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Aktayeva S, Khassenov B. New Bacillus paralicheniformis strain with high proteolytic and keratinolytic activity. Sci Rep 2024; 14:22621. [PMID: 39349615 PMCID: PMC11444040 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-73468-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2024] [Accepted: 09/17/2024] [Indexed: 10/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Bacillus paralicheniformis T7, which exhibits high proteolytic and keratinolytic activities, was isolated from soil in Kazakhstan. Its secreted proteases were thermostable and alkaline, demonstrating maximum activity at 70 °C and pH 9.0. The proteases and keratinases of this strain were sensitive to Ni2+, Co2+, Mn2+, and Cd2+, with Cu2+, Co2+ and Cd2+ negatively affecting keratinolytic activity, and Fe3+ ions have a strong inhibitory effect on proteolytic and keratinolytic activity. Seven proteases were identified in the enzymatic extract of B. paralicheniformis T7: four from the serine peptidase family and three from the metallopeptidase family. The proteases hydrolyzed 1 mg of casein, hemoglobin, gelatin, ovalbumin, bovine serum albumin, or keratin within 15 s to 30 min. The high keratinolytic activity of this strain was confirmed through the degradation of chicken feathers, horns, hooves, wool, and cattle hide. Chicken feathers were hydrolyzed in 4 days, and the degrees of hydrolysis for cattle hide, wool, hoof, and horn after 7 days of cultivation were 97.2, 34.5, 29.6, and 3.6%, respectively. During submerged fermentation with feather medium in a laboratory bioreactor, the strain secreted enzymes with 249.20 ± 7.88 U/mL protease activity after 24 h. Thus, B. paralicheniformis T7 can be used to produce proteolytic and keratinolytic enzymes for application in processing proteinaceous raw materials and keratinous animal waste.
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Affiliation(s)
- Saniya Aktayeva
- National Center for Biotechnology, 13/5 Korgalzhyn Road, 010000, Astana, Kazakhstan
- Faculty of Natural Sciences, L.N. Gumilyev Eurasian National University, 2 Kanysh Satpayev Street, 010008, Astana, Kazakhstan
| | - Bekbolat Khassenov
- National Center for Biotechnology, 13/5 Korgalzhyn Road, 010000, Astana, Kazakhstan.
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2
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Vadillo J, Montes S, Grande HJ, Verstichel S, Almqvist J, Wrześniewska-Tosik K. Enhanced Biodegradability in Soil of Chicken Feather by Steam Explosion for Potential Application in Agricultural Biodegradable Plastics. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:3701. [PMID: 37765555 PMCID: PMC10537891 DOI: 10.3390/polym15183701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2023] [Revised: 08/29/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Feather waste is a major issue from an economic and environmental point of view. Even though there are already routes for the valorisation of feathers into fertilisers and feather meal, these are considered to have low added value. For more attractive applications, for example in agricultural biodegradable plastics, higher and faster degradability in soil is required. To face this challenge alternative approaches to accelerate biodegradation and disintegration processes are needed. In this context, steam explosion appears as an effective technology to modify the structure of feather and improve its soil degradability. In this work, chicken feathers were treated by steam explosion and the effect of treatment on their structure and physico-chemical and thermal properties were evaluated. Finally, the effect of the process conditions on the disintegration and biodegradation in soil of feathers was also investigated, finding an increased degradation in soil of steam explosion treated feathers. These results open up the possibilities of using feather waste as a component for environmentally friendly agricultural bioplastics that can be degraded in-situ in soil.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julen Vadillo
- CIDETEC, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo Miramón, 196, 20014 Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Sarah Montes
- CIDETEC, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo Miramón, 196, 20014 Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Hans-Jürgen Grande
- CIDETEC, Basque Research and Technology Alliance (BRTA), Paseo Miramón, 196, 20014 Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain
- Advanced Polymers and Materials: Physics, Chemistry and Technology Department, University of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Avda. Tolosa 72, 20018 Donostia-San Sebastian, Spain
| | | | - Jonna Almqvist
- RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Department of Biorefinery and Energy, S-892 50 Örnsköldsvik, Sweden
| | - Krystyna Wrześniewska-Tosik
- Łukasiewicz Research Network, Łodz Institute of Technology, ul. Skłodowskiej-Curie 19/27, 90-570 Łódź, Poland
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3
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Lai HY, Setyawati MI, Duarte CV, Chua HM, Low CT, Ng KW. Human hair proteins as natural reactive oxygen species scavengers for in vitro applications. J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater 2023; 111:933-945. [PMID: 36418224 DOI: 10.1002/jbm.b.35203] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Revised: 11/09/2022] [Accepted: 11/13/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Human hair proteins are recognized for their intrinsically high cysteine content. They can be solubilized while preserving their highly reductive thiol groups for free radical scavenging applications. The presence of aromatic and nucleophilic amino acids such as methionine, serine, phenylalanine, and threonine further contribute to the antioxidative potential of this material. Herein, utilizing the DPPH (2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl) and acellular 2',7'-dichlorodihydrofluorescein diacetate (H2 DCFDA) assays, keratins are demonstrated to possess the highest radical scavenging activity among the studied hair proteins. Consequently, protection against hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress in human dermal fibroblasts (HDFs) cultured in human hair keratin supplemented media is demonstrated. Quenching of reactive oxygen species in the HDF is observed using the CellROX Green dye and the expression levels of antioxidant (HMOX1, SOD2, GPX1) and tumor suppressor (TP53) genes is analyzed using qPCR. Collectively, this study presents further evidence and demonstrates the in vitro application potential of hair proteins, especially keratins, as an antioxidizing supplement.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hui Ying Lai
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (Environmental Chemistry and Materials Centre), Interdisciplinary Graduate Program, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | | | - Catarina Vizetto Duarte
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Huei Min Chua
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Choon Teck Low
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kee Woei Ng
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (Environmental Chemistry and Materials Centre), Interdisciplinary Graduate Program, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore.,Department of Environmental Health, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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4
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Takahashi H, Katayama K, Sakai M. Selective IR super-resolution imaging of β-keratins at the bulk or interface in feather detected by using a nonlinear optical process. Biophys Chem 2023; 292:106935. [PMID: 36410107 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2022.106935] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
We developed the new IR super-resolution microscope by using a 4-wave mixing (4-wave), which is a third-order nonlinear optical process, and carried out the IR super-resolution imaging of the cross section of the rachis of an avian feather. We clearly observed strong signals in the entire region of the rachis at the amide I vibration of β-keratin in both of the XXYY and YYXX polarization combination. These results are different from images detected by using the vibrational sum-frequency generation (VSFG) method. While the VSFG imaging detects molecules only from the interface, the 4-wave method enables us to observe the signal from the bulk area. We concluded that the four repeating units of β-keratins in the bulk area which are suggested by X-ray diffraction studies are visualized in the 4-wave detected method. We also applied two IR super-resolution microscopies for the barb and discuss the site dependence of the orientation, distribution and concentration of β-keratin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hirona Takahashi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Okayama University of Science 1-1 Ridaicho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-0005, Japan
| | - Kohei Katayama
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Okayama University of Science 1-1 Ridaicho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-0005, Japan
| | - Makoto Sakai
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Okayama University of Science 1-1 Ridaicho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-0005, Japan.
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5
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Electrospun non-wovens potential wound dressing material based on polyacrylonitrile/chicken feathers keratin nanofiber. Sci Rep 2022; 12:15460. [PMID: 36104428 PMCID: PMC9474820 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-19390-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2022] [Accepted: 08/29/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Electrospinning nanofibers have a tremendous interest in biomedical applications such as tissue engineering, drug administration, and wound healing because of their ability to replicate and restore the function of the natural extracellular matrix found in tissues. The study’s highlight is the electrospinning preparation and characterization of polyacrylonitrile with chicken feather keratin as an additive. In this study, keratin was extracted from chicken feather waste using an environmentally friendly method and used to reinforce polymeric nanofiber mats. Scanning electron microscopy, energy dispersive spectroscopy, and transmission electron microscopy were used to examine the morphology and the structure of the prepared nanofiber mats. The effect of keratin on the porosity and the tensile strength of reinforcing nanofibers is investigated. The porosity ratio of the nanofiber mats goes up from 24.52 ± 2.12 for blank polyacrylonitrile (PAN (NF)) to 90.89 ± 1.91% for polyacrylonitrile nanofiber with 0.05 wt% keratin (PAN/0.05% K). Furthermore, keratin reinforcement improves the nanofiber's mechanical properties, which are important for wound dressing application, as well as its antibacterial activity without causing hemolysis (less than 2%). The best antibacterial activities were observed against Pseudomonas aeruginosa (30 ± 0.17 mm inhibition zone) and Staphylococcus aureus (29 ± 0.31 mm inhibition zone) for PAN/0.05% K sample, according to the antibacterial test. This research has a good potential to broaden the use of feather keratin-based nanofibers in wound healing.
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Lin GW, Liang YC, Wu P, Chen CK, Lai YC, Jiang TX, Haung YH, Chuong CM. Regional specific differentiation of integumentary organs: SATB2 is involved in α- and β-keratin gene cluster switching in the chicken. Dev Dyn 2022; 251:1490-1508. [PMID: 34240503 PMCID: PMC8742846 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Animals develop skin regional specificities to best adapt to their environments. Birds are excellent models in which to study the epigenetic mechanisms that facilitate these adaptions. Patients suffering from SATB2 mutations exhibit multiple defects including ectodermal dysplasia-like changes. The preferential expression of SATB2, a chromatin regulator, in feather-forming compared to scale-forming regions, suggests it functions in regional specification of chicken skin appendages by acting on either differentiation or morphogenesis. RESULTS Retrovirus mediated SATB2 misexpression in developing feathers, beaks, and claws causes epidermal differentiation abnormalities (e.g. knobs, plaques) with few organ morphology alterations. Chicken β-keratins are encoded in 5 sub-clusters (Claw, Feather, Feather-like, Scale, and Keratinocyte) on Chromosome 25 and a large Feather keratin cluster on Chromosome 27. Type I and II α-keratin clusters are located on Chromosomes 27 and 33, respectively. Transcriptome analyses showed these keratins (1) are often tuned up or down collectively as a sub-cluster, and (2) these changes occur in a temporo-spatial specific manner. CONCLUSIONS These results suggest an organizing role of SATB2 in cluster-level gene co-regulation during skin regional specification.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gee-Way Lin
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
| | - Ya-Chen Liang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University and Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
| | - Ping Wu
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Chih-Kuan Chen
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- The IEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402204, Taiwan
| | - Yung-Chih Lai
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
- Integrative Stem Cell Center, China Medical University and Hospital, China Medical University, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
- Institute of New Drug Development, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Ting-Xin Jiang
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
| | - Yen-Hua Haung
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Cell Biology, School of Medicine, College of Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei 110301, Taiwan
- TMU Research Center of Cell Therapy and Regeneration Medicine, Taipei Medical University, Taipei, 11031, Taiwan
| | - Cheng-Ming Chuong
- Department of Pathology, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90033, USA
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7
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Babbar N, Sharma G, Arya SK. Effective degradation of chicken feather waste by keratinase enzyme with triton X-100 additive. BIOCATALYSIS AND AGRICULTURAL BIOTECHNOLOGY 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcab.2022.102447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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8
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Siemer AB. What makes functional amyloids work? Crit Rev Biochem Mol Biol 2022; 57:399-411. [PMID: 35997712 PMCID: PMC9588633 DOI: 10.1080/10409238.2022.2113030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2022] [Revised: 06/29/2022] [Accepted: 08/10/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Although first described in the context of disease, cross-β (amyloid) fibrils have also been found as functional entities in all kingdoms of life. However, what are the specific properties of the cross-β fibril motif that convey biological function, make them especially suited for their particular purpose, and distinguish them from other fibrils found in biology? This review approaches these questions by arguing that cross-β fibrils are highly periodic, stable, and self-templating structures whose formation is accompanied by substantial conformational change that leads to a multimerization of their core and framing sequences. A discussion of each of these properties is followed by selected examples of functional cross-β fibrils that show how function is usually achieved by leveraging many of these properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ansgar B Siemer
- Department of Physiology and Neuroscience, Zilkha Neurogenetic Institute, Keck School of Medicine, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA, USA
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9
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Li Q. Perspectives on Converting Keratin-Containing Wastes Into Biofertilizers for Sustainable Agriculture. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:918262. [PMID: 35794912 PMCID: PMC9251476 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.918262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratin-containing wastes become pollution to the environment if they are not treated properly. On the other hand, these wastes can be converted into value-added products applicable to many fields. Organic fertilizers and biofertilizers are important for sustainable agriculture by providing nutrients to enhance the growth speed of the plant and production. Keratin-containing wastes, therefore, will be an important resource to produce organic fertilizers. Many microorganisms exhibit capabilities to degrade keratins making them attractive to convert keratin-containing wastes into valuable products. In this review, the progress in microbial degradation of keratins is summarized. In addition, perspectives in converting keratin into bio- and organic fertilizers for agriculture are described. With proper treatment, feather wastes which are rich in keratin can be converted into high-value fertilizers to serve as nutrients for plants, reduce environmental pressure and improve the quality of the soil for sustainable agriculture.
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10
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Tahoun M, Engeser M, Namasivayam V, Sander PM, Müller CE. Chemistry and Analysis of Organic Compounds in Dinosaurs. BIOLOGY 2022; 11:670. [PMID: 35625398 PMCID: PMC9138232 DOI: 10.3390/biology11050670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
This review provides an overview of organic compounds detected in non-avian dinosaur fossils to date. This was enabled by the development of sensitive analytical techniques. Non-destructive methods and procedures restricted to the sample surface, e.g., light and electron microscopy, infrared (IR) and Raman spectroscopy, as well as more invasive approaches including liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS), time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry, and immunological methods were employed. Organic compounds detected in samples of dinosaur fossils include pigments (heme, biliverdin, protoporphyrin IX, melanin), and proteins, such as collagens and keratins. The origin and nature of the observed protein signals is, however, in some cases, controversially discussed. Molecular taphonomy approaches can support the development of suitable analytical methods to confirm reported findings and to identify further organic compounds in dinosaur and other fossils in the future. The chemical properties of the various organic compounds detected in dinosaurs, and the techniques utilized for the identification and analysis of each of the compounds will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mariam Tahoun
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany; (M.T.); (V.N.)
| | - Marianne Engeser
- Kekulé Institute for Organic Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany;
| | - Vigneshwaran Namasivayam
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany; (M.T.); (V.N.)
| | - Paul Martin Sander
- Institute of Geosciences, Section Paleontology, University of Bonn, D-53113 Bonn, Germany;
| | - Christa E. Müller
- PharmaCenter Bonn, Pharmaceutical Institute, Pharmaceutical & Medicinal Chemistry, University of Bonn, D-53121 Bonn, Germany; (M.T.); (V.N.)
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11
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Timorshina S, Popova E, Osmolovskiy A. Sustainable Applications of Animal Waste Proteins. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14081601. [PMID: 35458349 PMCID: PMC9027211 DOI: 10.3390/polym14081601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 04/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, the growth of the global population leads to an increase in demand for agricultural products. Expanding the obtaining and consumption of food products results in a scale up in the amount of by-products formed, the development of processing methods for which is becoming an urgent task of modern science. Collagen and keratin make up a significant part of the animal origin protein waste, and the potential for their biotechnological application is almost inexhaustible. The specific fibrillar structure allows collagen and keratin to be in demand in bioengineering in various forms and formats, as a basis for obtaining hydrogels, nanoparticles and scaffolds for regenerative medicine and targeted drug delivery, films for the development of biodegradable packaging materials, etc. This review describes the variety of sustainable sources of collagen and keratin and the beneficial application multiformity of these proteins.
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12
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Lin PY, Huang PY, Lee YC, Ng CS. Analysis and comparison of protein secondary structures in the rachis of avian flight feathers. PeerJ 2022; 10:e12919. [PMID: 35251779 PMCID: PMC8893027 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.12919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Avians have evolved many different modes of flying as well as various types of feathers for adapting to varied environments. However, the protein content and ratio of protein secondary structures (PSSs) in mature flight feathers are less understood. Further research is needed to understand the proportions of PSSs in feather shafts adapted to various flight modes in different avian species. Flight feathers were analyzed in chicken, mallard, sacred ibis, crested goshawk, collared scops owl, budgie, and zebra finch to investigate the PSSs that have evolved in the feather cortex and medulla by using nondestructive attenuated total reflection Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR). In addition, synchrotron radiation-based, Fourier transform infrared microspectroscopy (SR-FTIRM) was utilized to measure and analyze cross-sections of the feather shafts of seven bird species at a high lateral resolution to resolve the composition of proteins distributed within the sampled area of interest. In this study, significant amounts of α-keratin and collagen components were observed in flight feather shafts, suggesting that these proteins play significant roles in the mechanical strength of flight feathers. This investigation increases our understanding of adaptations to flight by elucidating the structural and mechanistic basis of the feather composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pin-Yen Lin
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Pei-Yu Huang
- National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, Hsinchu, Taiwan
| | - Yao-Chang Lee
- National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center, Hsinchu, Taiwan,Department of Optics and Photonics, National Central University, Chung-Li, Taoyuan, Taiwan
| | - Chen Siang Ng
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan,Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan,Bioresource Conservation Research Center, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan,The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
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13
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Haase E, Dybus A, Konieczna A, Kovalev A, Gorb S. Effects of a FCBP gene polymorphism, location, and sex on Young's modulus of the tenth primary feather in racing pigeons. Sci Rep 2022; 12:1785. [PMID: 35110587 PMCID: PMC8810990 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-022-05649-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2021] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Young's modulus (E) is a measure for stiffness of a material and a higher E means a higher stiffness. The respective polymorphism of the feather corneous beta-protein gene causes the replacement of glycine by cysteine. We looked for possible effects of the three FCBP genotypes on E in the 10th primaries of racing pigeons. However, we did not find a statistically significant difference of E between the genotypes, even within the sexes and/or within different locations under our test conditions. Our findings do not preclude the possibility that under other conditions (temperature, moisture) an influence of the glycine/cysteine polymorphism on E may exist. Compared to the more proximal locations of the rachis (base and middle) we observed lower values for E in the distal region (tip). The 10th primary constitutes the leading edge of the pigeon wing and this special function may require higher stiffness in the proximal parts of the shaft. We observed significantly higher values of E in females than in males, which result only from statistically significantly higher values in the middle region. The higher stiffness of female primaries may also contribute to the better results of hens compared to cocks in pigeon races.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eberhard Haase
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute of the University of Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24118, Kiel, Germany
| | - Andrzej Dybus
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Biotechnology and Animal Husbandry, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Aleja Piastów 45, 70-311, Szczecin, Poland.
| | - Aneta Konieczna
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute of the University of Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24118, Kiel, Germany.,Department of Genetics, Faculty of Biotechnology and Animal Husbandry, West Pomeranian University of Technology in Szczecin, Aleja Piastów 45, 70-311, Szczecin, Poland
| | - Alexander Kovalev
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute of the University of Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24118, Kiel, Germany
| | - Stanislav Gorb
- Department of Functional Morphology and Biomechanics, Zoological Institute of the University of Kiel, Am Botanischen Garten 1-9, 24118, Kiel, Germany.
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14
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Cai S, Han B, Xu Y, Guo E, Sun B, Zeng Y, Hou H, Wu S. Anisotropic Composition and Mechanical Behavior of a Natural Thin-Walled Composite: Eagle Feather Shaft. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14020309. [PMID: 35054715 PMCID: PMC8780336 DOI: 10.3390/polym14020309] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2021] [Revised: 01/03/2022] [Accepted: 01/05/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Flight feather shafts are outstanding bioinspiration templates due to their unique light weight and their stiff and strong characteristics. As a thin wall of a natural composite beam, the keratinous cortex has evolved anisotropic features to support flight. Here, the anisotropic keratin composition, tensile response, dynamic properties of the cortex, and fracture behaviors of the shafts are clarified. The analysis of Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectra indicates that the protein composition of calamus cortex is almost homogeneous. In the middle and distal shafts (rachis), the content of the hydrogen bonds (HBs) and side-chain is the highest within the dorsal cortex and is consistently lower within the lateral wall. The tensile responses, including the properties and dominant damage pattern, are correlated with keratin composition and fiber orientation in the cortex. As for dynamic properties, the storage modulus and damping of the cortex are also anisotropic, corresponding to variation in protein composition and fibrous structure. The fracture behaviors of bent shafts include matrix breakage, fiber dissociation and fiber rupture on compressive dorsal cortex. To clarify, ‘real-time’ damage behaviors, and an integrated analysis between AE signals and fracture morphologies, are performed, indicating that calamus failure results from a straight buckling crack and final fiber rupture. Moreover, in the dorsal and lateral walls of rachis, the matrix breakage initially occurs, and then the propagation of the crack is restrained by ‘ligament-like’ fiber bundles and cross fiber, respectively. Subsequently, the further matrix breakage, interface dissociation and induced fiber rupture in the dorsal cortex result in the final failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siyu Cai
- International Research Center for Advanced Structural and Biomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; (S.C.); (B.S.)
| | - Baoshuai Han
- Avic Aviation Manufacturing Technology Research Institute, Beijing 100024, China; (B.H.); (Y.Z.); (H.H.)
| | - Yanjin Xu
- Avic Aviation Manufacturing Technology Research Institute, Beijing 100024, China; (B.H.); (Y.Z.); (H.H.)
- Correspondence: (Y.X.); (S.W.)
| | - Enyu Guo
- Key Laboratory of Solidification Control and Digital Preparation Technology (Liaoning Province), School of Materials Science and Engineering, Dalian University of Technology, Dalian 116024, China;
| | - Bin Sun
- International Research Center for Advanced Structural and Biomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; (S.C.); (B.S.)
| | - Yuansong Zeng
- Avic Aviation Manufacturing Technology Research Institute, Beijing 100024, China; (B.H.); (Y.Z.); (H.H.)
| | - Hongliang Hou
- Avic Aviation Manufacturing Technology Research Institute, Beijing 100024, China; (B.H.); (Y.Z.); (H.H.)
| | - Sujun Wu
- International Research Center for Advanced Structural and Biomaterials, School of Materials Science and Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing 100191, China; (S.C.); (B.S.)
- Correspondence: (Y.X.); (S.W.)
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15
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Li Q. Structure, Application, and Biochemistry of Microbial Keratinases. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:674345. [PMID: 34248885 PMCID: PMC8260994 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.674345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratinases belong to a class of proteases that are able to degrade keratins into amino acids. Microbial keratinases play important roles in turning keratin-containing wastes into value-added products by participating in the degradation of keratin. Keratin is found in human and animal hard tissues, and its complicated structures make it resistant to degradation by common proteases. Although breaking disulfide bonds are involved in keratin degradation, keratinase is responsible for the cleavage of peptides, making it attractive in pharmaceutical and feather industries. Keratinase can serve as an important tool to convert keratin-rich wastes such as feathers from poultry industry into diverse products applicable to many fields. Despite of some progress made in isolating keratinase-producing microorganisms, structural studies of keratinases, and biochemical characterization of these enzymes, effort is still required to expand the biotechnological application of keratinase in diverse fields by identifying more keratinases, understanding the mechanism of action and constructing more active enzymes through molecular biology and protein engineering. Herein, this review covers structures, applications, biochemistry of microbial keratinases, and strategies to improve its efficiency in keratin degradation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qingxin Li
- Guangdong Provincial Engineering Laboratory of Biomass High Value Utilization, Institute of Bioengineering, Guangdong Academy of Sciences, Guangzhou, China
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16
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Alibardi L, Eckhart L. Immunolocalization of epidermal differentiation complex proteins reveals distinct molecular compositions of cells that control structure and mechanical properties of avian skin appendages. J Morphol 2021; 282:917-933. [PMID: 33830534 DOI: 10.1002/jmor.21357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2021] [Revised: 04/02/2021] [Accepted: 04/07/2021] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The epidermal differentiation complex (EDC) is a cluster of genes that encode structural proteins of skin derivatives with variable mechanical performances, from the scales of reptiles and birds to the hard claws and beaks, and to the flexible but resistant corneous material of feathers. Corneous proteins with or without extended beta-regions are produced from avian genomes, and include the largely prevalent corneous beta proteins (CβPs, formerly indicated as beta-keratins), and minor contribution from histidine-rich proteins, trichohyalin-like proteins (scaffoldin), loricrin, and other proteins rich in cysteine or other types of amino acids. The light-microscopic and ultrastructural immunolocalization of major and minor EDC-proteins in avian skin (feather CβPs, EDKM, EDWM, EDMTFH, EDDM, and scaffoldin) suggests that each specific appendage consists of a particular mix of these proteins in addition to the main proteins containing a peculiar beta-region of 34 amino acids, indicated as feather/scale/claw/beak CβPs (fCβPs, sCβPs, cCβPs, bCβPs). This indicates that numerous proteins of the EDC are added to the variable meshwork of intermediate filament keratins to produce avian epidermis with different mechanical and functional properties. Although the specific roles for these proteins are not known they likely make an important contribution to the final material properties of the different skin appendages of birds. The highest number of sauropsid CβPs is found in birds, suggesting a relation to the evolution of feathers, and additional epidermal differentiation proteins have contributed to the evolutionary adaptations of avian skin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Alibardi
- Comparative Histolab Padova and Department of Biology, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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17
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Parry DAD. Structures of the ß-Keratin Filaments and Keratin Intermediate Filaments in the Epidermal Appendages of Birds and Reptiles (Sauropsids). Genes (Basel) 2021; 12:591. [PMID: 33920614 PMCID: PMC8072682 DOI: 10.3390/genes12040591] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/15/2021] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
The epidermal appendages of birds and reptiles (the sauropsids) include claws, scales, and feathers. Each has specialized physical properties that facilitate movement, thermal insulation, defence mechanisms, and/or the catching of prey. The mechanical attributes of each of these appendages originate from its fibril-matrix texture, where the two filamentous structures present, i.e., the corneous ß-proteins (CBP or ß-keratins) that form 3.4 nm diameter filaments and the α-fibrous molecules that form the 7-10 nm diameter keratin intermediate filaments (KIF), provide much of the required tensile properties. The matrix, which is composed of the terminal domains of the KIF molecules and the proteins of the epidermal differentiation complex (EDC) (and which include the terminal domains of the CBP), provides the appendages, with their ability to resist compression and torsion. Only by knowing the detailed structures of the individual components and the manner in which they interact with one another will a full understanding be gained of the physical properties of the tissues as a whole. Towards that end, newly-derived aspects of the detailed conformations of the two filamentous structures will be discussed and then placed in the context of former knowledge.
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Affiliation(s)
- David A D Parry
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North 4442, New Zealand
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18
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Abstract
Keratins, as a group of insoluble and filament-forming proteins, mainly exist in certain epithelial cells of vertebrates. Keratinous materials are made up of cells filled with keratins, while they are the toughest biological materials such as the human hair, wool and horns of mammals and feathers, claws, and beaks of birds and reptiles which usually used for protection, defense, hunting and as armor. They generally exhibit a sophisticated hierarchical structure ranging from nanoscale to centimeter-scale: polypeptide chain structures, intermediated filaments/matrix structures, and lamellar structures. Therefore, more and more attention has been paid to the investigation of the relationship between structure and properties of keratins, and a series of biomimetic materials based on keratin came into being. In this chapter, we mainly introduce the hierarchical structure, the secondary structure, and the molecular structure of keratins, including α- and β-keratin, to promote the development of novel keratin-based biomimetic materials designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenwen Zhang
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China
| | - Yimin Fan
- Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center of Efficient Processing and Utilization of Forest Resources, International Innovation Center for Forest Chemicals and Materials, College of Chemical Engineering, Nanjing Forestry University, Nanjing, China.
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19
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Microbial enzymes catalyzing keratin degradation: Classification, structure, function. Biotechnol Adv 2020; 44:107607. [PMID: 32768519 PMCID: PMC7405893 DOI: 10.1016/j.biotechadv.2020.107607] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 07/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Keratin is an insoluble and protein-rich epidermal material found in e.g. feather, wool, hair. It is produced in substantial amounts as co-product from poultry processing plants and pig slaughterhouses. Keratin is packed by disulfide bonds and hydrogen bonds. Based on the secondary structure, keratin can be classified into α-keratin and β-keratin. Keratinases (EC 3.4.-.- peptide hydrolases) have major potential to degrade keratin for sustainable recycling of the protein and amino acids. Currently, the known keratinolytic enzymes belong to at least 14 different protease families: S1, S8, S9, S10, S16, M3, M4, M14, M16, M28, M32, M36, M38, M55 (MEROPS database). The various keratinolytic enzymes act via endo-attack (proteases in families S1, S8, S16, M4, M16, M36), exo-attack (proteases in families S9, S10, M14, M28, M38, M55) or by action only on oligopeptides (proteases in families M3, M32), respectively. Other enzymes, particularly disulfide reductases, also play a key role in keratin degradation as they catalyze the breakage of disulfide bonds for better keratinase catalysis. This review aims to contribute an overview of keratin biomass as an enzyme substrate and a systematic analysis of currently sequenced keratinolytic enzymes and their classification and reaction mechanisms. We also summarize and discuss keratinase assays, available keratinase structures and finally examine the available data on uses of keratinases in practical biorefinery protein upcycling applications.
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20
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Immunohistochemical detection of sulfhydryl oxidase in chick skin appendages and feathers suggests that the enzyme contributes to maturation of the corneous material. ZOOMORPHOLOGY 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s00435-020-00498-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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21
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Watase Y, Takahashi H, Ushio K, Fujii M, Sakai M. IR super-resolution imaging of avian feather keratins detected by using vibrational sum-frequency generation. Biophys Chem 2020; 267:106482. [PMID: 33022568 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpc.2020.106482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2020] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/19/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
IR super-resolution imaging of the cross section of the rachis of an avian feather was carried out by using a vibrational sum-frequency generation (VSFG) detected IR microscope with a sub-micrometer spatial resolution. In the YYX polarization combination, we clearly observed strong signals in the entire region of the rachis at the amide I vibration of β-keratin. On the other hand, the signal disappears from most of the cross section in the XXY polarization combination. Because the VSFG imaging detects the signal only from the interface, we conclude that the interfacial deflection inside of a rachis was detected.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yukihisa Watase
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
| | - Hirona Takahashi
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Okayama University of Science 1-1 Ridai-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-0005, Japan
| | - Kohei Ushio
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan
| | - Masaaki Fujii
- Laboratory for Chemistry and Life Science, Tokyo Institute of Technology 4259 Nagatsuta-cho, Midori-ku, Yokohama 226-8503, Japan.
| | - Makoto Sakai
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Okayama University of Science 1-1 Ridai-cho, Kita-ku, Okayama 700-0005, Japan.
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22
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Structure and topology of the linkers in the conserved lepidosaur β-keratin chain with four 34-residue repeats support an interfilament role for the central linker. J Struct Biol 2020; 212:107599. [PMID: 32800921 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2020.107599] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2020] [Revised: 07/10/2020] [Accepted: 08/07/2020] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The β-keratin chain with four 34-residue repeats that is conserved across the lepidosaurs (lizards, snakes and tuatara) contains three linker regions as well as a short, conserved N-terminal domain and a longer, more variable C-terminal domain. Earlier modelling had shown that only six classes of structure involving the four 34-residue repeats were possible. In three of these the 34-residue repeats were confined to a single filament (Classes 1, 2 and 3) whereas in the remaining three classes the repeats lay in two, three or four filaments, with some of the linkers forming interfilament connections (Classes 4, 5 and 6). In this work the members of each class of structure (a total of 20 arrangements) have been described and a comparison has been made of the topologies of each of the linker regions. This provides new constraints on the structure of the chain as a whole. Also, analysis of the sequences of the three linker regions has revealed that the central linker (and only the central linker) contains four short regions displaying a distinctive dipeptide repeat of the form (S-X)2,3 separated by short regions containing proline and cysteine residues. By analogy with silk fibroin proteins this has the capability of forming a β-sheet-like conformation. Using the topology and sequence data the evidence suggests that the four 34-residue repeat chain adopts a Class 4a structure with a β-sandwich in filament 1 connected through the central linker to a β-sandwich in filament 2.
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23
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Su C, Gong JS, Ye JP, He JM, Li RY, Jiang M, Geng Y, Zhang Y, Chen JH, Xu ZH, Shi JS. Enzymatic Extraction of Bioactive and Self-Assembling Wool Keratin for Biomedical Applications. Macromol Biosci 2020; 20:e2000073. [PMID: 32691954 DOI: 10.1002/mabi.202000073] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2020] [Revised: 05/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Keratin is widely recognized as a high-quality renewable protein resource for biomedical applications. Despite their extensive existence, keratin resources such as feathers, wool, and hair exhibit high stability and mechanical properties because of their high disulfide bond content. Consequently, keratin extraction is challenging and its application is greatly hindered. In this work, a biological extraction strategy is proposed for the preparation of bioactive keratin and the fabrication of self-assembled keratin hydrogels (KHs). Based on moderate and controlled hydrolysis by keratinase, keratin with a high molecular weight of approximately 45 and 28 kDa that retain its intrinsic bioactivities is obtained. The keratin products show excellent ability to promote cell growth and migration and are conferred with significant antioxidant ability because of their intrinsically high cysteine content. In addition, without the presence of any cross-linking agent, the extracted keratin can self-assemble into injectable hydrogels. The KHs exhibit a porous network structure and 3D culture ability, showing potential in promoting wound healing. This enzyme-driven keratin extraction strategy opens up a new approach for the preparation of keratin that can self-assemble into injectable hydrogels for biomedical engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chang Su
- C. Su, Dr. J.-S. Gong, J.-P. Ye, J.-M. He, Dr. R.-Y. Li, M. Jiang, Dr. Y. Geng, Dr. Y. Zhang, Prof. J.-H. Chen, Prof. J.-S, Shi, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
| | - Jin-Song Gong
- C. Su, Dr. J.-S. Gong, J.-P. Ye, J.-M. He, Dr. R.-Y. Li, M. Jiang, Dr. Y. Geng, Dr. Y. Zhang, Prof. J.-H. Chen, Prof. J.-S, Shi, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
| | - Jin-Peng Ye
- C. Su, Dr. J.-S. Gong, J.-P. Ye, J.-M. He, Dr. R.-Y. Li, M. Jiang, Dr. Y. Geng, Dr. Y. Zhang, Prof. J.-H. Chen, Prof. J.-S, Shi, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
| | - Ji-Meng He
- C. Su, Dr. J.-S. Gong, J.-P. Ye, J.-M. He, Dr. R.-Y. Li, M. Jiang, Dr. Y. Geng, Dr. Y. Zhang, Prof. J.-H. Chen, Prof. J.-S, Shi, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
| | - Rui-Yi Li
- C. Su, Dr. J.-S. Gong, J.-P. Ye, J.-M. He, Dr. R.-Y. Li, M. Jiang, Dr. Y. Geng, Dr. Y. Zhang, Prof. J.-H. Chen, Prof. J.-S, Shi, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
| | - Min Jiang
- C. Su, Dr. J.-S. Gong, J.-P. Ye, J.-M. He, Dr. R.-Y. Li, M. Jiang, Dr. Y. Geng, Dr. Y. Zhang, Prof. J.-H. Chen, Prof. J.-S, Shi, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
| | - Yan Geng
- C. Su, Dr. J.-S. Gong, J.-P. Ye, J.-M. He, Dr. R.-Y. Li, M. Jiang, Dr. Y. Geng, Dr. Y. Zhang, Prof. J.-H. Chen, Prof. J.-S, Shi, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
| | - Yan Zhang
- C. Su, Dr. J.-S. Gong, J.-P. Ye, J.-M. He, Dr. R.-Y. Li, M. Jiang, Dr. Y. Geng, Dr. Y. Zhang, Prof. J.-H. Chen, Prof. J.-S, Shi, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
| | - Jing-Hua Chen
- C. Su, Dr. J.-S. Gong, J.-P. Ye, J.-M. He, Dr. R.-Y. Li, M. Jiang, Dr. Y. Geng, Dr. Y. Zhang, Prof. J.-H. Chen, Prof. J.-S, Shi, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
| | - Zheng-Hong Xu
- Prof. Z.-H. Xu, National Engineering Laboratory for Cereal Fermentation Technology, School of Biotechnology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China.,Prof. Z.-H. Xu, Jiangsu Provincial Research Center for Bioactive Product Processing Technology, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
| | - Jin-Song Shi
- C. Su, Dr. J.-S. Gong, J.-P. Ye, J.-M. He, Dr. R.-Y. Li, M. Jiang, Dr. Y. Geng, Dr. Y. Zhang, Prof. J.-H. Chen, Prof. J.-S, Shi, Key Laboratory of Carbohydrate Chemistry and Biotechnology, Ministry of Education, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jiangnan University, Wuxi, 214122, P. R. China
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24
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Laurent CM, Dyke JM, Cook RB, Dyke G, de Kat R. Spectroscopy on the wing: Investigating possible differences in protein secondary structures in feather shafts of birds using Raman spectroscopy. J Struct Biol 2020; 211:107529. [PMID: 32416130 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2020.107529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2020] [Revised: 04/24/2020] [Accepted: 05/03/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The central shaft of a bird's flight feather bears most of the aerodynamic load during flight and exhibits some remarkable mechanical properties. The shaft comprises two parts, the calamus and the rachis. The calamus is at the base of the shaft, while the rachis is the longer upper part which supports the vanes. The shaft is composed of a fibrous outer cortex, and an inner foam-like core. Recent nanoindentation experiments have indicated that reduced modulus values, Er, for the inner and outer regions of the cortex can vary, with the Er values of the inner region slightly greater than those of the outer region. In this work, Raman spectroscopy is used to investigate the protein secondary structures in the inner and outer regions of the feather cortex. Analysis of the Amide I region of Raman spectra taken from four birds (Swan, Gull, Mallard and Kestrel) shows that the β-sheet structural component decreases between the inner and outer region, relative to the protein side-chain components. This finding is consistent with the proposal that Er values are greater in the inner region than the outer region. This work has shown that Raman spectroscopy can be used effectively to study the change in protein secondary structure between the inner and outer regions of a feather shaft.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christian M Laurent
- Aerodynamics and Flight Mechanics, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK; Ocean and Earth Science, National Oceanography Centre, SO17 1BJ, UK; Department of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, Romania.
| | - John M Dyke
- School of Chemistry, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK.
| | - Richard B Cook
- nCATS National Centre for Advanced Tribology Southampton, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK
| | - Gareth Dyke
- Department of Biology and Geology, Babes-Bolyai University, Romania
| | - Roeland de Kat
- Aerodynamics and Flight Mechanics, University of Southampton, SO17 1BJ, UK; Faculty of Military Sciences, Netherlands Defence Academy, The Netherlands
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25
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Navone L, Speight R. Enzymatic removal of dags from livestock: an agricultural application of enzyme technology. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2020; 104:5739-5748. [PMID: 32405756 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-020-10656-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2020] [Revised: 04/23/2020] [Accepted: 04/29/2020] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
The effective removal of dags (manure balls) from cattle, sheep and goats is a significant issue for the livestock industry. Dags are hard recalcitrant deposits composed of materials, such as faeces, hair, soil, urine, feed and straw, and attach to the animal through the hair rather than the skin. Dags build up during wet periods, especially on long haired breeds, and can weigh up to 40 kg per animal for cattle. Dag removal prior to slaughter reduces the risk of microbial meat contamination and damage to the hide during leather processing. Existing removal methods include hair trimming or extensive hose washing that can result in stress to the animal and increased costs. An alternative solution is the application of enzyme formulations that target specific components of the dag so they are more easily removed by washing. Enzymes are already used in other cleaning applications and are proven for the breakdown of materials such as lignocellulose, protein or starch that are found in dags. This mini-review discusses the challenges of current dag removal methods and the state of the art and feasibility of applying enzyme formulations for the effective removal of dags. Although enzyme formulations are yet to be tested in large-scale cattle trials and questions remain regarding how they would be cost-effectively applied to live animals, the results at laboratory scale suggest further research is warranted. Overall, enzymes present an environmentally friendly solution to the high costs and animal welfare issues of current dag removal methods through significant reductions in cleaning time and water use. KEY POINTS: • Dag formation on livestock is a major issue for industry and for animal welfare. • Current methods are costly and challenging for operators and the animal. • Enzymes can degrade dag components to aid release with keratinases showing promise. • Dag removal needs to be field tested, and positive business cases must be generated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Navone
- Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Robert Speight
- Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
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26
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Hassan MA, Abol-Fotouh D, Omer AM, Tamer TM, Abbas E. Comprehensive insights into microbial keratinases and their implication in various biotechnological and industrial sectors: A review. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 154:567-583. [PMID: 32194110 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.03.116] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2020] [Accepted: 03/13/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Enormous masses of keratinous wastes are annually accumulated in the environment as byproducts of poultry processing and agricultural wastes. Keratin is a recalcitrant fibrous protein, which represents the major constituent of various keratin-rich wastes, which released into the environment in the form of feathers, hair, wool, bristle, and hooves. Chemical treatment methods of these wastes resulted in developing many hazardous gases and toxins to the public health, in addition to the destruction of several amino acids. Accordingly, microbial keratinases have been drawing much interest as an eco-friendly approach to convert keratinous wastes into valuable products. Numerous keratinolytic microorganisms have been identified, which revealed the competence to hydrolyze keratins into peptides and amino acids. Several types of keratinolytic proteases have been produced that possess diverse biochemical characteristics, conferring them the versatility for implementing in multifarious applications such as detergents, leather and textile industries, animal feeding, and production of bio-fertilizers, in addition to medical and pharmaceutical treatments. This review article emphasizes the significance of keratinases and keratinase based-products via comprehensive insights into the keratin structure, diversity of keratinolytic microorganisms, and mechanisms of keratin hydrolysis. Furthermore, we discuss the biochemical properties of the produced keratinases and their feasible applications in diverse disciplines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed A Hassan
- Protein Research Department, Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology Research Institute (GEBRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab City, P.O. Box: 21934, Alexandria, Egypt.
| | - Deyaa Abol-Fotouh
- Electronic Materials Researches Department, Advanced Technology and New Materials Research Institute (ATNMRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab City, P.O. Box: 21934, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Ahmed M Omer
- Polymer Materials Research Department, Advanced Technology and New Materials Research Institute (ATNMRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab City, P.O. Box: 21934, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Tamer M Tamer
- Polymer Materials Research Department, Advanced Technology and New Materials Research Institute (ATNMRI), City of Scientific Research and Technological Applications (SRTA-City), New Borg El-Arab City, P.O. Box: 21934, Alexandria, Egypt
| | - Eman Abbas
- Zoology Department, Faculty of Science, Alexandria University, Alexandria, Egypt
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27
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Preczeski KP, Dalastra C, Czapela FF, Kubeneck S, Scapini T, Camargo AF, Zanivan J, Bonatto C, Stefanski FS, Venturin B, Fongaro G, Treichel H. Fusarium oxysporum and Aspergillus sp. as Keratinase Producers Using Swine Hair From Agroindustrial Residues. Front Bioeng Biotechnol 2020; 8:71. [PMID: 32117946 PMCID: PMC7026017 DOI: 10.3389/fbioe.2020.00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Technological processes mediated by microorganisms and enzymes are promising alternatives for treatment of recalcitrant residues. Keratinases hydrolyze keratin, the primary component of some wastes generated in many industrial activities. The present study was designed to evaluate strategies for obtaining keratinases produced by fungi using submerged fermentation and two residues as substrates, chicken feathers and swine hair. Two fungi isolated from feather residues showed potential for keratinase production, Fusarium oxysporum and Aspergillus sp. These were subjected to submerged fermentation using chicken feathers and swine hair prepared in three conditions (microbial concentration reduction, sterilization and hydrogen peroxide). The residual mass was quantified and tested for keratinase production. The most potent enzymatic extract was used in the precipitation technique with salts and organic solvents. The best results of enzymatic activity were obtained using F. oxysporum, on the 6thday of fermentation, obtaining 243.25 U mL–1 using sterilized swine hair as the substrate. Aspergillus sp. showed the highest keratinolytic activity on the 9thday, 113.50 U mL–1 using feathers as the substrate. The highest degradation percentage was 59.20% (w/w) in swine hair and the precipitation technique, with relative activities close to 50%. The results are promising for the application of residues and microorganisms in biotechnological processes of economic and environmental interest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karina Paula Preczeski
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Bioprocess, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Erechim, Brazil
| | - Caroline Dalastra
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Bioprocess, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Erechim, Brazil
| | | | - Simone Kubeneck
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Bioprocess, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Erechim, Brazil
| | - Thamarys Scapini
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Bioprocess, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Erechim, Brazil
| | - Aline Frumi Camargo
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Bioprocess, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Erechim, Brazil
| | - Jessica Zanivan
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Bioprocess, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Erechim, Brazil
| | - Charline Bonatto
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Bioprocess, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Erechim, Brazil.,Department of Chemical and Food Engineering, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Fábio Spitza Stefanski
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Bioprocess, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Erechim, Brazil
| | - Bruno Venturin
- Department of Agricultural Science, Agricultural Engineering Post-Graduate Program, Universidade Estadual do Oeste do Paraná, Cascavel, Brazil
| | - Gislaine Fongaro
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Bioprocess, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Erechim, Brazil.,Laboratory of Applied Virology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
| | - Helen Treichel
- Laboratory of Microbiology and Bioprocess, Federal University of Fronteira Sul, Erechim, Brazil.,Laboratory of Applied Virology, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Brazil
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28
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Donato RK, Mija A. Keratin Associations with Synthetic, Biosynthetic and Natural Polymers: An Extensive Review. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 12:E32. [PMID: 31878054 PMCID: PMC7023547 DOI: 10.3390/polym12010032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/26/2019] [Revised: 12/17/2019] [Accepted: 12/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Among the biopolymers from animal sources, keratin is one the most abundant, with a major contribution from side stream products from cattle, ovine and poultry industry, offering many opportunities to produce cost-effective and sustainable advanced materials. Although many reviews have discussed the application of keratin in polymer-based biomaterials, little attention has been paid to its potential in association with other polymer matrices. Thus, herein, we present an extensive literature review summarizing keratin's compatibility with other synthetic, biosynthetic and natural polymers, and its effect on the materials' final properties in a myriad of applications. First, we revise the historical context of keratin use, describe its structure, chemical toolset and methods of extraction, overview and differentiate keratins obtained from different sources, highlight the main areas where keratin associations have been applied, and describe the possibilities offered by its chemical toolset. Finally, we contextualize keratin's potential for addressing current issues in materials sciences, focusing on the effect of keratin when associated to other polymers' matrices from biomedical to engineering applications, and beyond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ricardo K. Donato
- Institute of Macromolecular Chemistry, Czech Academy of Sciences, Heyrovského nám. 2, 162 06 Prague 6, Czech Republic
- Institute of Chemistry of Nice, UMR CNRS 7272, Université Côte d’Azur, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice CEDEX 2, France
| | - Alice Mija
- Institute of Chemistry of Nice, UMR CNRS 7272, Université Côte d’Azur, University of Nice Sophia Antipolis, Parc Valrose, 06108 Nice CEDEX 2, France
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29
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Fraser RDB, Parry DAD. Lepidosaur ß-keratin chains with four 34-residue repeats: Modelling reveals a potential filament-crosslinking role. J Struct Biol 2019; 209:107413. [PMID: 31698074 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2019.107413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 10/16/2019] [Accepted: 11/02/2019] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
ß-keratin chains contain a characteristic and homologous 34-residue sequence, which is believed to adopt a twisted ß-sheet conformation that assembles in an antiparallel manner with a similar sheet in a second chain to form a ß-sandwich. These sandwiches are, in turn, related to one another by a left-handed four-fold screw axis to generate a helical structure that forms the core of the 3.4 nm diameter filaments observed by electron microscopy and deduced from X-ray fibre diffraction. Recently, it has been shown that one ß-keratin chain, with a molecular weight approximately twice that of the majority of ß-keratin chains, is conserved across the lepidosaurs (lizards, snakes and tuatara). Uniquely, it contains four 34-residue repeats. Although this chain is a minor component the observation that the entire chain shows a high degree of sequence conservation between species suggests an important structural/functional role in vivo. Modelling shows that only six families of structures are physically possible. In three of these the repeats exist within a single filament and might therefore act in a filament nucleation role. In the second three families the repeats exist in two, three or four filaments, implying that their function may be to act as an inter-filament crosslinker, thereby providing lateral reinforcement to the epidermal appendage. The favoured model is one in which the first two repeats form a β-sandwich in one filament and the second two repeats form a β-sandwich in a neighbouring filament. Links between alternating up- and down-pointing β-sheets would provide optimum connectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Bruce Fraser
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand
| | - David A D Parry
- School of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand; Riddet Institute, Massey University, Private Bag 11-222, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
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30
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Lachner J, Ehrlich F, Mlitz V, Hermann M, Alibardi L, Tschachler E, Eckhart L. Immunolocalization and phylogenetic profiling of the feather protein with the highest cysteine content. PROTOPLASMA 2019; 256:1257-1265. [PMID: 31037447 PMCID: PMC6713690 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-019-01381-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Feathers are the most complex skin appendages of vertebrates. Mature feathers consist of interconnected dead keratinocytes that are filled with heavily cross-linked proteins. Although the molecular architecture determines essential functions of feathers, only few feather proteins have been characterized with regard to their amino acid sequences and evolution. Here, we identify Epidermal Differentiation protein containing DPCC Motifs (EDDM) as a cysteine-rich protein that has co-evolved with other feather proteins. The EDDM gene is located within the avian epidermal differentiation complex (EDC), a cluster of genes that has originated and diversified in amniotes. EDDM shares the exon-intron organization with EDC genes of other amniotes, including humans, and a gene encoding an EDDM-like protein is present in crocodilians, suggesting that avian EDDM arose by sequence modification of an epidermal differentiation gene present in a common ancestor of archosaurs. The EDDM protein contains multiple sequence repeats and a higher number of cysteine residues than any other protein encoded in the EDC. Immunohistochemical analysis of chicken skin and skin appendages showed expression of EDDM in barb and barbules of feathers as well as in the subperiderm on embryonic scutate scales. These results suggest that the diversification and differential expression of EDDM, besides other EDC genes, was instrumental in facilitating the evolution of the most complex molecular architecture of feathers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Lachner
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Florian Ehrlich
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Veronika Mlitz
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marcela Hermann
- Department of Medical Biochemistry, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Erwin Tschachler
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Research Division of Biology and Pathobiology of the Skin, Department of Dermatology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria.
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31
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Zou M, Zhou J, Xu L, Song J, Liu S, Li X. An engineering perspective on the microstructure and compression properties of the seagull Larus argentatus feather rachis. Micron 2019; 126:102735. [PMID: 31450186 DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2019.102735] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2019] [Revised: 08/17/2019] [Accepted: 08/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
The feathers of the seagull Larus argentatus are lightweight but can withstand high alternating stresses and exhibit excellent stiffness and strength. The shaft is an important part of the feather, with the functions of body protection and supporting flight. In this study, the microstructure properties of L. argentatus feather rachis were analysed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM). These analysis methods enabled the configuration, structure and compression properties of the rachis to be investigated. The results indicated that the rachis was composed of the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The cortex had a continuous layered nano-fibre composite structure, which bears, transmits, absorbs and disperses the compression force. The medulla had bubble-like cells with a porous-fibre structure, which rapidly absorbs, transmits and consumes compression force and is a suitably lightweight material for flight. Axial compression tests showed that the rachis from primary feathers had the best energy absorption and that from secondary feathers had the best compressive strength. The compressive strength might have something to do with the ratio of cortical area to medullary area. When the moisture content in the rachis increased, the compressive strength of feather rachis in different parts would decrease. These results indicate that the L. argentatus feather rachis have excellent compression resistance properties, deriving from structural factor.
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Affiliation(s)
- Meng Zou
- Key Lab of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China
| | - Jianfei Zhou
- Key Lab of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China
| | - Lihan Xu
- Key Lab of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China
| | - Jiafeng Song
- Key Lab of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China
| | - Shengfu Liu
- Key Lab of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China
| | - Xiujuan Li
- Key Lab of Bionic Engineering, Ministry of Education, Jilin University, Changchun, 130025, China.
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32
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Chen S, Hori N, Kajiyama M, Takemura A. Graft modification of methyl acrylate onto chicken feather via surface initiated Cu(0)‐mediated reversible‐deactivation radical polymerization. J Appl Polym Sci 2019. [DOI: 10.1002/app.48246] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sikai Chen
- Department of Biomaterial Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life SciencesThe University of Tokyo, 1‐1‐1 Yayoi, Bunkyo‐ku Tokyo 113‐8657 Japan
| | - Naruhito Hori
- Department of Biomaterial Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life SciencesThe University of Tokyo, 1‐1‐1 Yayoi, Bunkyo‐ku Tokyo 113‐8657 Japan
| | - Mikio Kajiyama
- Graduate School of Life and Environmental SciencesUniversity of Tsukuba, 1‐1‐1 Tennodai, Tsukuba Ibaraki 305‐8577 Japan
| | - Akio Takemura
- Department of Biomaterial Sciences, Graduate School of Agricultural and Life SciencesThe University of Tokyo, 1‐1‐1 Yayoi, Bunkyo‐ku Tokyo 113‐8657 Japan
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33
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Parry DA, Fraser RB, Alibardi L, Rutherford KM, Gemmell N. Molecular structure of sauropsid β-keratins from tuatara (Sphenodon punctatus). J Struct Biol 2019; 207:21-28. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jsb.2019.04.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2019] [Revised: 04/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/08/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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34
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Gnat S, Nowakiewicz A, Łagowski D, Zięba P. Host- and pathogen-dependent susceptibility and predisposition to dermatophytosis. J Med Microbiol 2019; 68:823-836. [PMID: 31050630 DOI: 10.1099/jmm.0.000982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Dermatophytes are a highly specialized group of keratinophilic and keratinolytic filamentous fungi causing a ringworm disease called dermatophytosis or superficial mycoses. Although dermatophyte infections do not threaten the host's life, they lower its quality in humans by causing discomfort related to cosmetic problems and through their epidemiological significance, whereas in farm animals they are responsible for economic losses and constitute a source of the spread of spores. Evidence from countless observational studies that have been conducted over the last 90 years indicates that dermatophytes infect humans of every age, race, gender and socioeconomic status with strikingly high rates, as well as both farmed and wild animals in various health conditions and with various epidemiological statuses. However, the prevalence of superficial fungal infections is highly variable, since it depends on several parameters associated with the infected individual and the dermatophyte, their mutual interactions, and epidemiological and geographical factors. The curious disparity in dermatophyte infection patterns has prompted many investigators to search for a link between the host, the host's predispositions and susceptibility to the disease, and the dermatophyte species and virulence. Thus, the question arises as to whether, in addition to the generally recognized factors predisposing hosts to diseases, there are some other predispositions to dermatophyte infections in a species-specific host. In this review, we describe recent findings about the mechanism of dermatophyte infections, focusing on the adaptation of the fungi to the host and conditions predisposing each side to the disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Gnat
- 1 University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Akademicka 12, 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Aneta Nowakiewicz
- 1 University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Akademicka 12, 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Dominik Łagowski
- 1 University of Life Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Akademicka 12, 20-033 Lublin, Poland
| | - Przemysław Zięba
- 2 State Veterinary Laboratory, Droga Męczenników Majdanka 50, 20-325 Lublin, Poland
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35
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Holthaus KB, Eckhart L, Dalla Valle L, Alibardi L. Review: Evolution and diversification of corneous beta‐proteins, the characteristic epidermal proteins of reptiles and birds. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2019; 330:438-453. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/10/2018] [Revised: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/23/2018] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Karin Brigit Holthaus
- Department of DermatologyMedical University of ViennaWien Austria
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche ed Ambientali (BiGeA)University of BolognaBologna Italy
| | - Leopold Eckhart
- Department of DermatologyMedical University of ViennaWien Austria
| | | | - Lorenzo Alibardi
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biologiche, Geologiche ed Ambientali (BiGeA)University of BolognaBologna Italy
- Comparative Histolab PadovaPadova Italy
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36
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Vineis C, Varesano A, Varchi G, Aluigi A. Extraction and Characterization of Keratin from Different Biomasses. KERATIN AS A PROTEIN BIOPOLYMER 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-02901-2_3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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37
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Shah A, Tyagi S, Bharagava RN, Belhaj D, Kumar A, Saxena G, Saratale GD, Mulla SI. Keratin Production and Its Applications: Current and Future Perspective. KERATIN AS A PROTEIN BIOPOLYMER 2019. [DOI: 10.1007/978-3-030-02901-2_2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
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38
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Gnat S, Łagowski D, Nowakiewicz A, Zięba P. The host range of dermatophytes, it is at all possible? Phenotypic evaluation of the keratinolytic activity of Trichophyton verrucosum clinical isolates. Mycoses 2019; 62:274-283. [PMID: 30537378 DOI: 10.1111/myc.12876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2018] [Revised: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Dermatophytes are fungi that have an ability to invade keratinised structures. Enzymes secreted by dermatophytes can underlie fungal survival on the host and development of infection. It is possible that the range of activity of keratinases from various dermatophytes is limited to specific species of animals and groups of people. The aim of this study was to carry out phenotypic analysis of the degree of keratinolytic activity of Trichophyton verrucosum strains using hairs of humans and various animal species as substrates. Our results indicated that the activity of keratinases is substrate-induced. The host range of T. verrucosum can be defined as wide. The highest activity of keratinases was recorded in media containing keratin from cow (Bos taurus) and sheep (Ovis aries) hairs in comparison with that from other tested species. The production of keratin-degrading enzymes is a function of time, with the peak of their activity occurring on day 15 of incubation. The role of keratin-degrading enzymes in the pathogenesis of dermatophytosis is becoming increasingly clearer. Given the conceptual understanding that keratin breakdown may require more than just one enzyme, the use of phenotypic methods is an optimal approach to in vitro study of the decomposition of species-specific keratin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian Gnat
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Dominik Łagowski
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
| | - Aneta Nowakiewicz
- Institute of Biological Bases of Animal Diseases, Sub-Department of Veterinary Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Life Sciences, Lublin, Poland
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39
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Schweitzer MH, Zheng W, Moyer AE, Sjövall P, Lindgren J. Preservation potential of keratin in deep time. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0206569. [PMID: 30485294 PMCID: PMC6261410 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0206569] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2017] [Accepted: 10/16/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Multiple fossil discoveries and taphonomic experiments have established the durability of keratin. The utility and specificity of antibodies to identify keratin peptides has also been established, both in extant feathers under varying treatment conditions, and in feathers from extinct organisms. Here, we show localization of feather-keratin antibodies to control and heat-treated feathers, testifying to the repeatability of initial data supporting the preservation potential of keratin. We then show new data at higher resolution that demonstrates the specific response of these antibodies to the feather matrix, we support the presence of protein in heat-treated feathers using ToF-SIMS, and we apply these methods to a fossil feather preserved in the unusual environment of sinter hot springs. We stress the importance of employing realistic conditions such as sediment burial when designing experiments intended as proxies for taphonomic processes occurring in the fossil record. Our data support the hypothesis that keratin, particularly the β-keratin that comprises feathers, has potential to preserve in fossil remains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mary Higby Schweitzer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
- North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
- Department of Geology, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Wenxia Zheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Alison E. Moyer
- Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Peter Sjövall
- RISE Research Institutes of Sweden, Chemistry and Materials, Borås, Sweden
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40
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Ng CS, Li WH. Genetic and Molecular Basis of Feather Diversity in Birds. Genome Biol Evol 2018; 10:2572-2586. [PMID: 30169786 PMCID: PMC6171735 DOI: 10.1093/gbe/evy180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Feather diversity is striking in many aspects. Although the development of feather has been studied for decades, genetic and genomic studies of feather diversity have begun only recently. Many questions remain to be answered by multidisciplinary approaches. In this review, we discuss three levels of feather diversity: Feather morphotypes, intraspecific variations, and interspecific variations. We summarize recent studies of feather evolution in terms of genetics, genomics, and developmental biology and provide perspectives for future research. Specifically, this review includes the following topics: 1) Diversity of feather morphotype; 2) feather diversity among different breeds of domesticated birds, including variations in pigmentation pattern, in feather length or regional identity, in feather orientation, in feather distribution, and in feather structure; and 3) diversity of feathers among avian species, including plumage color and morph differences between species and the regulatory differences in downy feather development between altricial and precocial birds. Finally, we discussed future research directions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chen Siang Ng
- Institute of Molecular and Cellular Biology & Department of Life Science, National Tsing Hua University, Hsinchu, Taiwan.,The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan
| | - Wen-Hsiung Li
- The iEGG and Animal Biotechnology Center, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung, Taiwan.,Biodiversity Research Center, Academia Sinica, Taipei, Taiwan.,Department of Ecology and Evolution, University of Chicago
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41
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Navone L, Speight R. Understanding the dynamics of keratin weakening and hydrolysis by proteases. PLoS One 2018; 13:e0202608. [PMID: 30114294 PMCID: PMC6095591 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0202608] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Keratin is the structural protein in hair, nails, feathers and horns. Keratin is recalcitrant, highly disulfide bonded and is generally inaccessible to common proteases. Only certain types of proteases, called keratinases, are able to cleave the peptide bonds within the keratin structure. Due to this outstanding activity, keratinases have potential application in industries such as livestock, cosmetics and pharmaceuticals. Yet, the process of enzymatic keratin degradation is poorly understood, affecting the development of industrial enzyme formulations that may require full or only partial modification or weakening. Here we investigate the dynamics of keratin weakening and hydrolysis, showing that the decrease in hair mechanical strength is associated with cuticle removal and damage to the cortex and complete breakdown is dependent on reducing agents. Proteases with keratinolytic activity were selected and applied to hair with degradation examined by mechanical, biochemical and microscopic techniques. The extent of keratin degradation was highly enhanced by the presence of reducing agents, principally sodium thioglycolate, exceeding 90% degradation within 16 h of enzymatic treatment. Application was extended to feathers showing that the findings are relevant to improving the use of keratinases in a variety of industries. Overall, the outcomes provide valuable insights into the keratin degradation process by enzymes for the optimization of cosmetic and pharmaceutical products and for livestock waste recycling among other important applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Navone
- Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Robert Speight
- Science and Engineering Faculty, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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42
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Microbial production and industrial applications of keratinases: an overview. Int Microbiol 2018; 21:163-174. [DOI: 10.1007/s10123-018-0022-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2018] [Revised: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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43
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Esparza Y, Bandara N, Ullah A, Wu J. Hydrogels from feather keratin show higher viscoelastic properties and cell proliferation than those from hair and wool keratins. MATERIALS SCIENCE & ENGINEERING. C, MATERIALS FOR BIOLOGICAL APPLICATIONS 2018; 90:446-453. [PMID: 29853111 DOI: 10.1016/j.msec.2018.04.067] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/13/2017] [Revised: 03/25/2018] [Accepted: 04/22/2018] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Hydrogel prepared from keratin shows potential applications in tissue engineering. However, the importance of the keratin sources has not been considered. The objectives of this study were to characterize and compare the rheological (storage modulus), physical (porosity, pore size, swelling capacity, and water contact angle) and in vitro cell compatibility of hydrogel scaffolds prepared from various keratin sources. Keratins were characterized by means of their molecular weight, amino acid composition, thermal and conformational properties. Hydrogels from chicken feather keratins demonstrated substantially higher storage modulus (G') than hair and wool keratin hydrogels. However, higher swelling capacity (>3000%) was determined in hair and wool over feather keratin (1500%) hydrogels. Our results suggest that small molecular weight and β-sheet conformation of feather keratin (~10 kDa) facilitated the self-assembly of rigid hydrogels through disulfide bond re-oxidation. Whereas, high molecular weight (10-75 kDa) stretchable α-helix conformation in hair and wool keratins resulted in weaker hydrogels. The cell cultures using fibroblasts showed the highest proliferation rate on chicken feather keratin hydrogel scaffolds. After 15 days of culture, partial breakdown of keratin fibers was observed. Results indicate that stiffer avian keratins can be used to fabricate more mechanically robust biomaterials than mammalian keratins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yussef Esparza
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Ag/For Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Nandika Bandara
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Ag/For Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Aman Ullah
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Ag/For Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2P5, Canada
| | - Jianping Wu
- Department of Agricultural, Food and Nutritional Science, 4-10 Ag/For Building, University of Alberta, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2P5, Canada.
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44
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Endoh KS, Kawakatsu T, Müller-Plathe F. Coarse-Grained Molecular Simulation Model for Gecko Feet Keratin. J Phys Chem B 2018; 122:2203-2212. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.7b10481] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kenkoh S. Endoh
- Eduard-Zintl-Institut
für Anorganische und Phzsikalische Chemie, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Alarich-Weiss-Street 8, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany
- Department
of Physics, Tohoku University, Aramaki Aza Aoba 6-3, Aoba-ku, 980-8578 Sendai, Japan
| | - Toshihiro Kawakatsu
- Department
of Physics, Tohoku University, Aramaki Aza Aoba 6-3, Aoba-ku, 980-8578 Sendai, Japan
| | - Florian Müller-Plathe
- Eduard-Zintl-Institut
für Anorganische und Phzsikalische Chemie, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Alarich-Weiss-Street 8, D-64287 Darmstadt, Germany
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45
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Lai HY, Wang S, Singh V, Nguyen LTH, Ng KW. Evaluating the antioxidant effects of human hair protein extracts. JOURNAL OF BIOMATERIALS SCIENCE-POLYMER EDITION 2018; 29:1081-1093. [DOI: 10.1080/09205063.2017.1421345] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Hui Ying Lai
- Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (Environmental Chemistry and Materials Centre), Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Shuai Wang
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Vaishali Singh
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Luong T. H. Nguyen
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Kee Woei Ng
- Nanyang Environment & Water Research Institute (Environmental Chemistry and Materials Centre), Interdisciplinary Graduate School, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
- School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanyang Technological University, Singapore, Singapore
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46
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Kowalczyk P, Mahdi-Oraibi S, Misiewicz A, Gabzdyl N, Miskiewicz A, Szparecki G. Feather-Degrading Bacteria: Their Biochemical and Genetic Characteristics. ARABIAN JOURNAL FOR SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING 2018. [DOI: 10.1007/s13369-017-2700-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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47
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Fraser RDB, Parry DAD. Structural Hierarchy of Trichocyte Keratin Intermediate Filaments. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1054:57-70. [PMID: 29797268 DOI: 10.1007/978-981-10-8195-8_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Although trichocyte keratins (hair, wool, quill, claw) have been studied since the 1930s it is only over the last 30 years or so that major advances have been made in our understanding of the complex structural hierarchy of the filamentous component of this important filament-matrix composite. A variety of techniques, including amino acid sequence analysis, computer modelling, X-ray fibre diffraction and protein crystallography, various forms of electron microscopy, and crosslinking methods have now combined to reveal much of the structural detail. The heterodimeric structure of the keratin molecule is clear, as are the highly-specific modes by which these molecules aggregate to form functionally viable IF. The observation that hair keratin can adopt not one but two structurally-distinct conformations, one formed in the living cells at the base of the hair follicle in a reducing environment and the second in the fully differentiated hair in dead cells in an oxidized state, was unexpected but has major implications for the mechanism of hair growth. Insights have also been made into the mechanism of the uppermost level of hair superstructure, relating to the assembly of the IF in the paracortical and orthocortical macrofibrils.
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Affiliation(s)
- R D Bruce Fraser
- Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.,, Tewantin, QLD, Australia
| | - David A D Parry
- Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand. .,Riddet Institute, Massey University, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
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48
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Moyer AE, Zheng W, Schweitzer MH. Microscopic and immunohistochemical analyses of the claw of the nesting dinosaur, Citipati osmolskae. Proc Biol Sci 2017; 283:rspb.2016.1997. [PMID: 28120795 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2016.1997] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2016] [Accepted: 10/19/2016] [Indexed: 02/02/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the most well-recognized Cretaceous fossils is Citipati osmolskae (MPC-D 100/979), an oviraptorid dinosaur discovered in brooding position on a nest of unhatched eggs. The original description refers to a thin lens of white material extending from a manus ungual, which was proposed to represent original keratinous claw sheath that, in life, would have covered it. Here, we test the hypothesis that this exceptional morphological preservation extends to the molecular level. The fossil sheath was compared with that of extant birds, revealing similar morphology and microstructural organization. In living birds, the claw sheath consists primarily of two structural proteins; alpha-keratin, expressed in all vertebrates, and beta-keratin, found only in reptiles and birds (sauropsids). We employed antibodies raised against avian feathers, which comprise almost entirely of beta-keratin, to demonstrate that fossil tissues respond with the same specificity, though less intensity, as those from living birds. Furthermore, we show that calcium chelation greatly increased antibody reactivity, suggesting a role for calcium in the preservation of this fossil material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison E Moyer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA .,Department of Biology, Drexel University, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Wenxia Zheng
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA
| | - Mary H Schweitzer
- Department of Biological Sciences, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA.,North Carolina Museum of Natural Sciences, Raleigh, NC 27601, USA
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49
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Fabrication of human hair keratin/jellyfish collagen/eggshell-derived hydroxyapatite osteoinductive biocomposite scaffolds for bone tissue engineering: From waste to regenerative medicine products. Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces 2017; 154:160-170. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfb.2017.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 03/15/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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50
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Alibardi L. Review: cornification, morphogenesis and evolution of feathers. PROTOPLASMA 2017; 254:1259-1281. [PMID: 27614891 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-016-1019-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2016] [Accepted: 08/19/2016] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Feathers are corneous microramifications of variable complexity derived from the morphogenesis of barb ridges. Histological and ultrastructural analyses on developing and regenerating feathers clarify the three-dimensional organization of cells in barb ridges. Feather cells derive from folds of the embryonic epithelium of feather germs from which barb/barbule cells and supportive cells organize in a branching structure. The following degeneration of supportive cells allows the separation of barbule cells which are made of corneous beta-proteins and of lower amounts of intermediate filament (IF)(alpha) keratins, histidine-rich proteins, and corneous proteins of the epidermal differentiation complex. The specific protein association gives rise to a corneous material with specific biomechanic properties in barbules, rami, rachis, or calamus. During the evolution of different feather types, a large expansion of the genome coding for corneous feather beta-proteins occurred and formed 3-4-nm-thick filaments through a different mechanism from that of 8-10 nm IF keratins. In the chick, over 130 genes mainly localized in chromosomes 27 and 25 encode feather corneous beta-proteins of 10-12 kDa containing 97-105 amino acids. About 35 genes localized in chromosome 25 code for scale proteins (14-16 kDa made of 122-146 amino acids), claws and beak proteins (14-17 kDa proteins of 134-164 amino acids). Feather morphogenesis is periodically re-activated to produce replacement feathers, and multiple feather types can result from the interactions of epidermal and dermal tissues. The review shows schematic models explaining the translation of the morphogenesis of barb ridges present in the follicle into the three-dimensional shape of the main types of branched or un-branched feathers such as plumulaceous, pennaceous, filoplumes, and bristles. The temporal pattern of formation of barb ridges in different feather types and the molecular control from the dermal papilla through signaling molecules are poorly known. The evolution and diversification of the process of morphogenesis of barb ridges and patterns of their formation within feathers follicle allowed the origin and diversification of numerous types of feathers, including the asymmetric planar feathers for flight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lorenzo Alibardi
- Comparative Histolab and Department of BIGEA, University of Bologna, via Selmi 3, 40126, Bologna, Italy.
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