Variations in active transport behavior among different neighborhoods and across adult lifestages

Changes in physical activity after joining a bikeshare program: a cohort of new bikeshare users

Background

There are hundreds of bikeshare programs worldwide, yet few health-related evaluations have been conducted. We enrolled a cohort of new bikeshare members in Philadelphia (Pennsylvania, USA) to assess whether within-person moderate and vigorous physical activity (MVPA) increased with higher use of the program and whether effects differed for vulnerable sub-groups.

Methods

During 2015–2018, 1031 new members completed baseline and one-year follow-up online surveys regarding their personal characteristics and past 7-day MVPA minutes per week (minutes per week with- and without walking). Participants were linked to their bikeshare trips to objectively assess program use. Negative binomial (for continuous outcomes) and multinomial (for categorical outcomes) regression adjusted for person characteristics (socio-demographics, health), weather, biking-infrastructure, and baseline biking.

Results

Participant median age was 30, 25% were of Black or Latino race/ethnicity, and 30% were socioeconomically disadvantaged. By follow-up, personal bike ownership increased and 75% used bikeshare, although most used it infrequently. Per 10 day change in past year (PY) bikeshare use, non-walking MVPA min/wk increased 3% (roughly 6 min/wk, P < 0.014). More days of bikeshare was also associated with change from inactive to more active (odds ratio for ≥ 15 days in PY vs. no bikeshare use 1.80, CI 1.05–3.09, P < 0.03). Results were consistent across vulnerable sub-groups. In general, impacts on MVPA were similar when exposure was personal bike or bikeshare.

Conclusions

Bikeshare facilitated increases in cycling, slightly increased non-walking MVPA, and showed potential for activating inactive adults; however, for larger program impact, members will need to use it more frequently.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12966-022-01353-6.

How different are objective operationalizations of walkability for older adults compared to the general population? A systematic review

Background

Walking is an essential activity for everyone and for older adults in particular, given that it is the most accessible form of physical activity and one of the healthiest transportation modes. Understanding how walkability (the potential of the environment to enable and/or encourage walking) has been objectively measured and analyzed for older adults is critical to create more inclusive, healthy, and sustainable environments and to promote healthy aging. Despite the numerous reviews on physical activity among older adults and its relationship with the built environment, the literature still lacks comparison reviews focusing specifically on objective operationalizations of walkability for older adults vs. the general population.

Methods

We conducted a systematic review of 146 empirical studies that measured walkability objectively in relation to walking-related outcomes. We compared studies focused on older adults (n = 24) and the general population (n = 122). Content analysis included the characteristics of the study design, walkability measures, spatial extent, and associations found between walkability and walking-related outcomes.

Results

In both groups of publications, the majority of studies were conducted in the US, Canada, and Europe, and largely in high-income countries. They were mostly published in health-related journals and used cross-sectional designs, operationalized walkability by using indexes, employed self-reported measures for walking-related outcomes, and found positive associations between walkability and walking outcomes. However, we observed some differences among studies focusing on older adults. Compared to studies focusing on the general population, a larger proportion of studies on older adults was conducted in the Middle East and Asia, and they used longitudinal designs, mixed methods to measure walking-related outcomes, variables related with land-use characteristics, safety from traffic and crime, and greenery, and a larger proportion found positive, as well as no associations between walkability and walking-related outcomes.

Conclusion

Although there is a promising increase in interest in older adults-focused walkability studies in the last decade, there is still a need for more studies focusing on different settings, using wider spatial extents, longitudinal designs, objective or mixed methods to collect outcome data, and specific variables and/or specially created indexes for older adults and for settings.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12877-022-03233-x.

Correlates and determinants of transport-related physical activity among adults: an interdisciplinary systematic review

INTRODUCTION

Transport-related physical activity (TRPA) has been identified as a way to increase physical activity due to its discretionary and habitual nature. Factors thought to influence TRPA span multiple disciplines and are rarely systematically considered in unison. This systematic review aimed to identify cross-sectional and longitudinal factors associated with adult TRPA across multiple research disciplines.

METHODS

Using four electronic databases, a systematic search of English, peer-reviewed literature from 2010 - 2020 was performed. Studies quantitatively examining factors associated with the outcome of adult TRPA were eligible.

RESULTS

Seventy-three studies (n = 66 cross-sectional; n = 7 longitudinal) were included, cumulatively reporting data from 1,278,632 observations. Thirty-six factors were examined for potential association with TRPA and presented in a social-ecological framework: individual (n = 15), social (n = 3), and environmental (n = 18). Seven factors were found to be consistently associated with higher adult TRPA: lower socio-economic status, higher self-efficacy, higher social normalization, lower distance of travel, higher destination concentration, more streetlighting, and higher public transportation frequency with a greater number of terminals near route start and endpoints.

CONCLUSIONS

This is the first comprehensive compilation of the correlates and determinants of adult TRPA. Seven individual, social, and environmental factors demonstrated consistent associations with TRPA. Models formed using these factors may facilitate more effective promotion of TRPA. There is a lack of longitudinal studies as well as studies assessing cognitive/attitudinal and social factors, highlighting gaps for further research. Those developing policies and strategies targeting TRPA need to consider a range of factors at the individual, social, and environmental level to maximise the likelihood of effectiveness.

Active transportation and social capital: The association between walking or biking for transportation and community participation

Active transportation provides benefits to communities and individuals, yet little is known about its relationship with social capital. This study examined relationships between active transportation behavior and three indices of social capital (community participation, sense of community, and sociopolitical control). Linear regression was used to assess cross-sectional data (N = 1700) from the Survey of the Health of Wisconsin, a population-based representative sample collected in 2014, 2015, and 2016. Active transportation was associated with greater levels of community participation (p = 0.012). The association between active transportation and community participation was the third largest in terms of standardized coefficient (β = 0.07), following only age and college degree or greater educational attainment. Active transportation was not significantly associated with sense of community or sociopolitical control. All models controlled for confounding background characteristics. These findings are important for policy and planning work, as designing supportive environments and removing barriers to active transportation can foster social capital through bolstering community participation. The benefits of active transportation may be broader than previously understood and underscore the need to promote active transportation.

Longitudinal Associations Between Neighborhood Park and Open Space Access and Children's Accelerometer-Assessed Measured Physical Activity: The Evidence From the MATCH Study

BACKGROUND

Cross-sectional studies have shown positive associations between neighborhood park access and children's physical activity (PA); however, research that examines the relationship longitudinally is lacking. This study investigates how neighborhood park access affects the longitudinal trajectory of PA in 192 children across 3 years.

METHODS

Accelerometer-assessed PA data of children (N = 202) were collected across 6 semi-annual waves (7 d each) between 2014 and 2018. Geographical information systems was used to measure neighborhood park access (ie, coverage, density, and proximity) at baseline. Mixed-effects models examined the associations of park access with children's baseline and trajectory of moderate to vigorous PA (MVPA) minutes across 3 years and whether the associations differed by sex or weekends versus weekdays.

RESULTS

Higher neighborhood park density, coverage, and proximity were positively associated with children's baseline MVPA minutes per day. Longitudinally, higher park coverage was associated with smaller decreases in children's MVPA minutes per day, but only during weekends. Park density and proximity were not associated with change in MVPA minutes per day. The above associations did not differ by sex.

CONCLUSIONS

Having access to more neighborhood parklands protected against age-related declines in children's PA. These findings suggest that neighborhood park coverage should be considered by urban planners when evaluating the health impacts of their policies.

'It's just one of those natural progressions': Stories of relocating to neighbourhoods of high and low walkability

Walkable neighbourhood characteristics, such as connectivity and land use mix, have been found to correlate with people walking more and being active. However, the relationship between the built environment and behaviour is highly complex making it difficult to develop generalisable and predictive models. This paper reports qualitative findings from 21 in-depth interviews conducted with urban residents who had relocated between neighbourhoods of high and low walkability. Participants' preferences are reported within key domains (shop access, green space and travel links). These reveal that walkable characteristics were preferred and desired regardless of whether the participant had moved to a high or low walkable area. We contrast surface preferences with an analysis of relocation stories: complex assemblages of biographical narratives, identity work and cultural representations. The findings reveal how neighbourhood types are consistently associated with life stages and that moving to a suburban home was felt to be a definitive type of relocation in which it was acceptable to put neighbourhood preferences aside. Residential self-selection is not yet properly understood and we recommend studies of relocation stories for examining the sociocultural meanings that are likely to inform relocation decisions.

Transportation Physical Activity Earlier in Life and Areas of the Brain related to Dementia Later in Life

INTRODUCTION

Efforts to preserve brain function may be most effective when administered before there are changes in the brain, which may occur decades before the onset of Alzheimer's disease symptoms. White matter hyperintensities (WMH), a cardiovascular disease biomarker, are areas of hyperintense signals scattered in the white matter of the brain evident on magnetic resonance images. WMH increase with age and are associated with a higher risk of dementia. The purpose of this study was to determine if there was an association between different domains and intensities of physical activity earlier in life and lower risk of dementia later in life as indicated by less WMH.

METHODS

In this cross-sectional study, face-to-face interviews were conducted with the Lifetime Total Physical Activity Questionnaire. The metabolic equivalent of task (MET) hours/week/year of moderate (3.0-5.9 METs) and vigorous-intensity (≥6 METs) occupation, transportation, household and leisure-time physical activity was obtained across school-age (6-11), adolescence (12-18), young (19-39) and middle adulthood (40-64). WMH were calculated as the percent of intracranial volume in cognitively unimpaired middle (age 40-64) and older adults (age 65+). Simultaneous multiple linear regression determined associations between moderate and vigorous-intensity occupation, transportation, household and leisure-time physical activity across school-age, adolescence, young and middle adulthood with WMH.

RESULTS

Greater moderate-intensity transportation physical activity during young (b= -.09, p=.008) and middle adulthood (b= -.14, p=.013) was associated with lower WMH in middle and older adulthood, explaining 28% (p=.003) to 29% (p=.002) of the variance in WMH (n=54).

CONCLUSIONS

Changes to the physical environment that encourage walking, running or biking, such as sidewalks and bike paths, may be strategies to mitigate the age-related increases in WMH, areas of the brain associated with higher risk of dementia.

Neighborhood Resources Associated With Active Travel in Older Adults-A Cohort Study in Six European Countries

OBJECTIVES

To study associations between perceived neighborhood resources and time spent by older adults in active travel.

METHODS

Respondents in six European countries, aged 65-85 years, reported on the perceived presence of neighborhood resources (parks, places to sit, public transportation, and facilities) with response options "a lot," "some," and "not at all." Daily active travel time (total minutes of transport-related walking and cycling) was self-reported at the baseline (n = 2,695) and 12-18 months later (n = 2,189).

RESULTS

Reporting a lot of any of the separate resources (range B's = 0.19-0.29) and some or a lot for all four resources (B = 0.22, 95% confidence interval [0.09, 0.35]) was associated with longer active travel time than reporting none or fewer resources. Associations remained over the follow-up, but the changes in travel time were similar, regardless of the neighborhood resources.

DISCUSSION

Perceiving multiple neighborhood resources may support older adults' active travel. Potential interventions, for example, the provision of new resources or increasing awareness of existing resources, require further study.

Walkability and its association with walking/cycling and body mass index among adults in different regions of Germany: a cross-sectional analysis of pooled data from five German cohorts

OBJECTIVES

To examine three walkability measures (points of interest (POI), transit stations and impedance (restrictions to walking) within 640 m of participant's addresses) in different regions in Germany and assess the relationships between walkability, walking/cycling and body mass index (BMI) using generalised additive models.

SETTING

Five different regions and cities of Germany using data from five cohort studies.

PARTICIPANTS

For analysing walking/cycling behaviour, there were 6269 participants of a pooled sample from three cohorts with a mean age of 59.2 years (SD: 14.3) and of them 48.9% were male. For analysing BMI, there were 9441 participants of a pooled sample of five cohorts with a mean age of 62.3 years (SD: 12.8) and of them 48.5% were male.

OUTCOMES

(1) Self-reported walking/cycling (dichotomised into more than 30 min and 30 min and less per day; (2) BMI calculated with anthropological measures from weight and height.

RESULTS

Higher impedance was associated with lower prevalence of walking/cycling more than 30 min/day (prevalence ratio (PR): 0.95; 95% CI 0.93 to 0.97), while higher number of POI and transit stations were associated with higher prevalence (PR 1.03; 95% CI 1.02 to 1.05 for both measures). Higher impedance was associated with higher BMI (ß: 0.15; 95% CI 0.04 to 0.25) and a higher number of POI with lower BMI (ß: -0.14; 95% CI -0.24 to 0.04). No association was found between transit stations and BMI (ß: 0.005, 95% CI -0.11 to 0.12). Stratified by cohort we observed heterogeneous associations between BMI and transit stations and impedance.

CONCLUSION

We found evidence for associations of walking/cycling with walkability measures. Associations for BMI differed across cohorts.

Built Environment, Psychosocial Factors and Active Commuting to School in Adolescents: Clustering a Self-Organizing Map Analysis

Although the built environment and certain psychosocial factors are related to adolescents' active commuting to and from school (ACS), their interrelationships have not been explored in depth. This study describes these interrelationships and behavioral profiles via a self-organizing map (SOM) analysis. The sample comprised 465 adolescents from the IPEN (International Physical Activity and the Environment Network) Adolescent study in Valencia, Spain. ACS, barriers to ACS, physical self-efficacy, social support and sociodemographics were measured by questionnaire. Street-network distance to school, net residential density and street intersection density were calculated from the Geographic Information System. The clustering of the SOM outcomes resulted in eight areas or clusters. The clusters which correspond to the lowest and highest ACS levels were then explored in depth. The lowest ACS levels presented interactions between the less supportive built environments (i.e., low levels of residential density and street connectivity in the neighborhood and greater distances to school) and unfavorable psychosocial variables (i.e., low values of physical self-efficacy and medium social support for ACS) and good access to private motorized transport at home. The adolescents with the lowest ACS values exhibited high ACS environment/safety and planning/psychosocial barrier values. Future interventions should be designed to encourage ACS and change multiple levels of influence, such as individual, psychosocial and environmental factors.

Place matters: A longitudinal analysis measuring the association between neighbourhood walkability and walking by age group and population center size in Canada

This study examined the influence of walkability on walking behaviour and assessed whether associations varied according to life-stage and population center (PC) size. Walkability scores were obtained for the six-digit postal codes of residential neighbourhoods of 11,200 Canadians, who participated in biennial assessments of the National Population Health Survey from 1994 to 2010. Participants were stratified by age-group. Mixed-effects logistic regression models were used to estimate the influence of cumulative exposure to neighborhood walkability on utilitarian and exercise walking by PC size and life-stage. Associations of neighbourhood walkability with utilitarian and exercise walking varied according to age-group and PC size. Exposure to high walkable neighborhoods was associated with utilitarian walking in younger and older adults in all PC sizes, except for older adults living in a medium PC. Living in a highly walkable neighborhood in a large PC was associated with walking for exercise in younger (OR: 1.42; 95%CI: 1.20-1.67) and older adults (OR: 2.09; 95%CI: 1.51-2.89). Living in highly walkable neighbourhood in a medium PC was associated with walking for exercise in older adults (OR: 1.62; 95%CI: 1.15-2.29). These results emphasize the need to consider the size and nature of every community, and the age-group of a population when implementing strategies to promote walking.

Neighborhood built environment and socio-economic status in relation to multiple health outcomes in adolescents

The study aim was to examine associations of neighborhood built environment and neighborhood socio-economic status (SES) with multiple physical activity (PA) behaviors, sedentary time, and obesity indicators among adolescents. Cross-sectional study of 325 adolescents aged 14-18years recruited from schools in Valencia, Spain. Participants' home neighborhoods were classified according to walkability and SES levels. Walkability was defined as an index of three built environment characteristics (i.e., residential density, land use mix, and street connectivity) based on geographic information system data. Moderate-vigorous PA (MVPA) and sedentary time were assessed using accelerometers. Active commuting to school, leisure-time PA, and time in specific sedentary activities were evaluated by questionnaire. Objectively measured weight and height were used to calculate body mass index, and percent body fat was analyzed by bioelectrical impedance. Data were collected in 2013-15. Mixed model regression analyses were performed. Analyses showed an SES-by-walkability interaction for MVPA on weekends. MVPA was highest in high-SES/high-walkable neighborhoods. Another SES-by-walkability interaction was found for sedentary minutes per weekend day. The lowest average sedentary minutes were found in high-SES/high-walkable areas. Neighborhood SES was positively related to participation in sports teams/PA classes and, negatively to time spent in sedentary behaviors. Adolescents living in lower-SES neighborhoods spent more time watching TV and had more obesity and body fat. Present findings strengthen the rationale for targeting neighborhood built and SES environments as health promotion interventions for adolescents.

Neighborhood Built Environment and Socioeconomic Status in Relation to Active Commuting to School in Children

Background:

The role of neighborhood type in active commuting to school (ACS) has not been extensively studied in children. The purpose of this study was to analyze the association between neighborhood built environment (walkability) and neighborhood socioeconomic status (SES) with ACS among children.

Methods:

A cross-sectional study of 310 Spanish children (aged 10–12 y; 51% male) was conducted in 2015. Walkability was defined as an index of 3 built environment characteristics (ie, residential density, land-use mix, and street connectivity) based on geographical information system data. Children’s home and school neighborhoods were evaluated. ACS was evaluated by questionnaire. Mixed model regression analyses evaluated ACS in relation to neighborhood walkability and SES.

Results:

There were no significant SES–walkability interactions for ACS. Children living in more walkable neighborhoods reported 2.5 more trips per week compared with those living in less walkable neighborhoods (P < .001). Children attending schools located in lower SES neighborhoods reported more ACS trips per week than those attending schools in higher SES neighborhoods (P < .05).

Conclusions:

Home-neighborhood walkability and school-neighborhood SES were associated with ACS. This study highlights the importance of assessing children’s home environment and school environment when ACS behavior is analyzed.

Complex active travel bout motivations: Gender, place, and social context associations

Active travel bouts are healthy, but bout-specific motives, social, and physical contexts have been poorly characterized. Adults (n= 421 in 2012, 436 in 2013) described their moderate activity bouts over the past week, aided by accelerometry/GPS data integration. Participants viewed maps indicating date, time, and starting and ending locations of their past week moderate-to-vigorous active travel bouts of 3 or more minutes. These prompts helped participants recall their social and physical contexts and motives for the bouts. Three bout motivations were modeled: leisure, transportation, and their "T-L" difference scores (transportation minus leisure scores). Blends of leisure and transportation motives characterized most bouts, even though most studies do not allow participants to endorse multiple motives for their active travel. Bouts were often neighborhood-based. Leisure motives were related to pleasant place perceptions, homes, and exercise places; workplaces were associated with stronger transportation and T-L bout motives. Women's bout motives were more closely associated with place than men's. Our novel method of individual bout assessment can illuminate the social-ecological contexts and experiences of everyday healthy bouts of activity.

Gender differences in walking (for leisure, transport and in total) across adult life: a systematic review

BACKGROUND

The aim of this systematic review was to examine gender differences in walking for leisure, transport and in total in adults living in high-income countries, and to assess whether gender differences in walking practices change across the life-course.

METHODS

A systematic literature search was conducted of publications dated 1995 to 2015. Papers providing quantitative data on participation in walking of both men and women aged at least 18 years in a high-income country were screened for the quality of the data on gender differences in walking. Data were extracted and results were synthesised using forest plots and narrative summary.

RESULTS

Thirty-six studies were included in the review: 18 reported on walking for leisure, 16 on walking for transport (in total, or for particular purposes), and 14 on total walking. Most (33) studies provided data comparing the proportion of men and women who walked (at all or for a minimum duration) over a defined period, usually one week. There was consistent evidence that more women than men walk for leisure, although effect sizes were small. However, this effect varies by age: more younger women than younger men walk for leisure, but the gender difference diminishes with age and appears to reverse in the oldest age groups. Taking all ages together, there was no consistent gender difference in walking for transport or in total walking, although the small number of studies reporting on walking to undertake errands suggested that more women than men walk for this purpose.

CONCLUSIONS

While there is little evidence that levels of total walking consistently vary by gender, our findings suggest that there are consistent gender differences in participation in walking for some purposes, including for leisure, and that there are gender differences in the impact of age on walking. We conclude that more research is needed to improve our understanding of how walking fits into the lives of women and men across the life-course, especially in relation to gender differences in the impact of aging on walking.

PROSPERO REGISTRATION

PROSPERO registration number: CRD42015025961 .

International comparisons of the associations between objective measures of the built environment and transport-related walking and cycling: IPEN Adult Study

INTRODUCTION

Mounting evidence documents the importance of urban form for active travel, but international studies could strengthen the evidence. The aim of the study was to document the strength, shape, and generalizability of relations of objectively measured built environment variables with transport-related walking and cycling.

METHODS

This cross-sectional study maximized variation of environments and demographics by including multiple countries and by selecting adult participants living in neighborhoods based on higher and lower classifications of objectively measured walkability and socioeconomic status. Analyses were conducted on 12,181 adults aged 18-66 years, drawn from 14 cities across 10 countries worldwide. Frequency of transport-related walking and cycling over the last seven days was assessed by questionnaire and four objectively measured built environment variables were calculated. Associations of built environment variables with transport-related walking and cycling variables were estimated using generalized additive mixed models, and were tested for curvilinearity and study site moderation.

RESULTS

We found positive associations of walking for transport with all the environmental attributes, but also found that the relationships was only linear for land use mix, but not for residential density, intersection density, and the number of parks. Our findings suggest that there may be optimum values in these attributes, beyond which higher densities or number of parks could have minor or even negative impact. Cycling for transport was associated linearly with residential density, intersection density (only for any cycling), and land use mix, but not with the number of parks.

CONCLUSION

Across 14 diverse cities and countries, living in more densely populated areas, having a well-connected street network, more diverse land uses, and having more parks were positively associated with transport-related walking and/or cycling. Except for land-use-mix, all built environment variables had curvilinear relationships with walking, with a plateau in the relationship at higher levels of the scales.

Relationships between Lifestyle, Living Environments, and Incidence of Hypertension in Japan (in Men): Based on Participant's Data from the Nationwide Medical Check-Up

This study aims to investigate factors that contribute to the differences in incidence of hypertension between different regions in Japan, by accounting for not only individual lifestyles, but also their living environments. The target participants of this survey were individuals who received medical treatment for hypertension, as well as hypertension patients who have not received any treatment. The objective variable for analysis was the incidence of hypertension as data aggregated per prefecture. We used data (in men) including obesity, salt intake, vegetable intake, habitual alcohol consumption, habitual smoking, and number of steps walked per day. The variables within living environment included number of rail stations, standard/light vehicle usage, and slope of habitable land. In addition, we analyzed data for the variables related to medical environment including, participation rate in medical check-ups and number of hospitals. We performed multiple stepwise regression analyses to elucidate the correlation of these variables by using hypertension incidence as the objective variable. Hypertension incidence showed a significant negative correlation with walking and medical check-ups, and a significant positive correlation with light-vehicle usage and slope. Between the number of steps and variables related to the living environment, number of rail stations showed a significant positive correlation, while, standard- and light-vehicle usage showed significant negative correlation. Moreover, with stepwise multiple regression analysis, walking showed the strongest effect. The differences in daily walking based on living environment were associated with the disparities in the hypertension incidence in Japan.

Socio-demographic, personal, environmental and behavioral correlates of different modes of transportation to work among Norwegian parents

BACKGROUND

Cycling and brisk-walking to work represents an opportunity to incorporate sustainable transport related moderate- to- vigorous physical activity (MVPA) into daily routine among adults, and thus, may make an important contributing to health. Despite the fact that walking and cycling is an option for many commuters and also brings a number of benefits, a considerable proportion of commuters choose to use other means of transport when cycling and walking would be a highly appropriate transport mode. The object of this study was to assess the associations between modes of commuting to the workplace among parental adults; taking socio-demographic, personal, environmental and behavioral factors into account.

METHODS

Data from a cross- sectional questionnaire were collected from a sample of 709 parents (23 % men and 77 % women) of children aged 10-12 years-old in two Norwegian counties, Hedmark and Telemark. Commuting behavior, socio- demographic determinants, personal and environmental factors were ascertained using questionnaire data from the Fruit and Vegetables Makes the Marks project (FVMM). Multivariate logistic regressions were applied.

RESULTS

In total, 70 % of adults were categorized as car commuters to and from work, 12 % was categorized as a cyclist and 7 % as a walker. The multivariate analyses showed that active commuters were more likely to have a shorter distance to work and perceived the traffic as more safe. Moreover, those who actively commute to the workplace considered commuting as a way to obtain health benefits and a way to reduce CO2 emissions. Active commuters also considered weather to be an obstacle to active commuting.

CONCLUSION

In this cross-sectional study of parents living in sub-urban Norway, we found that active commuting to and from the workplace were associated with a shorter distance to work, traffic safety, environmental concern, health benefits and weather condition. In light of these findings, cycling to work seems to be the most appropriate target for interventions and public health campaigns within this population.

How reported usefulness modifies the association between neighborhood supports and walking behavior

Neighborhood supports have been associated with walking, but this association may be modified by reports about the usefulness of these supports for promoting walking. This study examined the association between reported presence of neighborhood supports and walking and whether usefulness modified this association in a nationwide sample of U.S. adults. Measures of reported presence and use or potential use (i.e., usefulness) of neighborhood supports (shops within walking distance, transit stops, sidewalks, parks, interesting things to look at, well-lit at night, low crime rate, and cars following speed limit) were examined in 3973 adults who completed the 2014 SummerStyles survey. Multinomial regression models were used to examine the association between presence of supports with walking frequency (frequently, sometimes, rarely (referent)) and the role usefulness had on this association. The interaction term between reported presence and usefulness was significant for all supports (p<0.05). For adults who reported a support as useful, a positive association between presence of the support and walking frequency was observed for all supports. For adults who did not report a support as useful, the association between presence of the support and walking frequency was null for most supports and negative for sidewalks, well-lit at night, and low crime rate. The association between presence of neighborhood supports and walking is modified by reported usefulness of the support. Tailoring initiatives to meet a community's supply of and affinity for neighborhood supports may help initiatives designed to promote walking and walkable communities succeed.

Assessing opportunities for physical activity in the built environment of children: interrelation between kernel density and neighborhood scale

BACKGROUND

Built environment studies provide broad evidence that urban characteristics influence physical activity (PA). However, findings are still difficult to compare, due to inconsistent measures assessing urban point characteristics and varying definitions of spatial scale. Both were found to influence the strength of the association between the built environment and PA.

METHODS

We simultaneously evaluated the effect of kernel approaches and network-distances to investigate the association between urban characteristics and physical activity depending on spatial scale and intensity measure. We assessed urban measures of point characteristics such as intersections, public transit stations, and public open spaces in ego-centered network-dependent neighborhoods based on geographical data of one German study region of the IDEFICS study. We calculated point intensities using the simple intensity and kernel approaches based on fixed bandwidths, cross-validated bandwidths including isotropic and anisotropic kernel functions and considering adaptive bandwidths that adjust for residential density. We distinguished six network-distances from 500 m up to 2 km to calculate each intensity measure. A log-gamma regression model was used to investigate the effect of each urban measure on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) of 400 2- to 9.9-year old children who participated in the IDEFICS study. Models were stratified by sex and age groups, i.e. pre-school children (2 to <6 years) and school children (6-9.9 years), and were adjusted for age, body mass index (BMI), education and safety concerns of parents, season and valid weartime of accelerometers.

RESULTS

Association between intensity measures and MVPA strongly differed by network-distance, with stronger effects found for larger network-distances. Simple intensity revealed smaller effect estimates and smaller goodness-of-fit compared to kernel approaches. Smallest variation in effect estimates over network-distances was found for kernel intensity measures based on isotropic and anisotropic cross-validated bandwidth selection.

CONCLUSION

We found a strong variation in the association between the built environment and PA of children based on the choice of intensity measure and network-distance. Kernel intensity measures provided stable results over various scales and improved the assessment compared to the simple intensity measure. Considering different spatial scales and kernel intensity methods might reduce methodological limitations in assessing opportunities for PA in the built environment.

Associations between neighbourhood walkability and daily steps in adults: a systematic review and meta-analysis

Background

Higher street connectivity, land use mix and residential density (collectively referred to as neighbourhood walkability) have been linked to higher levels of walking. The objective of our study was to summarize the current body of knowledge on the association between neighbourhood walkability and biosensor-assessed daily steps in adults.

Methods

We conducted a systematic search of PubMed, SCOPUS, and Embase (Ovid) for articles published prior to May 2014 on the association between walkability (based on Geographic Information Systems-derived street connectivity, land use mix, and/or residential density) and daily steps (pedometer or accelerometer-assessed) in adults. The mean differences in daily steps between adults living in high versus low walkable neighbourhoods were pooled across studies using a Bayesian hierarchical model.

Results

The search strategy yielded 8,744 unique abstracts. Thirty of these underwent full article review of which six met the inclusion criteria. Four of these studies were conducted in Europe and two were conducted in Asia. A meta-analysis of four of these six studies indicates that participants living in high compared to low walkable neighbourhoods accumulate 766 more steps per day (95 % credible interval 250, 1271). This accounts for approximately 8 % of recommended daily steps.

Conclusions

The results of European and Asian studies support the hypothesis that higher neighbourhood walkability is associated with higher levels of biosensor-assessed walking in adults. More studies on this association are needed in North America.