Red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) as a specific and underappreciated reservoir of resistant and virulent coagulase-positive Staphylococcus spp. strains

The aim of the study was to analyze the presence of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus in swabs collected from red foxes and to characterize the drug resistance and virulence of these bacteria. In total, 415 rectal and oral swabs were collected, and coagulase-positive strains of S. pseudintermedius (n = 104) and S. aureus (n = 27) were identified using multiplex-PCR and MALDI TOF MS. Subsequent analyses showed the highest phenotypic resistance of the strains to penicillin (16.8%) and tetracycline (30.5%) confirmed by the presence of the blaZ, tetM, and tetK genes. Slightly lower resistance to erythromycin (6.9%), clindamycin (9.2%), gentamicin, streptogramins, rifampicin, nitrofurantoin, and sulphamethoxazol/trimetophrim was exhibited by single strains. Several virulence genes in a few different combinations were detected in S. aureus; LukE-LukD, and seB were the most frequent genes (37%), LukE-LukD, seB, and seC were detected in 11% of the strains, and PVL, etA, etB, and tst genes were present in two or single strains. The results of our research have confirmed that the red fox is an underestimated reservoir of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus strains, with approximately 50% of carriers of at least one resistance gene. In turn, 88.8% of the S. aureus strains had one or more virulence genes; therefore, this species of wildlife animals should be monitored as part of epidemiological surveillance.

A rich mosaic of resistance in extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing Escherichia coli isolated from red foxes (Vulpes vulpes) in Poland as a potential effect of increasing synanthropization

In our research, we analyzed the resistance of cephalosporin-resistant E. coli strains to antimicrobial agents. The strains were collected during five years from wild animal species commonly inhabiting Poland. We have identified the type of β-lactamases produced and the multidrug-resistance profile. Most strains (73.8%) had genes encoding ESBL enzymes, mainly CTX-M-1 and TEM. Almost all AmpC-β-lactamase-producing isolates had the bla_CMY-2 gene. Almost 70% of the strains tested showed a multi-drug resistance profile. The dominant phenotype was resistance to tetracycline (69.05%), and/or sulfamethoxazole (57.1%). We also found high resistance to quinolones: ciprofloxacin 35.7% and nalidixic acid 52.4%. The phenotypic resistance of the strains was in most cases confirmed by the presence of corresponding genes. Among strains, 26.2% were carriers of plasmid-mediated quinolone resistance genes (PMQR). MLST analysis revealed a large clonal variation of the strains, which was reflected in 28 different sequence types. More than half of the strains (54.7%) were classified into the following sequence complexes: 10, 23, 69, 101, 155, 156, 168, 354, 398, 446, and 648. Only one strain in the studied group was assigned to the ExPEC pathotype and represented sequence type 117. The results of our research have confirmed that isolates obtained from wild animals possess many resistance determinants and sequence types, which are also found in food-producing animals and humans. This reflects the doctrine of "One health", which clearly indicates that human health is inextricably linked with animal health as well as degree of environmental contamination. We conclude that the resistance and virulence profiles of strains isolated from wildlife animals may be a resultant of various sources encountered by animals, creating a rich and varied mosaic of genes, which is very often unpredictable and not reflected in the correlation between the sequence type and the gene profile of resistance or virulence observed in epidemic clones.

Diagnostic and epidemiological analysis of Trichophyton benhamiae infection on an alpaca (Vicugna pacos) farm in Poland

Alpacas (Vicugna pacos) are growing in popularity and are increasingly being presented for veterinary care. Literature reports indicate that dermatophytosis occurring in alpacas accounted for about 3% of dermatological diagnoses. However, there are no reports regarding species of dermatophytes associated with alpacas and reservoirs of infection. In this study, we investigate the diagnosis and epidemiological origin procedure and the virulence enzymes activities of Trichophyton benhamiae isolates obtained from alpacas from a breeding farm. Identification was carried out traditionally by correlating clinical manifestations with micro- and macroscopic examination, and molecular differentiation methods based on Internal Transcribed Spacer (ITS) sequences. Epidemiological analysis was carried out on the basis of Melting Point PCR (MP -PCR) and Amplified Fragment Lenght Polymorphism (AFLP) genotyping. The production of virulence factors was evaluated phenotypically using specific test media. The results obtained from diagnostic tests indicated that the etiological factor of dermatophytosis is T. benhamiae. The same species was also isolated from cowsheds and insects. The MP-PCR and AFLP analyses indicated high invariability of the genomes of the strains isolated from the animals, cowsheds, and insects. In conclusion, animal husbandry outside the natural ecological niche may increase predisposition to dermatophytosis. The treatment of animals alone is insufficient, one should be aware that only elimination of all fungal sources is a long-term success and the key point of therapy.

Virulence and Antimicrobial Resistance Pattern of Aeromonas spp. Colonizing European Pond Turtles Emys orbicularis and Their Natural Environment. First Study from Poland

The aim of the study was to isolate and identify species belonging to the Aeromonas genus and evaluate the antimicrobial resistance and virulence patterns of isolates colonizing European pond turtles (Emys orbicularis) from natural environment of Eastern Poland. In total, 74 turtles and 15 samples of water from their natural environment were examined. More than 40 strains were isolated and identified: A. bestiarum (n = 1), A. hydrophila (n = 13), A. allosaccharophila (n = 2), A. salmonicida (n = 3), and A. veronii (n = 23). The highest incidence of resistance was noted for ampicillin (100%) and sulfamethoxazole (62.0%), followed by erythromycin and colistin (both 40.5%). Moreover, eight strains were intermediately resistant to meropenem (19%). Most Aeromonas isolates were found to possess more than one virulence gene among fla, aer, hlyA, act, ela, alt, and ast. We showed that the population of free-living European pond turtles was highly colonized by Aeromonas spp. Such strains may be an infectious agent not only for the population of turtles but also for other species of animals inhabiting their natural environment. Moreover, the undesirable properties of water quality caused by the presence of drug-resistant aeromonads could have a negative impact on human health.

Analysis of the occurrence and molecular characteristics of drug-resistant strains of Enterococcus faecalis isolated from the gastrointestinal tract of insectivorous bat species in Poland: A possible essential impact on the spread of drug resistance?

Bats are poorly understood as a reservoir of multidrug-resistant strains; therefore, the aim of this study was to determine molecular characterization of multidrug-resistant Enterococcus strains isolated from bat species from Poland. A multi-stage analysis based on targeted isolation of drug-resistant strains (selective media with tetracycline, chloramphenicol, gentamicin, streptomycin, and vancomycin), determination of the phenotypic profile of drug-susceptibility using the disc diffusion method, and amplification of DNA fragments surrounding rare restriction sites (ADSRRS-fingerprinting) was used for the isolation and differentiation of strains. The applied strategy finally allowed identification of E. faecalis resistant to at least one antimicrobial in 47.2% of the single-animal group and in 46.9% of the pooled samples of bat's guano. Out of the 36 distinct isolates, 69% met the criteria of multi-drug resistance, with a dominant combination of resistance to tetracycline, erythromycin, and rifampicin. Simultaneously, 41.6% of the strains were high-level aminoglycoside resistant (HLAR). In most strains, phenotypic resistance was reflected in the presence of at least one gene encoding resistance to a given drug. Moreover, our research results show that some genes were detected simultaneously in the same strain statistically significantly more frequently. This may confirm that the spread of some genes (tetM and ermB or aph (3')-IIIa as well as gelE and aac (6')-Ie-aph (2″)-Ia or ant (6)-Ia) is associated with their common occurrence on the same mobile genetic element. To our knowledge, this is the first analysis of multidrug-resistance among E. faecalis isolated from bats. Our research demonstrates that the One Health concept is not associated exclusively with food-producing animals and humans, but other species of wildlife animals should be covered by monitoring programs as well. We confirmed for the first time that bats are an important reservoir of multi-resistant E. faecalis strains and could have a great impact on environmental resistance.

Last Call for Replacement of Antimicrobials in Animal Production: Modern Challenges, Opportunities, and Potential Solutions

The constant market demand for easily available and cheap food of animal origin necessitates an increasing use of antibiotics in animal production. The alarming data provided by organizations monitoring drug resistance in indicator and pathogenic bacteria isolated from humans and animals indicate a possible risk of a return to the preantibiotic era. For this reason, it seems that both preventive and therapeutic measures, taken as an alternative to antimicrobials, seem not only advisable but also necessary. Nevertheless, the results of various studies and market analyses, as well as difficulties in the implementation of alternative substances into veterinary medicine, do not guarantee that the selected alternatives will completely replace antimicrobials in veterinary medicine and animal production on a global scale. This publication is a brief overview of the drug resistance phenomenon and its determinants, the steps taken to solve the problem, including the introduction of alternatives to antimicrobials, and the evaluation of some factors influencing the potential implementation of alternatives in animal production. The review also presents two groups of alternatives, which, given their mechanism of action and spectrum, are most comparable to the effectiveness of antibiotics, as emphasized by the authors.

Wildlife omnivores and herbivores as a significant vehicle of multidrug-resistant and pathogenic Escherichia coli strains in environment

The phenomenon of resistance of Escherichia coli strains in free-living animals has been constantly expanding in recent years. However, the data are still fragmented and, due to the growing threat to public health, there is a constant need to search for and analyse new reservoirs and indicate their role and importance in the circulation of resistance genes in the environment. Therefore, the target group in this study were free-living non-predatory animals as reservoirs of drug-resistant and potentially virulent E. coli strains. We obtained 70 different isolates, including 71.4% of multidrug-resistant strains. In strains isolated from all species of animals, we determined high resistance to ampicillin (95.7%), tetracycline (64.3%), streptomycin (51.4%) and chloramphenicol (38.6%). Every third of the E. coli-positive individual was a carrier of more than one resistant clone. Moreover, 11.4% of isolates among the resistant strains had the ExPEC, ETEC, or EHEC pathotype. Our study confirmed that not only free-living predatory animals are reservoirs of resistance but also many synanthropic species of herbivores and omnivores contribute substantially to the spread of resistant and virulent E. coli strains.

Dermatophytosis with concurrent Trichophyton verrucosum and T. benhamiae in calves after long-term transport

BACKGROUND

Dermatophytosis is a common problem in cattle. The aetiological factors associated with this disease are filamentous fungi with the ability to digest and grow on keratinized substrates. In cattle, and less frequently in other domestic animals and people, the dermatophyte Trichophyton verrucosum is most commonly isolated from skin lesions. The dermatophyte Trichophyton benhamiae is an important zoonotic pathogen, and the main sources of transmission are guinea pigs and other small rodents.

OBJECTIVES

In this report, we show multispecies infection in calves (Bos taurus) after long-term transport and vaccination against trichophytosis.

ANIMALS

Sixty animals were imported of which 32 were observed to be affected with superficial infection nine to 12 days after vaccination for dermatophytosis.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Diagnosis was made correlating the clinical signs with a micro- and macroscopic examination of cultured fungi. Molecular differentiation was used to confirm the species affiliation.

RESULTS

Eight of the calves were infected with T. verrucosum alone, and 24 calves with both T. verrucosum and T. benhamiae. We suggest that the cause of this large outbreak was immunosuppression of the animals resulting from the stress of transport and administration of vaccine.

CONCLUSION

Both T. verrucosum and T. benhamiae can be seen concurrently in cattle.

Wildlife Carnivorous Mammals As a Specific Mirror of Environmental Contamination with Multidrug-Resistant Escherichia coli Strains in Poland

In recent decades, the number of studies on the occurrence of resistant strains in wildlife animals has increased significantly, but data are still fragmentary. The aim of this study was to evaluate drug resistance of Escherichia coli strains isolated from wild carnivorous mammals, common in Poland. Selective media with antimicrobials (tetracycline, kanamycin, chloramphenicol, and cefotaxime) were used for isolation. Of 53 isolates shown to be distinct by the amplification of DNA fragments surrounding rare restriction site-fingerprinting method, 77.8% were multidrug-resistant (multidrug-resistant). All strains were resistant to ampicillin and many of them also exhibited resistance to tetracycline (76.2%), sulfamethoxazole (57.1%), streptomycin and kanamycin (49.2%), chloramphenicol (30.1%), and nalidixic acid (46%). In most cases, the phenotypic resistance profile was confirmed by detection of relevant genes mostly occurring in strains isolated from livestock animals and humans. Extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing strains were detected in one mink and three martens. The strains were carriers of bla_TEM-1, bla_TEM-135, and bla_CTX-M-15 genes. Our research confirmed a high carrier rate of MDR E. coli, even more than one MDR strain in a single individual; therefore, wider monitoring in this group of animals should be considered.

A significant number of multi-drug resistant Enterococcus faecalis in wildlife animals; long-term consequences and new or known reservoirs of resistance?

As the last link in the food chain in a complex ecosystem covering at least three different environmental spheres, species of wildlife carnivorous mammals constitute a group accumulating potential pathogens and factors resulting from human activity, including the emergence of drug resistance. Therefore, the aim of this study was to evaluate the level and range of resistance in commensal E. faecalis isolated from wildlife carnivorous mammals and genetic relationships in terms of the source of these strains as well as resistance and virulence genes. Differentiation between strains was performed based on ADSRRS-fingerprinting method. The results showed that almost half of the tested animals (48%) were carriers of at least one multidrug resistant E. faecalis strain. Moreover, 44% of MDR-positive animals showed two or three strains differing in both the genotype and the resistance phenotype. A significant percentage of strains were resistant to high-level aminoglycosides (from 20% to even 57.5%). The resistance and virulence gene profiles showed a rich panel of genes closely related to isolates from nosocomial infection and from livestock animals. The presence of the same genotypes in different hosts reflects not only a possible transfer of genes between E. faecalis strains but also exchange of strains between animals. The obtained results reflect a very high level of contamination of animals that are not subjected to targeted antibiotic therapy, which may suggest the degree of pollution of the environment. Wildlife animals and their environment can be a link closing the circulation cycle of genes and even epidemiologically important strains; therefore, there is a high risk that this pool will never run out and will be maintained at a high level.

Bats as a reservoir of resistant Escherichia coli: A methodical view. Can we fully estimate the scale of resistance in the reservoirs of free-living animals?

Bats are a poorly understood reservoir of pathogenic and multi-drug resistant microorganisms; therefore, the aim of the study was to analyze the presence of drug resistance among E. coli isolated from the species of bats occurring naturally in Poland. The strategy of isolation and identification of resistant strains from pooled and single-animal samples was based on selective media with cefotaxime, chloramphenicol, kanamycin and tetracycline, the use of the ADSRRS-fingerprinting method for genomic differentiation of isolates, and the classical methods of evaluation of phenotypic and genotypic resistance. Of the 78 isolated isolates confirmed as E. coli, there were 38 genetically distinct strains resistant at least to one antimicrobial. 71% of these strains met the multi-drug resistance criterion. Moreover, two different multidrug resistant strains were isolated from three single samples. The highest resistance was observed in the case of ampicillin (66%), kanamycin (84%), sulfamethoxazole/trimetoprim (61%/55% respectively), and streptomycin (50%), which in most cases was confirmed by the presence of an adequate gene. Two isolates from single hosts produced extended-spectrum beta-lactamases (bla_CTX-M-3, bla_CTX-M-15, bla_TEM-1). With the exception of tetracycline resistance, which was dominant among isolates from single animals, no significant differences in the resistance of the strains from both groups of samples were observed. Bats should not be neglected as another environmental reservoir and as an unpredictable source of potential pathogenic and multidrug resistant bacteria and should be extensively studied to predict the direction of the development and range of spreading resistance.

In search of the source of dermatophytosis: Epidemiological analysis of Trichophyton verrucosum infection in llamas and the breeder (case report)

During the last few years, the number of cases of Trichophyton verrucosum isolation from humans suffering from mycoses has been constantly increasing, which is correlated with the presence of an increasing number of outdoor breeding farms. Farmers and their families as well as veterinarians and technicians involved in handling the animals are at a higher risk of infection. One of the most important aims of mycological diagnostics is epidemiological analysis. Typically, the history of the disease is not sufficient to indicate reliably and eliminate the outbreak of infection. PCR fingerprinting methods are a useful tool in this type of analysis, which is presented in this study. The main aim is to present diagnostic and epidemiological analyses of dermatophyte isolates from llamas and their breeder. In two llamas, round alopecia sites or ca. 2-cm excoriations covered with thickened scaling epidermis were noticed at the border of the head and neck with a distinct tendency towards hair loss. Tinea unguium was noticed in a nail of the breeder's right hand. Direct analysis of the material from the clinical lesions revealed the presence of arthrospores. The macro- and micromorphology of the isolates were homogeneous and characteristic for T. verrucosum. The identification analysis based on the ITS sequences confirmed the previous morphological diagnostic examination. The MP-PCR and MSP-PCR analysis indicated high invariability of the genomes of the strains isolated from the human and animals. The epidemiological research has indicated an identical source of dermatophyte infection in the breeder and the lamas. To sum up, the number of pets and farm animals is increasing and dermatologists should always be informed about possible dermatophyte transmission sources. The possibility of transmission of zoophilic dermatophytes from humans to animals is a suggestion for further analysis; therefore, this type of transmission should be considered in dermatological studies.

Antimicrobial activity of some plant extracts against bacterial pathogens isolated from faeces of red deer (Cervus elaphus)

Antibacterial activity is the most widely studied aspect of plant extracts. Antibiotics extensively produced and consumed in large quantities, have proved to be problematic due to various types of adverse effects. The development of bacterial resistance to currently available antibiotics has necessitated the search for new antibacterial agents. One of the alternative strategies for fighting antibiotic- resistant bacteria is the use of natural antimicrobial substances such as plant extracts. We tested the antimicrobial activity of nine extracts from different plants against pathogenic bacteria isolated from the faeces of red deer (Cervus elaphus). Selected bacteria commonly contaminated the natural environment and constitute a source of infection in other animals and humans. Extracts obtained from the following plants were tested: Hypericum perforatum L., Chamomilla recutita L., Achillea millefolium L., Salvia officinalis L., Thymus vulgaris L., Pinus sylvestris L., Mentha x piperita L., Valeriana officinalis L. and Foeniculum vulgare Mill. The highest degree of antibacterial properties was observed for Mentha x piperita L., narrower spectrum of activity possessed Hypericum perforatum L. Extracts of Achillea millefolium L. had the lowest spectrum of antibacterial activity. Our study confirms that many plant extracts shows in vitro antibacterial activity.

Detection of Coxiella burnetii and Francisella tularensis in Tissues of Wild-living Animals and in Ticks of North-west Poland

This work presents results of the research on the occurrence of Coxiella burnetii and Francisella tularensis in the tissues of wild-living animals and ticks collected from Drawsko County, West Pomeranian Voivodeship. The real-time PCR testing for the pathogens comprised 928 samples of animal internal organs and 1551 ticks. The presence of C. burnetii was detected in 3% of wild-living animals and in 0.45–3.45% (dependent on collection areas) of ticks. The genetic sequences of F. tularensis were present in 0.49 % of ticks (only in one location – Drawa) and were not detected in animal tissues. The results indicate respectively low proportion of animals and ticks infected with C. burnetii and F. tularensis.

Host- and pathogen-dependent susceptibility and predisposition to dermatophytosis

Dermatophytes are a highly specialized group of keratinophilic and keratinolytic filamentous fungi causing a ringworm disease called dermatophytosis or superficial mycoses. Although dermatophyte infections do not threaten the host's life, they lower its quality in humans by causing discomfort related to cosmetic problems and through their epidemiological significance, whereas in farm animals they are responsible for economic losses and constitute a source of the spread of spores. Evidence from countless observational studies that have been conducted over the last 90 years indicates that dermatophytes infect humans of every age, race, gender and socioeconomic status with strikingly high rates, as well as both farmed and wild animals in various health conditions and with various epidemiological statuses. However, the prevalence of superficial fungal infections is highly variable, since it depends on several parameters associated with the infected individual and the dermatophyte, their mutual interactions, and epidemiological and geographical factors. The curious disparity in dermatophyte infection patterns has prompted many investigators to search for a link between the host, the host's predispositions and susceptibility to the disease, and the dermatophyte species and virulence. Thus, the question arises as to whether, in addition to the generally recognized factors predisposing hosts to diseases, there are some other predispositions to dermatophyte infections in a species-specific host. In this review, we describe recent findings about the mechanism of dermatophyte infections, focusing on the adaptation of the fungi to the host and conditions predisposing each side to the disease.

The host range of dermatophytes, it is at all possible? Phenotypic evaluation of the keratinolytic activity of Trichophyton verrucosum clinical isolates

Dermatophytes are fungi that have an ability to invade keratinised structures. Enzymes secreted by dermatophytes can underlie fungal survival on the host and development of infection. It is possible that the range of activity of keratinases from various dermatophytes is limited to specific species of animals and groups of people. The aim of this study was to carry out phenotypic analysis of the degree of keratinolytic activity of Trichophyton verrucosum strains using hairs of humans and various animal species as substrates. Our results indicated that the activity of keratinases is substrate-induced. The host range of T. verrucosum can be defined as wide. The highest activity of keratinases was recorded in media containing keratin from cow (Bos taurus) and sheep (Ovis aries) hairs in comparison with that from other tested species. The production of keratin-degrading enzymes is a function of time, with the peak of their activity occurring on day 15 of incubation. The role of keratin-degrading enzymes in the pathogenesis of dermatophytosis is becoming increasingly clearer. Given the conceptual understanding that keratin breakdown may require more than just one enzyme, the use of phenotypic methods is an optimal approach to in vitro study of the decomposition of species-specific keratin.

A new locality of the Haemaphysalis concinna tick (Koch, 1844) in Poland and its role as a potential vector of infectious diseases

The Haemaphysalis concinna tick is a rare species in Poland. To date, it was found only once a few decades ago. During tick collection for epidemiological studies, a stable population of this arachnid was found in a military training area near Nowa Dęba. This report is particularly important, given the role of Haemaphysalis concinna in the spread of dangerous vector-borne diseases.

Determination of antimicrobial resistance of Enterococcus strains isolated from pigs and their genotypic characterization by method of amplification of DNA fragments surrounding rare restriction sites (ADSRRS fingerprinting)

PURPOSE

In this study, we analysed phenotypic resistance profiles and their reflection in the genomic profiles of Enterococcus spp. strains isolated from pigs raised on different farms.

METHODOLOGY

Samples were collected from five pig farms (n=90 animals) and tested for Enterococcus. MICs of 12 antimicrobials were determined using the broth microdilution method, and epidemiological molecular analysis of strains belonging to selected species (faecalis, faecium and hirae) was performed using the ADSRRS-fingerprinting (amplification of DNA fragments surrounding rare restriction sites) method with a few modifications.

RESULTS

The highest percentage of strains was resistant to tetracycline (73.4 %), erythromycin and tylosin (42.5 %) and rifampin (25.2 %), and a large number of strains exhibited high-level resistance to both kanamycin (25.2 %) and streptomycin (27.6 %). The strains of E. faecalis, E. faecium and E. hirae (n=184) revealed varied phenotypic resistance profiles, among which as many as seven met the criteria for multidrug resistance (30.4 % of strains tested). ADSRRS-fingerprinting analysis produced 17 genotypic profiles of individual strains which were correlated with their phenotypic resistance profiles. Only E. hirae strains susceptible to all of the chemotherapeutics tested had two different ADSRRS profiles. Moreover, eight animals were carriers of more than one genotype belonging to the same Enterococcus spp., mainly E. faecalis.

CONCLUSION

Given the possibility of transmission to humans of the high-resistance/multidrug resistance enterococci and the significant role of pigs as food animals in this process, it is necessary to introduce a multilevel control strategy by carrying out research on the resistance and molecular characteristics of indicator bacterial strains isolated from animals on individual farms.

Characterization of Multidrug Resistant E. faecalis Strains from Pigs of Local Origin by ADSRRS-Fingerprinting and MALDI -TOF MS; Evaluation of the Compatibility of Methods Employed for Multidrug Resistance Analysis

The aim of this study was to characterize multidrug resistant E. faecalis strains from pigs of local origin and to analyse the relationship between resistance and genotypic and proteomic profiles by amplification of DNA fragments surrounding rare restriction sites (ADSRRS-fingerprinting) and matrix-assisted laser desorption ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI -TOF MS). From the total pool of Enterococcus spp. isolated from 90 pigs, we selected 36 multidrug resistant E. faecalis strains, which represented three different phenotypic resistance profiles. Phenotypic resistance to tetracycline, macrolides, phenicols, and lincomycin and high-level resistance to aminoglycosides were confirmed by the occurrence of at least one corresponding resistance gene in each strain. Based on the analysis of the genotypic and phenotypic resistance of the strains tested, five distinct resistance profiles were generated. As a complement of this analysis, profiles of virulence genes were determined and these profiles corresponded to the phenotypic resistance profiles. The demonstration of resistance to a wide panel of antimicrobials by the strains tested in this study indicates the need of typing to determine the spread of resistance also at the local level. It seems that in the case of E. faecalis, type and scope of resistance strongly determines the genotypic pattern obtained with the ADSRRS-fingerprinting method. The ADSRRS-fingerprinting analysis showed consistency of the genetic profiles with the resistance profiles, while analysis of data with the use of the MALDI- TOF MS method did not demonstrate direct reproduction of the clustering pattern obtained with this method. Our observations were confirmed by statistical analysis (Simpson’s index of diversity, Rand and Wallace coefficients). Even though the MALDI -TOF MS method showed slightly higher discrimination power than ADSRRS-fingerprinting, only the latter method allowed reproduction of the clustering pattern of isolates based on phenotypic resistance and analysis of resistance and virulence genes (Wallace coefficient 1.0). This feature seems to be the most useful for epidemiological purposes and short-term analysis.

Free-Living Species of Carnivorous Mammals in Poland: Red Fox, Beech Marten, and Raccoon as a Potential Reservoir of Salmonella, Yersinia, Listeria spp. and Coagulase-Positive Staphylococcus

The objective of the study was to examine a population of free-living carnivorous mammals most commonly found in Poland (red fox, beech marten, and raccoon) for the occurrence of bacteria that are potentially pathogenic for humans and other animal species and to determine their virulence potential (the presence of selected virulence genes). From the total pool of isolates obtained (n = 328), we selected 90 belonging to species that pose the greatest potential threat to human health: Salmonella spp. (n = 19; 4.51%), Yersinia enterocolitica (n = 10; 2.37%), Listeria monocytogenes and L. ivanovii (n = 21), and Staphylococcus aureus (n = 40; 9.5%). The Salmonella spp. isolates represented three different subspecies; S. enterica subsp. enterica accounted for a significant proportion (15/19), and most of the serotypes isolated (S. Typhimurium, S. Infantis, S. Newport and S. Enteritidis) were among the 10 non-typhoidal Salmonella serotypes that are most often responsible for infections in Europe, including Poland. Y. enterococlitica was detected in the smallest percentage of animals, but 60% of strains among the isolates tested possessed the ail gene, which is responsible for attachment and invasion. Potentially pathogenic Listeria species were isolated from approx. 5% of the animals. The presence of all tested virulence genes was shown in 35% of L. monocytogenes strains, while in the case of the other strains, the genes occurred in varying numbers and configurations. The presence of the inlA, inlC, hlyA, and iap genes was noted in all strains, whereas the genes encoding PI-PLC, actin, and internalin Imo2821 were present in varying percentages (from 80% to 55%). S. aureus was obtained from 40 individuals. Most isolates possessed the hla, hld (95% for each), and hlb (32.5%) genes encoding hemolysins as well as the gene encoding leukotoxin lukED (70%). In a similar percentage of strains (77.5%), the presence of at least one gene encoding enterotoxin was found, with 12.5% exhibiting the presence of egc-like variants. In two animals, we also noted the gene encoding the TSST-1 toxin. The results of the study showed that free-living animals may be a significant reservoir of bacteria that are potentially pathogenic for humans. The results of the statistical analysis revealed that, among the animals species studied, the red fox constitutes the most important source of infections.

Coagulase-positive Staphylococcus isolated from wildlife: Identification, molecular characterization and evaluation of resistance profiles with focus on a methicillin-resistant strain

The aim of the study was molecular analysis of coagulase-positive isolates of Staphylococcus bacteria obtained from wild animals and evaluation of their resistance to antimicrobial agents. A total of 76 rectal swabs were taken from wild animals. The species of the Staphylococcus isolates was determined by MALDI TOF MS, susceptibility to antimicrobials was evaluated by phenotypic and molecular methods, epidemiological analysis (ADSRRS-fingerprinting) was also carried out. MRSA isolate was typed by MLST and spa-typing. The animals tested, were carriers (n=38) of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus (S. aureus, S. pseudintermedius and S. delphini B). Analyzed isolates were resistant to 1 or 2 antimicrobials, which was confirmed by the presence of genes (blaZ, ermA, ermB, msrA, tetK and tetM). A multi-drug resistant and methicillin-resistant isolate of S. aureus was obtained as well (MRSA, ST8, t1635, PVL-positive and ACME-negative). The ADSRRS-fingerprinting method enabled interspecific and intraspecific differentiation of coagulase-positive Staphylococcus isolates, revealing a certain degree of correlation between the species of the isolate, and the degree of similarity between the isolates. The presence of resistance genes in 13% (5/38) of the isolates obtained from wild animals, including one methicillin-resistant isolate, is relatively small in comparison to the degree of colonization by resistant strains in humans, livestock or pets. Nevertheless, due to the possibility of contact between wild animals, domestic animals and humans, transmission of resistant strains is possible, as suggested by our isolation of a MRSA strain typed as ST8 and specific spa type t1635, which had previously been isolated exclusively from humans.

Structure, physicochemical and biological properties of new complex salt of aqua-(nitrilotriacetato-N,O,O',O")-oxidovanadium(IV) anion with 1,10-phenanthrolinium cation

The crystal structure of new 1,10-phenathrolin-1-ium aqua-(nitrilotriacetato-N,O,O',O")-oxidovanadium(IV) semihydrate of molecular formula (phenH)[VO(NTA)(H2O)]∙1/2H2O was determined. This is the first example of structurally characterized compound that comprises a distinctly separated, monomeric [VO(NTA)(H2O)](-) coordination entity. The crystallographic measurements have subsequently been complemented by the IR spectroscopic characterization and thermal analysis. Furthermore, the electrochemical (cyclic voltammetry) as well as spectrophotometric (UV-vis) studies revealed that the compound is capable of scavenging the superoxide free radicals (O2(-)) as well as stable organic radicals i.e. 2,2'-azinobis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6 sulfonic acid) cation radical (ABTS(+)) and 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl radical (DPPH), but its reactivity towards radicals is lower than that of VOSO4. Finally, biological properties of the complex in the range of 1-100 μM were investigated in relation to its cytoprotective activity against the oxidative damage generated exogenously by using hydrogen peroxide in the hippocampal neuronal HT22 cell line (the MTT and LDH tests). It has been established that in contrast to VOSO4 the title compound protects the HT22 from the oxidative damage. The paper presents a new perspective for oxidovanadium(IV) complexes as candidates for novel, low-molecular mass cytoprotective agents.

Molecular identification and classification of Trichophyton mentagrophytes complex strains isolated from humans and selected animal species

Species differentiation within Trichophyton mentagrophytes complex group currently poses a major diagnostic challenge, with molecular methods increasingly supplementing classical identification based on the morphological and physiological properties of the fungi. Diagnostic and epidemiological research aimed at determining the source and means of transmission of dermatophytoses in both humans and animals requires not only species differentiation of isolates but also differentiation within species. The study was conducted on 24 isolates originating in humans and various animal species with clinical symptoms of dermatophytosis. The analysis included phenotypical identification methods and molecular methods: internal transcribed spacer sequencing and ITS-restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP) with multi-enzyme restriction. ITS sequence analysis identified the isolates to species - Trichophyton interdigitale, Arthroderma benhamiae and A. vanbreuseghemii, and ITS-RFLP detected six different genotypes. Genotypes I, II and III characterised strains belonging to A. benhamiae, genotype IV characterised the A. vanbreuseghemii strain, and genotypes V and VI occurred only within the species T. interdigitale. Strains isolated from guinea pigs were dominant within genotype I, while genotype II was found mainly in strains from foxes. Multi-enzyme restriction analysis of this region enables intraspecific differentiation, which may be useful in epidemiological research, particularly in determining the source of infections.

Modified 16S-23S rRNA intergenic region restriction endonuclease analysis for species identification of Enterococcus strains isolated from pigs, compared with identification using classical methods and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Fast and reliable identification of bacteria to at least the species level is currently the basis for correct diagnosis and appropriate treatment of infections. This is particularly important in the case of bacteria of the genus Enterococcus, whose resistance profile is often correlated with their species (e.g. resistance to vancomycin). In this study, we evaluated restriction endonuclease analysis of the 16S-23S rRNA gene intergenic transcribed spacer (ITS) region for species identification of Enterococcus. The utility of the method was compared with that of phenotypic methods [biochemical profile evaluation and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOF MS)]. Identification was based on 21 Enterococcus reference strains, of the species E. faecalis, E. faecium, E. hirae, E. durans, E. casseliflavus, E. gallinarum, E. avium, E. cecorum and E. columbae, and 47 Enterococcus field strains isolated from pigs. Restriction endonuclease analysis of the ITS-PCR product using HinfI, RsaI and MboI, in the order specified, enabled species differentiation of the Enterococcus reference and field strains, and in the case of the latter, the results of species identification were identical (47/47) to those obtained by MALDI-TOF MS. Moreover, as a result of digestion with MboI, a unique restriction profile was also obtained for the strains (3/3) identified by MALDI-TOF MS as E. thailandicus. In our opinion, restriction endonuclease analysis of the 16S-23S rRNA gene ITS region of Enterococcus may be a simple and relatively fast (less than 4 h) alternative method for identifying the species occurring most frequently in humans and animals.