Microsponges based novel drug delivery system for augmented arthritis therapy

Preparation of Microsponge Drug Delivery System (MSDDS) Followed by a Scale-Up Approach

In 1987, Won invented the solid-phase porous microsphere (MS), which stores bioactive compounds in many interconnected voids. Spherical particles (5-300 μm), MS, may form clusters of smaller spheres, resulting in many benefits. The current investigation focussed on gel-encased formulation, which can be suitable for dermal usage. First, quasi-emulsion (w/o/w) solvent evaporation was used to prepare 5-fluorouracil (5 FU) MS particles. The final product was characterized (SEM shows porous structure, FTIR and DSC showed drug compatibility with excipients, and gel formulation is shear-thinning) and further scaled up using the 8-fold method. Furthermore, CCD (Central Composite Design) was implemented to obtain the optimized results. After optimizing the conditions, including the polymer (600 mg, ethyl cellulose (EC), eudragit RS 100 (ERS)), stirring speed (1197 rpm), and surfactant concentration (2% w/v), we achieved the following results: optimal yield (63%), mean particle size (152 µm), drug entrapment efficiency (76%), and cumulative drug release (74.24% within 8 h). These findings are promising for industrial applications and align with the objectives outlined in UN Sustainable Development Goals 3, 9, and 17, as well as the goals of the G20 initiative.

Development of 4-phenylbutyric acid microsponge gel formulations for the treatment of lewisite-mediated skin injury

Lewisite, a chemical warfare agent, causes skin blisters, erythema, edema, and inflammation, requiring mitigation strategies in case of accidental or deliberate exposure. 4-phenyl butyric acid (4-PBA), a chemical chaperone, reduces endoplasmic reticulum stress and skin inflammation. The study aimed to encapsulate 4-PBA in microsponges for effective, sustained delivery against lewisite injury. Porous microsponges in a topical gel would potentially sustain delivery and improve residence time on the skin. Microsponges were developed using the quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method with Eudragit RS100. Optimized formulation showed 10.58%w/w drug loading was incorporated in a carboxymethylcellulose (CMC) and Carbopol gel for in vitro release and permeation testing using dermatomed human skin. A sustained release was obtained from all vehicles in the release study, and IVPT results showed that compared to the control (41.52 ± 2.54 µg/sq.cm), a sustained permeation profile with a reduced delivery was observed for microsponges in PBS (14.16 ± 1.23 µg/sq.cm) along with Carbopol 980 gel (12.55 ± 1.41 µg/sq.cm), and CMC gel (10.09 ± 1.23 µg/sq.cm) at 24 h. Optimized formulation showed significant protection against lewisite surrogate phenyl arsine oxide (PAO) challenged skin injury in Ptch1+/-/SKH-1 hairless mice at gross and molecular levels. A reduction in Draize score by 29%, a reduction in skin bifold thickness by 8%, a significant reduction in levels of IL-1β, IL6, and GM-CSF by 54%, 30%, and 55%, respectively, and a reduction in apoptosis by 31% was observed. Thus, the translational feasibility of 4-PBA microsponges for effective, sustained delivery against lewisite skin injury is demonstrated.

Obliteration of H. pylori infection through the development of a novel thyme oil laden nanoporous gastric floating microsponge

Thyme oil (TO) is a valuable essential oil believed to possess a variety of bioactivities, including antibacterial, anticancer, and antioxidant properties. These attributes grant TO the excellent capability to treat a wide range of diseases, particularly the effective eradication of Helicobacter pylori infection in the stomach. However, its practical use is limited by its low stability under atmospheric conditions. Our current research aims to encapsulate TO in eudragit (EGT) microsponges to enhance its stability and improve its effectiveness against H. pylori. The TO microsponges were prepared using EGT as a polymer, polysorbate 80 as a stabilizer, and dichloromethane (DCM) as a solvent via the quasi-emulsion solvent evaporation method. The product yield, particle size, surface morphology, entrapment efficiency, drug-polymer interaction, in-vitro floating, and in-vitro drug release of the microsponges were evaluated. The most promising microsponge was tested against H. pylori ATCC 43504 strains. The results showed that the microsponges exhibited a high product yield (ranging from 41 % ± 0.75-81.27 % ± 1.13), excellent entrapment efficiency (ranging from 63.01 % ± 0.79-88.64 % ± 0.98), prolonged in-vitro floating time (more than 12 h) and sustained in-vitro drug release for 18 h (81.53 %). Scanning electron microscopy results indicated that the microsponges were spherical in shape with a spongy surface. The average particle size of the selected microsponges was determined to be 49.79 ± 1.4 μm, and their average pore size was measured to be 0.81 ± 0.14 μm. DSC study results revealed that TO was physically entrapped in the microsponges. In-vitro anti-H. pylori activity studies demonstrated that TO in microsponge was more effective against H. pylori than pure TO. In conclusion, the developed microsponges containing thyme oil provide a promising alternative for the efficient targeting and eradication of H. Pylori infection.

Preparation, characterisation and in vitro anti-inflammatory activity of Baicalin microsponges

Baicalin, a flavonoid extracted from traditional Chinese medicine, Scutellaria baicalensis has significant anti-inflammatory effects. Microsponges are drug delivery systems that improve drug stability and slow the release rate. The combination of baicalin and the microsponges produced a new and stable system for its delivery, resulting in a novel formulation of baicalin. Baicalin microsponges (BM) were prepared using the quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method. Effects of the mass ratio of the polymer (ethylcellulose) to baicalin, the concentration of the emulsifier polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), the stirring speed on the encapsulation efficiency (EE), and yield of the microsponges were investigated by combining the one-factor test and Box-Behnken design (BBD). The preparation process was standardised using 2.61:1 mass ratio of ethyl cellulose to baicalin, 2.17% concentration of PVA, with stirring at 794 rpm. Optimised BM formulations were evaluated for the parameters of EE (54.06 ± 3.02)% and yield of (70.37 ± 2.41)%, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), and in vitro cell evaluation. Results of the in vitro anti-inflammatory assay showed that baicalin microsponges-pretreated-lipopolysaccharide (LPS)-induced RAW264.7, mouse macrophages showed reduced inflammatory response, similar to that seen in baicalin-treated macrophages.

Understanding the impact of formulation design on microstructure and drug release from porous microparticle-based tretinoin topical gels

For proportionally formulated intermediate strengths of a topical product, the relationship of drug release across multiple strengths of a given product is not always well understood. The current study aims to assess the proportionality of tretinoin release rates across multiple strengths of tretinoin topical gels when manufactured using two different methods to understand the impact of formulation design on drug product microstructure and tretinoin release rate. Two groups of tretinoin gels of 0.04 %, 0.06 %, 0.08 % and 0.1 % strengths were manufactured. Gels in Group I were prepared by incorporating 4-10 % g/g of 1 % w/w tretinoin-loaded microparticles into a gel base. Gels in Group II were manufactured using 10 % g/g of the microparticles that were loaded with increasing amounts (0.4-1 % w/w) of tretinoin. The two groups of gels were characterized by evaluating microstructure using a polarized microscope, rheology using an oscillatory rheometer, and drug release using Vison® Microette™ Hanson vertical diffusion cells. The microscopic images were used to discriminate between the two groups of gels based on the abundance of microparticles in the gel matrix observed in the images. This abundance increased across gels of Group I and was similar across gels of Group II. The rheology parameters, namely viscosity at a shear rate of 10 s-1, shear thinning rate, storage, and loss modulus, increased across gels of Group I, and were not significantly different across gels of Group II. The release rate of tretinoin from the drug products was proportional to the nominal strength of the drug product in both Group I and Group II, with a correlation coefficient of 0.95 in each case, although the absolute release rates differed. Overall, changing the formulation design of tretinoin topical gels containing porous microparticles may change the physicochemical and structural properties, as well as the drug release rate of the product. Further, keeping the formulation design consistent across all strengths of microparticle-based topical gels is important to achieve proportional release rates across multiple strengths of a given drug product.

Microsponge-Based Gel Loaded with Immunosuppressant as a Simple and Valuable Strategy for Psoriasis Therapy: Determination of Pro-Inflammatory Response through Cytokine IL-2 mRNA Expression

Tacrolimus (TL) is a topical calcineurin inhibitor immunosuppressive drug widely used to manage various skin disorders. Herein, we report a TL-loaded microsphere gel formulation with severe atopic dermatitis effects that are required to manage skin disorders. The current study adopted a modified emulsion solvent evaporation technique to synthesize TL-loaded microspheres, which were further converted into gels for skin use. Characterization of the synthesized formulation was performed by differential dynamic light scattering, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, X-ray crystallography, Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) analysis, differential scanning calorimetry, and drug release. A Franz diffusion cell was used to study the diffusion of TL for up to 8 h at pH 6.8 and 5.5. Evaluation of cell viability was determined by MTT assay and showed higher IC50 values compared to the plain drug. RNA extraction, real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), and reverse transcription were also performed to determine the expression levels of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-2. Particle size determination was performed by a zeta sizer, and the TL microsphere size was 1745 ± 70 nm with a good polydispersity (0.337 ± 0.12). The drug entrapment efficiency was also very good at 60% ± 10, and the drug release was 93.9% ± 3.5 within 8 h. An in vitro diffusion study of the formulation also showed improved permeability at both pH values (4.5 and 5.5). The findings of the hemolytic tests demonstrated that TL-MG at concentrations of 50, 100, and 200 mg/mL did not produce any hemolysis. A dose-dependent pattern of cytotoxicity was found during the cell viability assay, with an IC50 value of 787.55 ± 12.78 µg/mL. There was a significant decrease in the IL-2 level in the TL-MG group compared to the other groups. TL-MG microspheres were nontoxic carriers for tacrolimus delivery, with greater loading capacity, a significant release profile, and enhanced cellular uptake with improved permeability.

A Bird’s Eye View of Various Cell-Based Biomimetic Nanomedicines for the Treatment of Arthritis

Arthritis is the inflammation and tenderness of the joints because of some metabolic, infectious, or constitutional reasons. Existing arthritis treatments help in controlling the arthritic flares, but more advancement is required to cure arthritis meticulously. Biomimetic nanomedicine represents an exceptional biocompatible treatment to cure arthritis by minimizing the toxic effect and eliminating the boundaries of current therapeutics. Various intracellular and extracellular pathways can be targeted by mimicking the surface, shape, or movement of the biological system to form a bioinspired or biomimetic drug delivery system. Different cell-membrane-coated biomimetic systems, and extracellular-vesicle-based and platelets-based biomimetic systems represent an emerging and efficient class of therapeutics to treat arthritis. The cell membrane from various cells such as RBC, platelets, macrophage cells, and NK cells is isolated and utilized to mimic the biological environment. Extracellular vesicles isolated from arthritis patients can be used as diagnostic tools, and plasma or MSCs-derived extracellular vesicles can be used as a therapeutic target for arthritis. Biomimetic systems guide the nanomedicines to the targeted site by hiding them from the surveillance of the immune system. Nanomedicines can be functionalized using targeted ligand and stimuli-responsive systems to reinforce their efficacy and minimize off-target effects. This review expounds on various biomimetic systems and their functionalization for the therapeutic targets of arthritis treatment, and discusses the challenges for the clinical translation of the biomimetic system.

Newfangled Topical Film-Forming Solution for Facilitated Antifungal Therapy: Design, Development, Characterization, and In Vitro Evaluation

Luliconazole is a broad-spectrum topical antifungal agent that acts by altering the synthesis of fungi cell membranes. Literature suggests that the recurrence of fungal infection can be avoided by altering the pH of the site of infection. Studies have also suggested that fungi thrive by altering skin pH to be slightly acidic, i.e., pH 3-5. The current study is aimed to design, develop, characterize, and evaluate an alkaline pH-based antifungal spray solution for antifungal effects. Luliconazole was used as an antifungal agent and an alkaline spray was formulated for topical application by using Eudragit RS 100, propylene glycol (PG), water, sodium bicarbonate, and ethanol via solubilization method. Herein, sodium bicarbonate was used as an alkalizing agent. Based on DSC, FTIR, PXRD, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and rheological analysis outcomes, the drug (luliconazole) and polymer were found to be compatible. F-14 formulation containing 22% Eudragit RS 100 (ERS), 1.5% PG, and 0.25% sodium bicarbonate was optimized by adopting the quality by design approach by using design of experiment software. The viscosity, pH, drying time, volume of solution post spraying, and spray angle were, 14.99 ± 0.21 cp, 8 pH, 60 s, 0.25 mL ± 0.05 mL, and 80 ± 2, respectively. In vitro drug diffusion studies and in vitro antifungal trials against Candida albicans revealed 98.0 ± 0.2% drug diffusion with a zone of inhibition of 9 ± 0.12 mm. The findings of the optimized luliconazole topical film-forming solution were satisfactory, it was compatible with human skin, and depicted sustained drug release that suggests promising applicability in facilitated topical antifungal treatments.

Nanosponges- Versatile Platform as Drug Carrier

BACKGROUND

Recently, nano-drug delivery systems have become an integral part of the most novel drug delivery systems and have gained considerable importance owing to various advantages such as carriers for poorly soluble drugs, targeting molecules at the desired site, protection from degradation etc. Objective: One of the most studied areas of nanotechnology is nanosponges. The objective of this review was to extensively summarize the various strategies for the preparation, characterization and applications of nanosponges.

METHODS

In the current mini-review, we conducted a systemic search of the literature and patent inventions focusing on nanosponges. The summary of the search was inclusive of various aspects of nanosponges, such as drug characteristics to be considered while incorporating in nanosponges, other crucial additives during formulation of nanosponges, methods of preparation, characterization and applications of nanosponges in pharmaceuticals.

RESULTS

Nanosponges are nanocarriers for both lipophilic and hydrophilic drugs. These are prepared by different methods such as emulsion-solvent evaporation, solvent method, melting method, ultrasound assisted method etc., and all these methods were less time consuming, more economical and evaluated by sophisticated techniques available for routine analysis. These are among the most feasible alternative to address several formulation difficulties associated with the physicochemical properties of the drug. The porous nature and small particle size are vital properties of the nanosponges that contribute crucially to correcting the drawbacks of the drug. The properties of the nanosponges can be enhanced when combined with cyclodextrins. Extensive research work has been carried out in past to explore cyclodextrin based nanosponges. Besides, it is also used for smart targeting of tumors and for drug release in a sustainable pattern. Nanosponges can be prepared by simple methods. These can be tuned to release the drug by different routes so as to achieve the maximum benefits of the drug.

CONCLUSION

Huge amount of research has been carried out on nanosponges as drug carrier. The method of preparation and characterization of nanosponges are quite economical and routinely available. Owing to potential benefits and probable applications, these can be used as efficient carriers for certain drugs. The authors expect that the current review will guide the investigation of the nanosponges as nanodrug delivery systems.

Carvedilol Precipitation Inhibition by the Incorporation of Polymeric Precipitation Inhibitors Using a Stable Amorphous Solid Dispersion Approach: Formulation, Characterization, and In Vitro In Vivo Evaluation

An amorphous solid dispersion (ASD) of carvedilol (CVL) was prepared via the solvent evaporation method, using cellulose derivatives as polymeric precipitation inhibitors (PPIs). The prepared ASDs existed in the amorphous phase, as revealed by X-ray powder diffraction (XRPD) and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR) and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) results confirmed the compatibility between CVL and the polymers used. The ASDs characteristics were evaluated, with no change in viscosity, a pH of 6.8, a polydispersity index of 0.169, a particle size of 423-450 nm, and a zeta potential of 3.80 mV. Crystal growth inhibition was assessed for 180 min via an infusion precipitation study in simulated intestinal fluid (SIF). The interactions between the drug and polymers were established in great detail, using nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy, nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY), and Raman spectroscopy studies. Dielectric analysis was employed to determine the drug-polymer interactions between ion pairs and to understand ion transport behavior. In vivo oral kinetics and irritation studies performed on Wistar rats have demonstrated promising biocompatibility, stability, and the enhanced bioavailability of CVL. Collectively, the stable ASDs of CVL were developed using cellulose polymers as PPIs that would inhibit drug precipitation in the gastrointestinal tract and would aid in achieving higher in vivo drug stability and bioavailability.

Formulation, Characterization, and Evaluation of Eudragit-Coated Saxagliptin Nanoparticles Using 3 Factorial Design Modules

Background and Introduction: Saxagliptin is a hypoglycemic drug that acts as a dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4) inhibitor and is preferably used in the treatment of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM). It is safe and tolerable; however, the major disadvantage associated with it is its low bioavailability. Aim: The present research aimed to enhance the bioavailability of the drug by enteric coating with a polymer that controls the rate of drug delivery, and it was prepared as Solid Lipid Nanoparticles (SLNs). Methodology: In the current study, various SLN formulations were developed using a central composite design (CCD) module using Design Expert-11 software. A modified solvent injection technique was used to prepare Saxagliptin nanoparticles coated with Eudragit RS100. The CCD was used to determine the independent variables and their effect on dependent variables at varied levels. Evaluation studies such as particle size analysis, Zeta potential, polydispersity index (PDI), drug loading, entrapment efficiency, in-vitro drug release studies, and in vivo pharmacokinetic studies were performed for the optimized SLN formulation. The reversed-phase HPLC method was developed and validated for the estimation of the pharmacokinetic parameters of the pure drug and prepared SLNs. Results: The effect of independent variables (A1: amount of lipid, A2: amount of polymer, A3: surfactant concentration, and A4: homogenization speed) on dependent variables (R1: particle size, and R2: entrapment efficiency) was established in great detail. Observed responses of the prepared and optimized Saxagliptin SLN were close to the predicted values by the CCD. The prepared SLNs depicted particle sizes in the range of 212–442 nm. The particle size analysis results showed that an increase in the lipid concentration led to an increase in particle size. The developed bioanalytical method was noted to be very specific and robust. The method accuracy varied from 99.16% to 101.95% for intraday, and 96.08% to 103.12% for inter day operation at low (5 mcg/mL), moderate (10 mcg/mL), and higher (15 mcg/mL) drug concentrations. The observed Zeta potential values for the prepared SLNs were in the range of −41.09 ± 0.11 to 30.86 ± 0.63 mV suggesting quite good stability of the SLNs without any aggregation. Moreover, the polydispersity indices were in the range of 0.26 ± 0.051 to 0.45 ± 0.017, indicative of uniformity of sizes among the prepared SLNs. In vivo study outcomes proved that Saxagliptin oral bioavailability significantly enhanced in male Albino Wistar Rats via SLN formulation and Eudragit RS100 coating approach. Conclusions: The developed and optimized Saxagliptin SLNs revealed enhanced Saxagliptin bioavailability in comparison to the native drug. Thus, this formulation strategy can be of great importance and can be implied as a promising approach to enhance the Saxagliptin bioavailability for facilitated T2DM therapy.

Preparation and Evaluation of a Microsponge Dermal Stratum Corneum Retention Drug Delivery System for Griseofulvin

Griseofulvin (GF) is used as an antifungal to treat superficial skin fungal infections such as tinea capitis and tinea pedis. Currently, GF is only available in traditional oral dosage forms and suffers from poor and highly variable bioavailability, hepatotoxicity, and long duration of treatment. Therefore, the main objective of this study was to reduce the side effects of the drug and to increase the concentration of the drug retained in the cutaneous stratum corneum (SC) and improve its efficacy through the preparation of drug-laden GF microsponge (GFMS). The emulsification-solvent-diffusion method was used to prepare GFMS, and the prescriptions were screened by a single-factor approach. The optimized formulation (GFF8) had a microsponge particle size (μm) of 28.36 ± 0.26, an encapsulation efficiency (%) of 87.53 ± 1.07, a yield (%) of 86.58 ± 0.42, and drug release (%) from 77.57 ± 3.88. The optimized microsponge formulation was then loaded into a Carbopol 934 gel matrix and skin retention differences between the microsponge gel formulation and normal gels were examined by performing skin retention and fluorescence microscopy tests. Finally, the hepatoprotective and cutaneous stratum corneum retention abilities of microsponge gel formulations compared to oral GF formulations were assessed by hepatotoxicity, pharmacokinetics, and tissue distribution studies. This provides a new perspective on GF dermal stratum corneum retention administration.

Microsponge based gel as a simple and valuable strategy for formulating and releasing Tazarotene in a controlled manner

This study aims to deliver Tazarotene (TZR) in a controlled manner to reduce adverse effects in the form of a microsponge-based gel. It adopts the methodology of a similar study by the undersigned authors with respect to the drug Clindamycin. Under both studies, the methodology used is emulsion solvent diffusion. Accordingly, we altered the concentrations of polymer and emulsifier to generate four formulations of TZR microsponges. Additionally, we used two types of emulsifiers and two types of solvents to develop two further microsponge formulations. We then studied the physical properties of each formulation, as well as drug-polymer interactions. Echoing findings from our prior study of Clindamycin, we found that microsponge formulations coded by T1 and T3 had superior production yield and entrapment efficiency, and their particle size was suitable for dermal application. As in the prior Clindamycin study, each of the T1 and T3 microsponge formulations were incorporated into a Carbopol gel and evaluated in vitro. The optimal formulation was found to be the microsponge formulation gel T8, which released 87.63% of TZR over 12 h. No significant interactions between the drug and excipients were found through Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry.

Development and Characterization of Oral Raft Forming In Situ Gelling System of Neratinib Anticancer Drug Using 32 Factorial Design

Neratinib (NTB) is an irreversible inhibitor of pan-human epidermal growth factor receptor (HER-2) tyrosine kinase and is used in the treatment of breast cancer. It is a poorly aqueous soluble drug and exhibits extremely low oral bioavailability at higher pH, leading to a diminishing of the therapeutic effects in the GIT. The main objective of the research was to formulate an oral raft-forming in situ gelling system of NTB to improve gastric retention and drug release in a controlled manner and remain floating in the stomach for a prolonged time. In this study, NTB solubility was enhanced by polyethylene glycol (PEG)-based solid dispersions (SDs), and an in situ gelling system was developed and optimized by a two-factor at three-level (3²) factorial design. It was analyzed to study the impact of two independent variables viz sodium alginate [A] and HPMC K4M [B] on the responses, such as floating lag time, percentage (%) water uptake at 2 h, and % drug release at 6 h and 12 h. Among various SDs prepared using PEG 6000, formulation 1:3 showed the highest drug solubility. FT-IR spectra revealed no interactions between the drug and the polymer. The percentage of drug content in NTB SDs ranged from 96.22 ± 1.67% to 97.70 ± 1.89%. The developed in situ gel formulations exhibited a pH value of approximately 7. An in vitro gelation study of the in situ gel formulation showed immediate gelation and was retained for a longer period. From the obtained results of 3² factorial designs, it was observed that all the selected factors had a significant effect on the chosen response, supporting the precision of design employed for optimization. Thus, the developed oral raft-forming in situ gelling system of NTB can be a promising and alternate approach to enhance retention in the stomach and to attain sustained release of drug by floating, thereby augmenting the therapeutic efficacy of NTB.

Poly ε-Caprolactone Nanoparticles for Sustained Intra-Articular Immune Modulation in Adjuvant-Induced Arthritis Rodent Model

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic inflammatory autoimmune disorder with synovitis and articular pathology as its primary expositions. Leflunomide (Lfd) is an anti-rheumatic drug that is effective in the treatment of RA, but displays severe side effects upon prolonged systemic administration. Local therapy might represent a promising strategy to treat rheumatoid arthritis without eliciting systemic adverse effects. In this study, leflunomide-loaded poly(ε-caprolactone) nanoparticles (Lfd-NPs) were prepared and assessed as a local drug delivery system capable of alleviating RA-associated inflammation. Lfd-NPs were optimized using the Quality by Design (QbD) approach, applying a 32 full factorial design. In vitro drug release from NPs was examined in simulated synovial fluid. In addition, the in vivo efficacy of Lfd-NPs was evaluated in the Adjuvant Induced Arthritis (AIA) rodent model. Sustained drug release in simulated synovial fluid was observed for up to 168 h. A gradual reduction in paw volume and knee diameter was observed over the course of treatment, indicating the regression of the disease. In addition, significant reductions in serum proinflammatory markers and cytokines, including the C-reactive protein (CRP), rheumatoid factor (RF), TNF-α, IL1-β, and IL-6, were verified upon treatment with Lfd-NPs, suggesting the modulation of immune responses at the pathological site. Most importantly, no remarkable signs of toxicity were observed in Lfd-NP-treated animals. Collectively, intra-articularly administered Lfd-NPs might represent a potential therapeutic alternative to systemically administered drugs for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis, without eliciting systemic adverse effects.

Enhancement of Aqueous Solubility, Dissolution Profile, and Oral Bioavailability of Pentoxifylline by Microsponges

Microsponge, a novel drug delivery system, is designed to deliver a pharmaceutically active ingredient efficiently at the minimum dose. Microsponge plays an important role in enhancing drug stability, reducing side effects, and modifying drug release profiles. It is mostly used for transdermal delivery. Recent studies also explored their use for oral administration. This study aimed to explore the potential use of the microsponge technique in improving the aqueous solubility and dissolution profile of pentoxifylline (PTX). In this study, microsponges were prepared by a quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method by varying concentrations of carriers. Nine different ratios of the PTX:Eudragit E-100 with varying amounts of dichloromethane were used. All formulated microsponges were evaluated for %production yield, compatibility of drug excipient, encapsulation efficiency, in vitro drug release, and in vivo bioavailability, as well as recorded by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and differential scanning calorimetry(DSC). Our data suggested that the aqueous solubility of PTX microsponges was four times greater than that of pure drug. The in vitro drug release of selected microsponges (M8) was found to be 70%; furthermore, the in vivo study suggested that the selected formulation significantly enhanced drug concentration in the plasma (9,219 ng/mL in 12 hours) in comparison to pure drug PTX (2,476 ng/mL in 12 hours). SEM showed that the prepared microsponges were spherical with porous nature. Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy and DSC studies confirmed an absence of incompatibility among drugs and selected excipients. The pH of the selected gel was found to be 6.8, which was compatible with those of skin and oral formulations also. All above data suggested a highly successful and beneficial use of the microsponge technique in enhancing aqueous solubility, dissolution profile, and oral bioavailability of PTX. Microsponge-based delivery of PTX may represent an alternative strategy to improve the bioavailability of the drug.

Optimization of entrapment efficiency and release of clindamycin in microsponge based gel

The aim of the present study was to formulate clindamycin (CLN) as a microsponge based gel to release the drug in a controlled manner and reduce the side effects in the treatment of acne. Since this method requires poor water solubility of the drug to be loaded in particles, therefore, conversion of the hydrochloride salt to free base was done. By using an emulsion solvent diffusion method, we made six different formulations of microsponges containing CLN-free base by changing the proportions of polymer, emulsifier and the pH of the external phase. These formulations were studied for physical characterization and for drug- polymer interactions. The physical characterization showed that microsponge formulations coded by C5, C6 resulted in a better loading efficiency and production yield and their particle size was less than 30 µm. Scanning electron microscopy images showed the microsponges porous and spherical. C5, C6 microsponge formulation was prepared as gel in Carbopol and in vitro evaluated. The microsponge formulation gel C8 was found to be optimized. C8 released 90.38% of drug over 12 h and showed viscosity 20,157 ± 38 cp, pH of 6.3 ± 0.09 and drug content of 99.64 ± 0.04%. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and differential scanning calorimetry confirmed no significant interactions between excipients and drug.

Formulation and evaluation of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose-dicyclomine microsponges for colon targeted drug delivery: In vitro and in vivo evaluation

OBJECTIVE

The objective of present study was to design novel colon targeted delivery of dicyclomine Hydrochloride (DCH) microsponges.

METHODS

Microsponges (MS1-MS4) based on different ratios of hydroxypropylmethylcellulose (HPMC) and DCH was prepared by quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method. Micro-sponges were analyzed by determining percent yield, encapsulation efficiency, drug content, drug-polymer compatibility and thermal stability. Kinetic analysis of thermal stability data was done by Chang method, Friedman method and Broido method. In vitro dissolution study was carried out at pH 1.2, pH 6.8 and pH 7.4 at different time intervals.

RESULTS

Results showed that there was no chemical interaction between DCH and HPMC in all microsponge formulations. Production yield, drug content and encapsulation efficiency were enhanced on increasing the drug-polymer ratio. Thermal stability of all the micro-sponges was greater than that of pure drug. In vitro drug release was decreased on increasing the polymer concentration at different pH levels. The newly prepared micro-sponges based on HPMC were confirmed as a promising means of colon targeted delivery of DCH. An HPLC method was developed and validated for the bioequivalence study of newly designed microsponges. Pharmacokinetics parameters were calculated using linear trapezoidal method after single oral administration of microsponges in white albino rabbits. Pharmacokinetics results indicate an enhancement in the value of t1/2, tmax, Cmax and AUC0-t of DCH in the microsponges as compared to standard DCH showing enhanced bioavailability of drug after microsponges formation.

CONCLUSION

The current study shows a new approach for colon specific delivery of DCH based on microsponges.

Strategies for transdermal drug delivery against bone disorders: A preclinical and clinical update

The transdermal drug delivery system is an exceptionally safe and well-tolerable therapeutic approach that has immense potential for delivering active components against bone-related pathologies. However, its use is limited in the current clinical practices due to the low skin permeability of most active drugs in the formulation. Thus, innovations in the methodologies of skin permeation enhancement techniques are suggested to overcome this limitation. Although various transdermal drug delivery systems are studied to date, there are insufficient studies comparing the therapeutic efficacy of transdermal delivery systems to oral delivery systems. Thus, creating a decision-making dilemma between oral or transdermal therapies. Therefore, a timely review is inevitable to develop a platform for future researchers to develop next-generation transdermal drug delivery strategies against skeletal diseases that must be convenient and cost-effective for the patients with improved therapeutic efficacy. Here, we will outline the most recent strategies that can overcome the choice limitation of the drug and enhance the transdermal adsorption of various types of drugs to treat bone disorders. For the first time, in this review paper, we will highlight the preclinical and clinical studies on the different transdermal delivery methods. Thus, providing insight into the current therapeutic approaches and suggesting new directions for the advancements in transdermal drug delivery systems against bone disorders.

Ghatti gum-base graft copolymer: a plausible platform for pH-controlled delivery of antidiabetic drugs

In the present study, we aimed to develop a novel pH-sensitive polymeric delivery system (GG-g-PMMA) for antidiabetic therapy via grafting ghatti gum (GG) with methyl methacrylate (MMA) chains. The free radical polymerization technique was adopted to graft ghatti gum with methyl methacrylate, using ceric ammonium nitrate (CAN) as a redox initiator. The impact on grafting parameters such as grafting percentage (G%) and grafting efficiency (GE), of monomer and initiator concentrations was evaluated. The batch with higher grafting efficiency and percentage grafting was selected and characterized by elemental analysis (C, H and N), DSC, FT-IR spectroscopy, XRD, 1H-NMR and SEM morphology study. In addition, the efficacy of GG-g-PMMA-based pellets loaded with the hypoglycemic agent, metformin hydrochloride, to sustain drug release was investigated. In vitro release studies demonstrated a pH-dependent sustained release of the drug from GG-g-PMMA pellets. In addition, acute oral toxicity studies and histopathological analysis suggested the safety and biocompatibility of the grafted gum. Most importantly, in vivo efficacy studies underscored the efficient hypoglycemic potential of the prepared formulation, which was comparable to that of a sustained release marketed formulation. These results suggest that the developed pH-sensitive polymeric delivery system (GG-g-PMMA) might represent a promising delivery vehicle for facilitated antidiabetic therapy.

Sponge particulates for biomedical applications: Biofunctionalization, multi-drug shielding, and theranostic applications

Sponge particulates have attracted enormous attention in biomedical applications for superior properties, including large porosity, elastic deformation, capillary action, and three-dimensional (3D) reaction environment. Especially, the tiny porous structures make sponge particulates a promising platform for drug delivery, tissue engineering, anti-infection, and wound healing by providing abundant reservoirs of broad surface and internal network for cargo shielding and shuttling. To control the sponge-like morphology and improve the diversity of drug loading, some optimized preparation techniques of sponge particulates have been developed, contributing to the simplified preparation process and improved production reproducibility. Bio-functionalized strategies, including target modification, cell membrane camouflage, and hydrogel of sponge particulates have been applied to modulate the properties, improve the performance, and extend the applications. In this review, we highlight the unique physical properties and functions, current manufacturing techniques, and an overview of spongy particulates in biomedical applications, especially in inhibition of the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) infectivity. Moreover, the current challenges and prospects of sponge particulates are discussed rationally, providing an insight into developing vibrant fields of sponge particulates-based biomedicine.

Recent trends, challenges and future outlook of transdermal drug delivery systems for rheumatoid arthritis therapy

At present, several drug molecules have been used for the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). However, the utilization of these compounds through the oral and parenteral route is limited due to low bioavailability, rapid metabolism, poor absorption, first-pass effect, and serious adverse effects. A transdermal delivery system is an appealing option in this scenario, as it possesses the proficiency to overcome drawbacks associated with the oral and parenteral route. With the innovation of several enhancement strategies, many therapeutic agents have been administered transdermally, proposing an exceptional approach to treat RA. The present article provides an insight into the etiology and pathophysiology of RA. The challenges of the transdermal route and the strategies to improve those problems are described. The current advances in increasing the transdermal efficiency of the therapeutics against RA are discussed. Limitations and advantages regarding the state of the art transdermal delivery system and future outlook are also summarized.

Formulation and characterization of lornoxicam-loaded cellulosic-microsponge gel for possible applications in arthritis

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is an autoimmune disease associated with severe joint pain. Herein, we report lornoxicam loaded cellulosic microsponge gel formulation with sustained anti-inflammatory effects that are required to manage arthritic pain. The microsponges were formulated using quasi emulsion-solvent diffusion method employing four different surfactant systems, namely polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), Tween80, Gelucire 48/16 and Gelucire 50/13. All the lornoxicam loaded microsponge formulations were extensively characterized with a variety of analytical tools. The optimized microsponge formulation was then converted into gel formulation. The lornoxicam loaded microsponge gel formulation had adequate viscosity and sufficient pharmaceutical properties as confirmed by the texture analysis and the drug release followed Super case II transport. It is noteworthy that we described the preparation of a new cellulosic polymers based microsponge system for delivery of lornoxicam to provide quick as well as lasting (sustained) anti-inflammatory effects in rats using carrageenan induced rat paw edema model. We were able to demonstrate a 72% reduction in inflammation within 4 h using the optimize transdermal gel formulation utilizing Transcutol P as permeation enhancer and with the aid of skin micro-piercing by microneedles, hence, demonstrating the potential of this microsponge gel formulation in arthritis management.

Design & development of nanosponge loaded topical gel of curcumin and caffeine mixture for augmented treatment of psoriasis

BACKGROUND

Combination of curcumin with anti-inflammatory drug like caffeine shows augmented antipsoriatic action compared to curcumin alone and reduce the time taken for treatment of Psoriasis.

OBJECTIVE

The objective of the present study was to develop nanosponge (NS) based topical gel of curcumin (CUR) and caffeine (CFN) combination that acts as a potential system for the treatment of psoriasis.

METHODS

NS composed of dimethyl carbonate (DMC) as crosslinker and beta-cyclodextrin (β-CD) as polymer were prepared by hot melt method and incorporated in topical gels. Factorial design (3²) was constructed in a fully randomized manner to study all nine possible experimental runs. The gels were prepared by varying the content of carbopol-934 (gelling agent) (X1) and guar gum (polymer) (X2). The effect of these two independent variables on viscosity (Y1) and in vitro percent drug release (Y2) of prepared gels was evaluated. Other evaluation studies for NS and nanogels were conducted. In vivo animal studies were carried out for optimized formulation using mouse model of imiquimod-induced psoriasis.

RESULTS

The physical and chemical characteristics exhibited by the prepared NS and gels (F1-F9) were found to be optimal. The optimization resulted in achieving formulation N10 with 69.72% in vitro drug release and 12,329.78cp viscosity. Histopathology studies revealed that prepared nanogel has promising anti-psoriatic activity. The results concluded that CUR and CFN combination has reduced the time required for showing anti-psoriatic activity to 10 days when compared to CUR alone that took around 20 days. Moreover, the nanogel has depicted sustained drug release till 12 h.

CONCLUSIONS

From the experimental findings it has been concluded that CUR and CFN combination significantly augmented the anti-psoriatic efficacy with respect to individual components and also reduced the time required for onset of effect. Thus, the proposed nanogel would be an imperative drug delivery system for more effective anti-psoriatic therapy. Graphical abstract.

Microsponges for dermatological applications: Perspectives and challenges

Dermatological disorders have a huge psychosocial impact, causing significant impairment of patient's life. Topical therapy plays a pivotal role in management of such disorders. Conventional topical delivery systems result in overmedication/undermedication, leading to adverse effects and reduction in therapeutic efficacy. Consequently, researchers have been striving towards the development of alternative delivery systems for dermatological applications. In the last decade, microsponges emerged as an attractive option for topical delivery. Their characteristic particle size offers enhanced benefits, making them superior to the contemporary microcarriers. The present review furnishes a comprehensive account of state of the art, important factors affecting the performance and mechanism of drug release from topically applied microsponges, along with characterization techniques. Further, a list of marketed products and their applications for common dermatological disorders has been presented. All in all, this paper is an attempt to lay a bibliographic foundation for researchers working in this field and foster further investigations in this arena.

Design and optimization of topical terbinafine hydrochloride nanosponges: Application of full factorial design, in vitro and in vivo evaluation

Terbinafine hydrochloride (THCl) has a broad-spectrum antifungal activity. THCl has oral bioavailability 40%, which increases dosing frequency of the drug, thus leads to some systemic side effects. Sustained release THCl nanosponges hydrogel was fabricated to deliver the drug topically. Pure THCl (drug), polyvinyl alcohol (emulsifier), and ethyl cellulose (EC, polymer to produce nanosponges) were used. THCl nanosponges were produced successfully by the emulsion solvent evaporation method. Based on a 3² full factorial design, different THCl: EC ratios and stirring rates were used as independent variables. The optimized formula selected based on the particle size and entrapment efficiency % (EE) was formulated as topical hydrogel. All formulations were found in the nanosize range except F₇and F₉. EE was ranged from 33.05% to 90.10%. THCl nanosponges hydrogel released more than 90% of drug after 8 h and showed the highest in vivo skin deposition and antifungal activity. The increase in drug: EC ratio was observed to increase EE and the particle size while higher stirring rate resulted in finer emulsion globules and significant reduction in EE. The drug release profile was slow from dosage form when it was incorporated in entrapped form as nanosponges rather than unentrapped one. The nanosponges hydrogel succeeded to sustain THCl release over 8 h. It showed the highest antifungal activity and skin deposition. THCl nanosponges hydrogel represents an enhanced therapeutic approach for the topical treatment of fungal infection.

Lung delivery of nanoliposomal salbutamol sulfate dry powder inhalation for facilitated asthma therapy

The motive behind present work was to discover a solution for overcoming the problems allied with a deprived oral bioavailability of salbutamol sulfate (SS) due to its first pass hepatic metabolism, shorter half-life, and systemic toxicity at high doses. Pulmonary delivery provides an alternative route of administration to avoid hepatic metabolism of SS, moreover facilitated diffusion and prolonged retention can be achieved by incorporation into liposomes. Liposomes were prepared by thin film hydration technique using 3² full factorial design and formulation was optimized based on the vesicle size and percent drug entrapment (PDE) of liposomes. Optimized liposomal formulation exhibited an average size of about 167.2 ± 0.170 nm, with 80.68 ± 0.74% drug entrapment, and 9.74 ± 1.10 mV zeta potential. The liposomal dispersion was then spray dried and further characterized for in-vitro aerosol performance using Andersen Cascade Impactor. Optimized liposomal formulation revealed prolonged in-vitro drug release of more than 90% up to 14 h following Higuchi's controlled release model. Thus, the proposed new-fangled liposomal formulation would be a propitious alternative to conventional therapy for efficient and methodical treatment of asthma and alike respiratory ailments.

A QCM-based assay of drug content in Eudragit RS 100-based delivery systems

A specific version of the quartz crystal microbalance method has been proposed for quantitative evaluation of drug content in polymeric drug carrier systems. In this study, ammonio methacrylate copolymer (type B) microparticles and their standard solutions have been prepared and loaded with set amounts of the medications diltiazem (base) and lidocaine. The analytes have been segregatim deposited on the surface of the resonator and the drug content in them has been derived from the downshift of the resonance frequency produced by irreversible interaction of the drug molecules with irradiating hydrochloric gas. The obtained results have been statistically processed on a number of samples and have been found to exhibit excellent coherence to set theoretical values. As an alternative, the conventional pharmacopoeial UV-Vis spectral method has also been separately applied to studied samples, revealing worsened performance in the case of lidocaine due to polymer matrix interference. Thus the universality of the QCM method has been proved to add to its versatility and precision. The method appears to be readily applicable to the routine pharmaceutical quantity control of bulk and multiparticulate drug forms.

Dendrimer entrapped microsponge gel of dithranol for effective topical treatment

Dithranol is one of the important topical agents for the treatment of psoriasis, a chronic inflammatory skin disease with aberrant differentiation of keratinocytes. However, its application is troublesome and inconvenient because of its associated side effects, including staining, burning sensation, irritation, and necrotizing effect on the diseased cells as well as on the normal cells. The purpose of the current investigation was to explore the potential of poly(amido) amine (PAMAM) dendrimers in the topical delivery of dithranol through a novel microsponge based gel. Generation-4 (G4) dendrimers were incorporated into the microsponge based gel formulation by quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method with varying concentration of polymers, and evaluated for the morphology of the formulation, encapsulation efficiency and skin irritation potential. Percentage yield of the formulation was found to be 66.28%, whereas encapsulation efficiency was ranged between 71.33% to 49.21%, and an average particle size was ranged between 28 ± 1.12 μm to 130 ± 1.01 μm. Surface morphology of developed microsponge was confirmed by scanning electron microscopy, revealed micro-porous nature. The optimized microsponge formulation was found to be stable and recorded non-irritant during cutaneous application of the experimental animals. Further, the pharmacokinetic outcomes of study were showed prolong penetration of the drug through the skin, equivalent to the marketed formulation of dithranol. Therefore, it could be conferred that the microsponge formulation of the PAMAM entrapped dithranol can produce prolonged efficacy without producing toxicities to the skin, and thus can effectively be projected in the treatment of diseases like psoriasis.

Formulation and evaluation of curcumin microsponges for oral and topical drug delivery

The aim of the present study was to improve the release rate of curcumin by microsponges prepared through quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion technique using ethylcellulose and PVA as carriers. The microsponges were characterized by FTIR, DSC, XRD and SEM studies followed by determination of total drug content and entrapment efficiency. The prepared microsponges were further filled in hard gelatin capsule shell and then loaded in carbopol gel to evaluate its potential in oral and topical drug delivery. Further, it was observed from the studies on release rate that microsponges filled in hard gelatin capsule shells (batch MS4) showed 93.2% release of curcumin whereas pure curcumin filled in capsule showed only 11.7% release in 8 h study. Furthermore, the microsponges loaded in carbopol gel were evaluated for ex vivo drug deposition studies and it was found that 77.5% of the curcumin was released within 24 h. The estimated drug remained in the skin was 207.61 ± 5.03 μg/cm2 as determined by a Franz diffusion cell. The drug release profile data were found to be fitted best into the zero-order model with anomalous transport mechanism of drug release in both cases.

Encapsulation of babchi essential oil into microsponges: Physicochemical properties, cytotoxic evaluation and anti-microbial activity

Babchi essential oil (BEO) is a valuable essential oil reported to possess a variety of biological activities such as antitumor, anti inflammatory, immunomodulatory, antioxidant, antifungal and antibacterial properties. Due to its anti-microbial properties, this oil possesses an immense potential for the treatment of dermatological disorders. Further, it has minimal tendency to develop resistance, a common issue with most of the antibiotics. However, its highly viscous nature and poor stability in the presence of light, air and high temperature, limits its practical applications. To surmount these issues, this research aims to encapsulate BEO in ethyl cellulose (EC) microsponges for enhanced stability, antibacterial effect and decreased dermal toxicity. The quasi emulsion solvent evaporation technique was used for fabrication of the BEO microsponges employing EC as polymer, polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) as stabilizer and dichloro methane (DCM) as solvent. The effect of formulation variables such as the amount of EC and PVA were also investigated. The prepared microformulations were evaluated for production yield, encapsulation efficiency, particle size and in vitro release. In vitro cytotoxicity was also checked to assess dermal safety of BEO microsponges. Results revealed that all the dispersions were in micro size range (20.44 ± 3.13 μmto 41.75 ± 3.65 μm), with good encapsulation efficiency (87.70 ± 1.20% of F2) and controlled release profile (cumulative drug release 73.34 ± 1.76%). Field emission scanning electron microscopy results showed that the microsponges possessed a spherical uniform shape with a spongy structure. Results of cytotoxicity study indicated that the prepared microsponges were safer on dermal cells in comparison to pure BEO. The optimized formulation was also evaluated for in vitro antimicrobial assay against dermal bacteria like Staphylococcus aureus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa and Escherichia coli, which confirmed their enhanced antibacterial activity. Furthermore, the results of photostability and stability analysis indicated improved stability of BEO loaded microsponges. Hence, encapsulation of BEO in microsponges resulted in efficacious carrier system in terms of stability as well as safety of this essential oil along with handling benefits.

Application of quasi-emulsification and modified double emulsification techniques for formulation of tacrolimus microsponges

Background

The present study was to develop a stable and sustained-release delivery system of tacrolimus (TCM). TCM is a macrolide antibiotic used as an immunosuppressant. It is formulated as a microsponge, which is a safe and effective delivery system with reduced side effects.

Materials and methods

The method used to prepare ethyl cellulose (EC) and xanthan gum (XG)-facilitated EC-based microsponges employed emulsification and modified double emulsification techniques. TCM-containing microsponges were prepared using varying concentrations followed by evaluation of micromeritics, compatibility of drug and excipients, production yield, drug content and entrapment efficiency, zeta potential, size distribution and drug release.

Results

The results showed excellent flow properties with adequate entrapment efficiency of the system and satisfactory release of active pharmaceutical ingredient. In vitro dissolution studies, which were conducted to determine the amount of drug released, illustrated a pronounced sustained effect up to 8 h. Zeta size and zeta potential analysis of microsponges confirmed the existence of micro-sized (1.99–3.09 µm) and stable particles (−15.33 to −3.38 mV), respectively.

Conclusion

Conclusively, the applied technique and selected combination of ingredients were found suitable for the preparation of TCM-containing sustained-release microsponges.

A Review About the Drug Delivery from Microsponges

Microparticulate drug delivery systems have shown a great interest in the pharmaceutical area. They allow the increase of drug therapeutic efficacy and the reduction of side effects. In this context, microsponges represent a new model of porous polymer microspheres, which allow the entrapment of a wide range of active agents. During the development, it is necessary the characterization of the system and among of the most important tests are the release and permeation profile analysis. They can demonstrate the behavior of drug in a specific site with a particular application condition and are related to therapeutic efficacy. Therefore, this review provides an overview of drug delivery profile from microsponges. Methods for determination of in vitro release and ex vivo permeation studies are detailed. Examples of drug delivery from microsponges administered in different sites are also discussed with aim to provide an understanding of the use of this strategy to modify the drug delivery.

Fabrication, characterization, and evaluation of microsponge delivery system for facilitated fungal therapy

OBJECTIVE

The rationale behind present research vocation was to develop and investigate a novel microsponge based gel as a topical carrier for the prolonged release and cutaneous drug deposition of fluconazole (FLZ); destined for facilitated fungal therapy.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Microsponges were prepared using quasi-emulsion solvent diffusion method using Eudragit S-100. In the direction of optimization, the effect of formulation variables (drug-polymer ratio and amount of emulsifier) and diverse factors affecting physical characteristics of microsponge were investigated as well. Fabricated microsponges were characterized by differential scanning calorimetry, Fourier transform-infrared, scanning electron microscopy (SEM), particle size analysis, and also evaluated for drug content, encapsulation efficiency, in vitro drug release and in vitro antifungal activity.

RESULTS

Compatibility studies results reflected no sign of any chemical interaction between the drug and polymers used. Whereas, varied drug-polymer ratios and emulsifier concentration indicated significant effect on production yield, drug content, encapsulation efficiency, particle size and drug release. Spherical microsponges with a porous surface and 29.327 ± 0.31 μm mean particle size were evident from SEM micrographs. In vitro release outcomes, from microsponge loaded gels depicted that F1 formulation was more efficient to give extended drug release of 85.38% at the end of 8 h, while conventional formulation by releasing 83.17% of drug got exhausted incredibly earlier at the end of 4 h merely. Moreover, microsponge gels demonstrated substantial spreadability and extrudability along with promising antifungal activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Fabricated microsponges would be impending pharmaceutical topical carriers of FLZ and a leading alternative to conventional therapy for efficient, safe and facilitated eradication of fungal infections.

A 32full factorial design for development and characterization of a nanosponge-based intravaginal in situ gelling system for vulvovaginal candidiasis

The rationale behind present research effort was to enhance CTZ solubility and efficacyviaforming complex with hydroxypropyl β-cyclodextrin (HP-β-CD) nanosponges.

Intra-articular delivery of a methotrexate loaded nanostructured lipid carrier based smart gel for effective treatment of rheumatic diseases

A nanostructured lipid carrier (NLC) based smart gel of methotrexate (MTX) was developed as a potential system for the treatment of rheumatic diseases (RD).