilhelms-University Muenster, Münster, Germany.,School of Sport and Exercise, Exercise and Sport Research Centre, University of Gloucestershire, Cheltenham, United Kingdom
| | - Pip Inge
- Australian Football League, Docklands, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Charles R Pedlar
- Orreco Ltd., Business Innovation Centre, National University of Ireland Galway, Galway, Ireland.,Faculty of Sport, Health and Applied Science, St Mary's University, Twickenham, United Kingdom.,Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, Institute of Sport, Exercise and Health, University College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Andrew D Govus
- Sport and Exercise Science, School of Allied Health, Human Nutrition, and Sport, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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26
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Carmichael MA, Thomson RL, Moran LJ, Wycherley TP. The Impact of Menstrual Cycle Phase on Athletes' Performance: A Narrative Review. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2021; 18:1667. [PMID: 33572406 PMCID: PMC7916245 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph18041667] [Citation(s) in RCA: 76] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The effect of the menstrual cycle on physical performance is being increasingly recognised as a key consideration for women's sport and a critical field for further research. This narrative review explores the findings of studies investigating the effects of menstrual cycle phase on perceived and objectively measured performance in an athletic population. Studies examining perceived performance consistently report that female athletes identify their performance to be relatively worse during the early follicular and late luteal phases. Studies examining objective performance (using anaerobic, aerobic or strength-related tests) do not report clear, consistent effects of the impact of menstrual cycle phase on physical performance. Overall sport performance can be influenced by both perceived and physical factors. Hence, to optimise performance and management of eumenorrheic female athletes, there is a need for further research to quantify the impact of menstrual cycle phase on perceived and physical performance outcomes and to identify factors affecting variability in objective performance outcomes between studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mikaeli Anne Carmichael
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia; (R.L.T.); (T.P.W.)
| | - Rebecca Louise Thomson
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia; (R.L.T.); (T.P.W.)
- Adelaide Medical School and Robinson Research Institute, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia;
| | - Lisa Jane Moran
- Adelaide Medical School and Robinson Research Institute, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA 5000, Australia;
- Monash Centre for Health Research and Implementation, School of Public Health and Preventative Medicine, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3168, Australia
| | - Thomas Philip Wycherley
- Alliance for Research in Exercise, Nutrition and Activity (ARENA), Allied Health and Human Performance, University of South Australia, Adelaide, SA 5001, Australia; (R.L.T.); (T.P.W.)
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