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Putkaradze N, Hartz P, Hutter MC, Zapp J, Thevis M, Bernhardt R. Metabolism of oral turinabol by the human brain cholesterol 24-hydroxylase CYP46A1. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2021; 212:105927. [PMID: 34089835 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2021.105927] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 05/20/2021] [Accepted: 05/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The human microsomal cytochrome P450 enzyme CYP46A1 plays a crucial role in cholesterol elimination from the brain. It performs a 24-hydroxylation of cholesterol and is of outstanding significance for memory and cognition. This study demonstrates the catalytic activity of human CYP46A1 towards an anabolic androgenic steroid, oral turinabol (dehydrochloromethyltestosterone, 4-chloro-17β-dihydroxy,17α-methylandrosta-1,4-dien-3-one), which is a doping substance. CYP46A1 is the first human microsomal steroid-converting P450 showing activity towards this xenobiotic compound. Furthermore, the inhibitory effect of oral turinabol on the cholesterol conversion has been investigated in vitro demonstrating competition of the two substrates on the active site of CYP46A1 which might be of importance for potential pathogenic effects of oral turinabol. The conversion of oral turinabol was found to be selective resulting in the formation of only one product, as shown by HPLC analysis. To produce sufficient amounts of this product for NMR analysis, a system expressing human full-length CYP46A1 and CPR on a bicistronic vector was successfully developed realizing the selective cholesterol 24-hydroxylation in E. coli in mg amounts. Using this novel whole-cell system, the conversion of oral turinabol was performed and the product of this conversion by CYP46A1 was isolated and identified as 16β-hydroxy oral turinabol by NMR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natalia Putkaradze
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, D-66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Philip Hartz
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, D-66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Michael C Hutter
- Center for Bioinformatics, Saarland University, D-66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Josef Zapp
- Institute of Pharmaceutical Biology, Saarland University, D-66123, Saarbruecken, Germany
| | - Mario Thevis
- Institute of Biochemistry, German Sport University Cologne, D-50933, Cologne, Germany
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institute of Biochemistry, Saarland University, D-66123, Saarbruecken, Germany.
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2
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Bernhardt R, Neunzig J. Underestimated reactions and regulation patterns of adrenal cytochromes P450. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 530:111237. [PMID: 33722664 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2021.111237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2020] [Revised: 02/18/2021] [Accepted: 02/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Although cytochrome P450 (CYP) systems including the adrenal ones are being investigated since many years, there are still reactions and regulation patterns that have been underestimated ever since. This review discusses neglected ones to bring them into the focus of investigators working in the field. Novel substrates and reactions described for adrenal CYPs recently point to the fact that different from what has been believed for many years, adrenal CYPs are less selective than previously thought. The conversion of steroid sulfates, intermediates of steroid biosynthesis as well as of exogenous compounds are being discussed here in more detail and consequences for further studies are drawn. Furthermore, it was shown that protein-protein interactions may have an important effect not only on the activity of adrenal CYPs, but also on the product pattern of the reactions. It was found that, as expected, the stoichiometry of CYP:redox partner plays an important role for tuning the activity. In addition, competition between different CYPs for the redox partner and for electrons and possible alterations by mutants in the efficiency of electron transfer play an important role for the activity and product pattern. Moreover, the influence of phosphorylation and small charged molecules like natural polyamines on the activity of adrenal systems has been demonstrated in-vitro indicating a possible regulation of adrenal CYP reactions by affecting redox partner recognition and binding affinity. Finally, an effect of the genetic background on the consequences of mutations in adrenal CYPs found in patients was suggested from corresponding in-vitro studies indicating that a different genetic background might be able to significantly affect the activity of a CYP mutant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rita Bernhardt
- Department of Biochemistry, Campus B2.2, Saarland University, D-66123, Saarbrücken, Germany.
| | - Jens Neunzig
- Institute of Molecular Plant Biology, Campus A2.4, Saarland University, D-66123, Saarbrücken, Germany
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Barnard L, du Toit T, Swart AC. Back where it belongs: 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione compels the re-assessment of C11-oxy androgens in steroidogenesis. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 525:111189. [PMID: 33539964 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2021.111189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2020] [Revised: 01/22/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Adrenal steroidogenesis has, for decades, been depicted as three biosynthesis pathways -the mineralocorticoid, glucocorticoid and androgen pathways with aldosterone, cortisol and androstenedione as the respective end products. 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione was not included as an adrenal steroid despite the adrenal output of this steroid being twice that of androstenedione. While it is the end of the line for aldosterone and cortisol, as it is in these forms that they exhibit their most potent receptor activities prior to inactivation and conjugation, 11β-hydroxyandrostenedione is another matter entirely. The steroid, which is weakly androgenic, has its own designated pathway yielding 11-ketoandrostenedione, 11β-hydroxytestosterone and the potent androgens, 11-ketotestosterone and 11-ketodihydrotestosterone, primarily in the periphery. Over the last decade, these C11-oxy C19 steroids have once again come to the fore with the rising number of studies contradicting the generally accepted notion that testosterone and it's 5α-reduced product, dihydrotestosterone, are the principal potent androgens in humans. These C11-oxy androgens have been shown to contribute to the androgen milieu in adrenal disorders associated with androgen excess and in androgen dependant disease progression. In this review, we will highlight these overlooked C11-oxy C19 steroids as well as the C11-oxy C21 steroids and their contribution to congenital adrenal hyperplasia, polycystic ovarian syndrome and prostate cancer. The focus is on new findings over the past decade which are slowly but surely reshaping our current outlook on human sex steroid biology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lise Barnard
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Therina du Toit
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa
| | - Amanda C Swart
- Department of Biochemistry, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa; Department of Chemistry and Polymer Science, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland, 7602, South Africa.
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Weldemichael DM, Zhou K, Su SJ, Zhao L, Marchisio MA, Bureik M. Futile cycling by human microsomal cytochrome P450 enzymes within intact fission yeast cells. Arch Biochem Biophys 2021; 701:108791. [PMID: 33592181 DOI: 10.1016/j.abb.2021.108791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Revised: 01/29/2021] [Accepted: 02/01/2021] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Human cytochrome P450 enzymes (CYPs or P450s) are known to be reduced by their electron transfer partners in the absence of substrate and in turn to reduce other acceptor molecules such as molecular oxygen, thereby creating superoxide anions (O2-•). This process is known as futile cycling. Using our previously established fission yeast expression system we have monitored cells expressing each one of the 50 human microsomal CYPs in the absence of substrate for oxidation of dihydroethidium in living cells by flow cytometry. It was found that 38 of these display a statistically significant increase in O2-• production. More specifically, cells expressing some CYPs were found to be intermediate strength O2-• producers, which means that their effect was comparable to that of treatment with 3 mM H2O2. Cells expressing other CYPs had an even stronger effect, with those expressing CYP2B6, CYP5A1, CYP2A13, CYP51A1, or CYP1A2, respectively, being the strongest producers of O2-•.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dawit M Weldemichael
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Health Sciences Platform, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, PR China
| | - Kun Zhou
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, PR China
| | - Shi-Jia Su
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, PR China
| | - Lin Zhao
- Institute of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Tianjin, 301617, PR China
| | - Mario Andrea Marchisio
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Health Sciences Platform, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, PR China
| | - Matthias Bureik
- School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Health Sciences Platform, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, PR China.
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Hartmann MF, Reincke M, Wudy SA, Bernhardt R. The human adrenal gland as a drug metabolizer: First in-vivo evidence for the conversion of steroidal drugs. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2019; 194:105438. [PMID: 31362063 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2019] [Revised: 07/24/2019] [Accepted: 07/25/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The metabolism of drugs in mammals is attributed mainly to the liver and its cytochromes P450 localized in the endoplasmic reticulum. Here, we demonstrate for the first time in humans that there is no strict subdivision between P450 s involved in exogenous and endogenous metabolism. We determined the widely used mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist spironolactone, its active metabolite canrenone and their metabolites in the adrenal venous blood of treated patients with gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. 11- and 18-hydroxylated metabolites of canrenone were found in the efferent right and left adrenal veins, indicating that they were produced by the adrenal mitochondrial cytochromes P450 CYP11B1 and CYP11B2. Thus, the adrenal has to be considered as a new organ for drug metabolism. In future, application of drugs may need further investigations concerning side effects due to interactions with adrenal enzymes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michaela F Hartmann
- Steroid Research & Mass Spectrometry Unit, Laboratory for Translational Hormone Analytics in Paediatric Endocrinology, Division of Paediatric Endocrinology & Diabetology, Center of Child and Adolescent Medicine, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany
| | - Martin Reincke
- Medizinische Klinik und Poliklinik IV, Klinikum der Universität München, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität München, Munich, Germany
| | - Stefan A Wudy
- Steroid Research & Mass Spectrometry Unit, Laboratory for Translational Hormone Analytics in Paediatric Endocrinology, Division of Paediatric Endocrinology & Diabetology, Center of Child and Adolescent Medicine, Justus Liebig University, Giessen, Germany.
| | - Rita Bernhardt
- Institut für Biochemie, Naturwissenschaftlich-Technische Fakultät, Universität des Saarlandes, 66123, Saarbrücken, Germany.
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Analysis of In Vivo Activity of the Bovine Cholesterol Hydroxylase/Lyase System Proteins Expressed in Escherichia coli. Mol Biotechnol 2019; 61:261-273. [PMID: 30729436 DOI: 10.1007/s12033-019-00158-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
The cholesterol hydroxylase/lyase (CHL) system, located in the mitochondria of the mammalian adrenal cortex cells, consists of cytochrome P450scc (CYP11A1), adrenodoxin (Adx), and adrenodoxin reductase (AdR) and performs the first stage of the steroidogenesis: AdR and Adx enable the electron transfer between NADPH and cytochrome P450scc, and P450scc catalyzes the conversion of cholesterol into pregnenolone. CHL system was reconstructed in Escherichia coli using the polycistronic plasmid pTrc99A/CHL. In E. coli cells, the recombinant proteins form the catalytically active system. CHL activity towards 22R-hydroxycholesterol was 4.0 ± 1.3 nmol pregnenolone/h per 1 mg homogenate protein. The alteration of the order of heterologous cDNAs in the expression cassette from AdR-Adx-P450scc to P450scc-Adx-AdR results in alteration of stoichiometric ratio P450scc/Adx/AdR from 1:1.45:4.2 to 1:1.67:0.98; the former ratio is more optimal for the functioning of the cytochrome P450scc. The application of modified cDNA of Adx (AdxS112W) does not increase the CHL activity; however, the introduction of the second copy of AdxS112W gene into the expression cassette increases both the expression level of АdxS112W and the CHL activity in comparison with P450scc/АdxS112W/AdR system. In vivo activity of the CHL system in bacteria is limited by the substrate uptake by bacterial cells: it varied in the range of 0.05-0.62 mg pregnenolone/l resting cell suspension per 1-day cultivation, depending on the type and concentration of permeabilizing agents in the medium. The obtained results contribute to the knowledge of CHL system functioning in living bacteria.
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Rendic SP, Peter Guengerich F. Human cytochrome P450 enzymes 5-51 as targets of drugs and natural and environmental compounds: mechanisms, induction, and inhibition - toxic effects and benefits. Drug Metab Rev 2019; 50:256-342. [PMID: 30717606 DOI: 10.1080/03602532.2018.1483401] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Cytochrome P450 (P450, CYP) enzymes have long been of interest due to their roles in the metabolism of drugs, pesticides, pro-carcinogens, and other xenobiotic chemicals. They have also been of interest due to their very critical roles in the biosynthesis and metabolism of steroids, vitamins, and certain eicosanoids. This review covers the 22 (of the total of 57) human P450s in Families 5-51 and their substrate selectivity. Furthermore, included is information and references regarding inducibility, inhibition, and (in some cases) stimulation by chemicals. We update and discuss important aspects of each of these 22 P450s and questions that remain open.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - F Peter Guengerich
- b Department of Biochemistry , Vanderbilt University School of Medicine , Nashville , TN , USA
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A comprehensive overview of common polymorphic variants that cause missense mutations in human CYPs and UGTs. Biomed Pharmacother 2019; 111:983-992. [DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2019.01.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2018] [Revised: 01/06/2019] [Accepted: 01/06/2019] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
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Combined chemical and biotechnological production of 20βOH-NorDHCMT, a long-term metabolite of Oral-Turinabol (DHCMT). J Inorg Biochem 2018; 183:165-171. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2018.02.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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10
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Abstract
The radiation-induced bystander effect (RIBE) is the initiation of biological end points in cells (bystander cells) that are not directly traversed by an incident-radiation track, but are in close proximity to cells that are receiving the radiation. RIBE has been indicted of causing DNA damage via oxidative stress, besides causing direct damage, inducing tumorigenesis, producing micronuclei, and causing apoptosis. RIBE is regulated by signaling proteins that are either endogenous or secreted by cells as a means of communication between cells, and can activate intracellular or intercellular oxidative metabolism that can further trigger signaling pathways of inflammation. Bystander signals can pass through gap junctions in attached cell lines, while the suspended cell lines transmit these signals via hormones and soluble proteins. This review provides the background information on how reactive oxygen species (ROS) act as bystander signals. Although ROS have a very short half-life and have a nanometer-scale sphere of influence, the wide variety of ROS produced via various sources can exert a cumulative effect, not only in forming DNA adducts but also setting up signaling pathways of inflammation, apoptosis, cell-cycle arrest, aging, and even tumorigenesis. This review outlines the sources of the bystander effect linked to ROS in a cell, and provides methods of investigation for researchers who would like to pursue this field of science.
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Affiliation(s)
- Humaira Aziz Sawal
- Healthcare Biotechnology Department, Atta-ur-Rahman School of Applied Biosciences, National University of Sciences and Technology, Islamabad
| | - Kashif Asghar
- Basic Sciences Research, Shaukat Khanum Memorial Cancer Hospital and Research Centre, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Matthias Bureik
- Health Science Platform, School of Pharmaceutical Science and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
| | - Nasir Jalal
- Health Science Platform, Department of Molecular and Cellular Pharmacology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, China
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Xiong S, Wang Y, Yao M, Liu H, Zhou X, Xiao W, Yuan Y. Cell foundry with high product specificity and catalytic activity for 21-deoxycortisol biotransformation. Microb Cell Fact 2017; 16:105. [PMID: 28610588 PMCID: PMC5470312 DOI: 10.1186/s12934-017-0720-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2017] [Accepted: 06/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background 21-deoxycortisol (21-DF) is the key intermediate to manufacture pharmaceutical glucocorticoids. Recently, a Japan patent has realized 21-DF production via biotransformation of 17-hydroxyprogesterone (17-OHP) by purified steroid 11β-hydroxylase CYP11B1. Due to the less costs on enzyme isolation, purification and stabilization as well as cofactors supply, whole-cell should be preferentially employed as the biocatalyst over purified enzymes. No reports as so far have demonstrated a whole-cell system to produce 21-DF. Therefore, this study aimed to establish a whole-cell biocatalyst to achieve 21-DF transformation with high catalytic activity and product specificity. Results In this study, Escherichia coli MG1655(DE3), which exhibited the highest substrate transportation rate among other tested chassises, was employed as the host cell to construct our biocatalyst by co-expressing heterologous CYP11B1 together with bovine adrenodoxin and adrenodoxin reductase. Through screening CYP11B1s (with mutagenesis at N-terminus) from nine sources, Homo sapiens CYP11B1 mutant (G25R/G46R/L52 M) achieved the highest 21-DF transformation rate at 10.6 mg/L/h. Furthermore, an optimal substrate concentration of 2.4 g/L and a corresponding transformation rate of 16.2 mg/L/h were obtained by screening substrate concentrations. To be noted, based on structural analysis of the enzyme-substrate complex, two types of site-directed mutations were designed to adjust the relative position between the catalytic active site heme and the substrate. Accordingly, 1.96-fold enhancement on 21-DF transformation rate (to 47.9 mg/L/h) and 2.78-fold improvement on product/by-product ratio (from 0.36 to 1.36) were achieved by the combined mutagenesis of F381A/L382S/I488L. Eventually, after 38-h biotransformation in shake-flask, the production of 21-DF reached to 1.42 g/L with a yield of 52.7%, which is the highest 21-DF production as known. Conclusions Heterologous CYP11B1 was manipulated to construct E. coli biocatalyst converting 17-OHP to 21-DF. Through the strategies in terms of (1) screening enzymes (with N-terminal mutagenesis) sources, (2) optimizing substrate concentration, and most importantly (3) rational design novel mutants aided by structural analysis, the 21-DF transformation rate was stepwise improved by 19.5-fold along with 4.67-fold increase on the product/byproduct ratio. Eventually, the highest 21-DF reported production was achieved in shake-flask after 38-h biotransformation. This study highlighted above described methods to obtain a high efficient and specific biocatalyst for the desired biotransformation. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12934-017-0720-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuting Xiong
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, No. 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Ying Wang
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, No. 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Mingdong Yao
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, No. 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Hong Liu
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, No. 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Xiao Zhou
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, No. 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
| | - Wenhai Xiao
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, No. 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China. .,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yingjin Yuan
- Key Laboratory of Systems Bioengineering (Ministry of Education), Tianjin University, No. 92, Weijin Road, Nankai District, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China.,SynBio Research Platform, Collaborative Innovation Center of Chemical Science and Engineering (Tianjin), School of Chemical Engineering and Technology, Tianjin University, Tianjin, 300072, People's Republic of China
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