Minimizing fear and anxiety in working dogs: A review

A survey investigating owner perceptions and management of firework-associated fear in dogs in the Greater Sydney area

OBJECTIVE

To investigate the prevalence of firework-associated fear in dogs in Sydney, owner perception of their dog's response to fireworks, perceived efficacy of interventions to manage fearful behaviours and the frequency of dog owners seeking professional advice for these behaviours.

METHODS

Dog owners in the Greater Sydney area were invited to complete an anonymous online survey.

RESULTS

From 387 valid responses, 44.4% (171 of 385) reported their dogs were fearful of fireworks. The most common fear-related behaviour was seeking an owner or caretaker (120 of 161, 74.5%). Most owners responded by bringing their dog inside or trying to comfort or reassure their dog. Only 22.5% of owners sought professional advice for their dog's fear of fireworks, but of these, 65.5% considered that advice to be effective. Source and breed group were significantly associated with fear of fireworks (P = 0.011, P = 0.036 respectively). Fear of fireworks was also significantly associated with fear of thunder (P < 0.0001), gunshots (P < 0.0001) and vehicles (P = 0.0009).

CONCLUSION

Fear of fireworks and other loud noises negatively impacts canine welfare, yet only a small percentage of owners sought professional advice. There is scope for veterinarians to educate owners and raise awareness about the identification and management of noise-associated fear and reduce the risk of escalation of fearful behaviours.

Evaluation of indicators of acute emotional states in dogs

A complete assessment of animal welfare requires not just an understanding of negative emotional states, such as fear and anxiety, but also of positive states, such as calmness and happiness. However, few studies have identified accurate and reliable indicators of positive emotional states in dogs. This study aimed to identify parameters that may serve as indicators of short-term emotional states in dogs. Using a cross-over design, 60 dogs living at a research facility were exposed to six different 10-min scenarios expected to elicit responses varying in emotional valence and arousal. A range of behavioural and physiological parameters were collected and their relationship to anticipated emotional valence and arousal was analysed using linear and logistic mixed models. Cortisol, adrenocorticotropic hormone, heart rate variability, panting, whining, and body shake all demonstrated significant differences based on arousal levels, but only within negative valence scenarios. Scores from a qualitative behavioural assessment (QBA) were associated with both emotional valence and arousal and were considered the best indicator of positive valence. Activity, ear temperature, and sitting were associated with positive high arousal, although this may have been influenced by differing levels of movement induced during these scenarios. Meanwhile, heart rate, secretory immunoglobulin A, standing and lying all showed similar changes associated with arousal for both positive and negative valence scenarios. This study provides a critical first step towards identifying evidence-based indicators of short-term emotional states in dogs, while highlighting considerations that should be made when employing these parameters, including the influence of coder bias, food provision, exercise, and external temperature. Overall, it is recommended future dog emotion and welfare research use a combination of parameters including indicators of both emotional valence and arousal.

A Multidimensional Evaluation of the Factors in the Animal Welfare Assessment Grid (AWAG) That Are Associated with, and Predictive of, Behaviour Disorders in Dogs

Behavioural disorders in dogs are common and have severe welfare consequences for dogs. This study aimed to assess the factors that are significant and predictive of behaviour problems in dogs using the animal welfare assessment grid (AWAG) to further understand what factors influence their welfare. 177 AWAG assessments were undertaken across 129 dogs that clinicians deemed to have a behavioural disorder. Wilcoxon rank-sum tests were used to assess the difference in scores between dogs with behaviour disorders and a cohort of healthy dogs (n = 117). This analysis showed that all physical factors besides body condition, all procedural factors besides procedure pain, and all psychological, and environmental factors were significantly different between healthy dogs and dogs with behaviour disorders. Spearman rank correlation coefficient (RS) revealed several significant strong positive correlations including the procedural impact on the dog's daily routine with aggression towards unfamiliar people and procedure pain, as well as other correlations between the dog's behaviour during assessment with the frequency at which they encounter fears and anxieties, clinical assessment and procedure pain, and reaction to stressors and social interactions. These findings highlight the interdependent nature of the various influences of welfare. Logistic regression analysis identified that aggression towards the caregiver, fears and anxieties frequency, and choice, control, and predictability were all significant predictors of behaviour disorders. The findings have important implications for veterinary, behaviour, and animal welfare professionals as any changes across these factors may indicate poor welfare linked to emotional disorders in dogs.

Olfaction in the canine cognitive and emotional processes: From behavioral and neural viewpoints to measurement possibilities

Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) have excellent olfactory processing capabilities that are utilized widely in human society e.g., working with customs, police, and army; their scent detection is also used in guarding, hunting, mold-sniffing, searching for missing people or animals, and facilitating the life of the disabled. Sniffing and searching for odors is a natural, species-typical behavior and essential for the dog's welfare. While taking advantage of this canine ability widely, we understand its foundations and implications quite poorly. We can improve animal welfare by better understanding their olfactory world. In this review, we outline the olfactory processing of dogs in the nervous system, summarize the current knowledge of scent detection and differentiation; the effect of odors on the dogs' cognitive and emotional processes and the dog-human bond; and consider the methodological advancements that could be developed further to aid in our understanding of the canine world of odors.

Potential Benefits of a 'Trauma-Informed Care' Approach to Improve the Assessment and Management of Dogs Presented with Anxiety Disorders

Dog caregiver reporting on the spectrum of fearful-aggressive behaviours often describes 'unpredictable' or 'exaggerated' responses to a situation/animal/person. A possible explanation for these behavioural responses considers that the dog is reacting to triggered memories for which the dog has a negative association. For many dogs undergoing veterinary behavioural treatment or rehabilitation through a canine rescue organisation, the assessing clinician relies on "proxy" reporting of the history/background by a caregiver (dog owner, foster carer, or shelter personnel). Detailed information on the event or circumstances resulting in this negative association may be limited or absent altogether. Consideration of a trauma-informed care (TIC) approach, currently applied in a wide range of human psychology and social care fields, may be helpful in guiding the clinical approach taken. The literature relating to adverse early experience (AEE) and trauma-informed care (TIC) in puppies/dogs compared to children/adults was evaluated to identify common themes and conclusions identified across both species. In the absence of known/identifiable trauma, behavioural assessment and management should consider that a 'problem' dog may behave as it does, as the result of previous trauma. The dog can then be viewed through a lens of empathy and understanding, often lacking for dogs presenting with impulsive, reactive, or aggressive behaviours. Assessment must avoid re-traumatising the animal through exposure to triggering stimuli and, treatment options should include counselling of caregivers on the impact of adverse early experiences, consideration of the window of tolerance, and TIC behavioural modification techniques.

Impacts of Puppy Early Life Experiences, Puppy-Purchasing Practices, and Owner Characteristics on Owner-Reported Problem Behaviours in a UK Pandemic Puppies Cohort at 21 Months of Age

Problem behaviours are a leading cause of relinquishment and euthanasia of young dogs. Previous research has identified associations between owner-reported problem behaviours and risk factors, including how dogs were acquired as puppies, early socialisation experiences, and owners' experience levels. Puppies acquired during the 2020 phase of the UK COVID-19 pandemic ("Pandemic Puppies") were more likely to be exposed to many of these risk factors compared to puppies acquired in 2019; however, consequences for their adult behaviour are, as yet, unexplored. This study aimed to investigate the impact of these early-life and provenance-based risk factors, in addition to owner management strategies (including training methods) into early adulthood, upon adult dog behaviour aged 21 months. An online longitudinal cohort study of n = 985 Pandemic Puppies was conducted, recruited from a cohort of n = 4369 puppies originally surveyed in November-December 2020, which included data on how and why they were acquired and their socialisation/habituation experiences <16 weeks of age. Nearly all owners (96.7%) reported that their dog had exhibited at least one problem behaviour up to 21 months of age (median: 5; IQR: 3-7). Almost one third of dogs (30.9%) were reported to have displayed separation-related behaviours. Multivariable linear regression modelling revealed that owners reporting more problem behaviours were more likely to use multiple aversive training techniques (e.g., physical punishment), the use of which was notably high in this population (82.3%) compared to previous studies. Attendance at online puppy classes was the sole protective factor against owner use of aversive training methods. Almost one third of owners had underestimated how hard training their dog would be; this view was more likely among first-time owners. Urgent efforts are required to support this vulnerable population of dogs, including providing owner education regarding humane training techniques, to improve canine emotional health and avoid future relinquishment and/or behavioural euthanasia.

Emotional Arousal Impacts Physical Health in Dogs: A Review of Factors Influencing Arousal, with Exemplary Case and Framework

Excessive emotional arousal has been shown to impact physiological health in both veterinary species and human animals. The focus of work in many models of veterinary behavioural medicine has predominantly been associated with reducing activation of the protective emotional systems; in particular, fear-anxiety. The management of the engaging emotional systems of desire-seeking, social play, care and lust has not traditionally been considered in the treatment of physiological health of veterinary species. This article reviews the literature in both veterinary and human fields on the relationship between emotional arousal of both protective and engaging emotional systems and physical health conditions. The current literature describing the regulatory control of sleep on emotional arousal is also discussed. An exemplary case report of a seven month old male entire Cocker Spaniel showing fly-snapping behaviour which had been non-responsive to leviteracetam (Keppra) is presented. The emotional health assessment and treatment of this case is described along with the short and long term (fourteen month follow up) outcomes to demonstrate that some patients presenting in this way can be effectively managed with an appropriate behavioural medicine treatment plan. The authors put forward the argument that an emotional health assessment should be considered an essential component of the work up of all such cases.

Application of an Adapted Behaviour Change Wheel to Assistance Dog Puppy Raising: A Proposed Raiser-Centred Support Program

Puppy raising (PR) programs recruit volunteer community members (raisers) to raise assistance dog (AD) candidates from puppyhood until the dogs are ready for advanced training. Once qualified, ADs assist human handlers with a disability to live more independently. Unfortunately, about 50% of all puppies do not meet the behavioural standards required for further training after completing a PR program. This increases costs and lengthens the time taken for a handler to obtain an AD. Research has identified several factors that influence raisers' experiences. It has also shown that raisers' socialisation and training practices affect perceived puppy behaviour. Drawing on the argument that puppy raiser practices are central to improving overall puppy raising program outcomes, this paper interprets recent findings within the framework provided by the behaviour change wheel-an established behaviour change framework-to suggest a coordinated approach to supporting puppy raisers. The recommendations will allow future research to employ more objective measures and more rigorous experimental designs as the field attempts to corroborate existing findings and develop evidence-based models of practice.

Current Perspectives on the Challenges of Implementing Assistance Dogs in Human Mental Health Care

The prevalence of mental health disorders, driven by current global crises, is notably high. During the past decades, the popularity of dogs assisting humans with a wide spectrum of mental health disorders has significantly increased. Notwithstanding these dogs' doubtless value, research on their legal status, certification processes, training and management practices, as well as their welfare status, has been scarce. This scoping review highlights that in contrast to other assistance dogs such as guide dogs, there exists no consistent terminology to mark dogs that assist humans with impaired mental health. Legal authorities monitoring the accreditation process, training and tracking of mental health supporting dogs are broadly lacking, with only few exceptions. This review emphasizes the need to address several topics in the promotion of progress in legal and welfare issues related to assistance dogs as well as emotional support dogs for humans with a mental health disorder. The current body of knowledge was assessed in three different areas of focus: (1) the legal dimension including definitions and certification processes; (2) the dimension of performed tasks; and (3) the dog welfare dimension including aspects of the relationship with the handler and risks associated with children recipients. Considering the challenges associated with a mental health diagnosis, collaborations of dog provider organizations and health care professionals would be desirable to continuously assess the efficiency of the human-dog dyad regarding their overall compatibility, general satisfaction and mutual well-being.

Susceptibility of domestic and companion animals to SARS-CoV-2: a comprehensive review

The ongoing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), has caused a large global outbreak. The reports of domestic animals' infection with SARS-CoV-2 raise concerns about the virus's longer-lasting spread, the establishment of a new host reservoir, or even the evolution of a new virus, as seen with COVID-19. In this review, we focus on the susceptibility of domestic animals, especially companion animals, towards SARS-CoV-2 in light of existing studies of natural infection, experimental infection, and serological surveys. Susceptibility of domestic and companion animals to SARS-CoV-2 infection.

Facial asymmetry in dogs with fear and aggressive behaviors towards humans

There is now scientific evidence that, in dogs, distinctive facial actions are produced in response to different emotionally-arousing stimuli suggesting a relationship between lateralized facial expressions and emotional states. Although in humans, relationships between facial asymmetry and both emotional and physiological distress have been reported, there are currently no data on the laterality of dogs' facial expressions in response to social stimuli with respect to canine behavioral disorders. The aim of the present work was to investigate the facial asymmetries of dogs with fear and aggressive behavior towards humans during two different emotional situations: (1) while the dogs were alone in the presence of their owners and (2) during the approach of an unfamiliar human being. Overall, our results demonstrated high levels of asymmetries in facial expressions of dogs displaying fear and aggressive behaviors towards humans indicating that measuring facial asymmetries in dogs could prove to be a useful non-invasive tool for investigating physiology-based behavioral disorders.

Lead pulling as a welfare concern in pet dogs: What can veterinary professionals learn from current research?

Veterinary professionals (VPs) are often the first source of advice for clients struggling with their dog's behaviour, and pulling on the lead is a commonplace undesirable behaviour VPs will encounter regularly in practice. Excluding bites, being pulled over while walking on a lead is the leading cause of non-fatal dog-related injuries in the UK. This narrative review investigates lead pulling as a welfare concern in pet dogs, highlighting aspects of the literature of particular interest to VPs. Lead pulling could negatively affect walk quality, frequency and duration, causing weight gain, while decreased environmental enrichment could trigger other undesirable behaviours. Aversive equipment to prevent lead pulling can cause pain, distress and injury, but even equipment considered humane can have welfare consequences. Punitive training methods could cause dogs stress, fear and anxiety and trigger aggressive behaviour. While these lead pulling outcomes are welfare concerns in themselves, they could also weaken dog-owner attachment, a risk factor in pet dog relinquishment. Given lead pulling could affect the welfare of patients in a VPs care, clinical implications and opportunities for client education are outlined. Educating clients on humane prevention and modification of lead pulling could make walks easier, safer and more enjoyable, with positive outcomes for clients, canine welfare and the practice.

Handlers' Representations on Therapy Dogs' Welfare

While research on the benefits of animal-assisted interventions is beginning to build a significant body of work, studies on the well-being of therapy dogs are still in their infancy. Since handlers are the people responsible for their therapy dog's welfare, we interviewed 111 French handlers through an online questionnaire. Our results underlined that (i) therapy dogs' welfare is multidimensional when physical and psychological welfare, a balance between work and dog life and the settings and interactions of sessions are all taken into consideration. (ii) The response of our handlers emphasized that considering therapy dog welfare is important for the quality and safety of AAI. (iii) Three categories of risks factors were highlighted: the spatio-temporal framework (planning and environment), the interactions with beneficiaries and the handler themselves. It is particularly important that handlers talk about the negative impact of interactions with beneficiaries since they are at the heart of AAI, however there are few studies focusing on interactions as a stressor for dogs in this practice. Moreover, since there is a potential for positive bias in the handlers' representations, it is important that they be trained to identify and manage the stress in their dogs. Future research is particularly needed on the impact of interactions during sessions on therapy dog welfare.

The Animal Welfare Science of Working Dogs: Current Perspectives on Recent Advances and Future Directions

Working dogs are prevalent throughout our societies, assisting people in diverse contexts, from explosives detection and livestock herding, to therapy partners. Our scientific exploration and understanding of animal welfare have grown dramatically over the last decade. As community attitudes toward the use of animals continue to change, applying this new knowledge of welfare to improve the everyday lives of working dogs will underpin the sustainability of working with dogs in these roles. The aim of this report was to consider the scientific studies of working dogs from the last decade (2011–2021) in relation to modern ethics, human interaction, and the five domains of animal welfare: nutrition, environment, behavioral interaction, physical health, and mental state. Using this framework, we were able to analyze the concept and contribution of working dog welfare science. Noting some key advances across the full working dog life cycle, we identify future directions and opportunities for interdisciplinary research to optimize dog welfare. Prioritizing animal welfare in research and practice will be critical to assure the ongoing relationship between dogs and people as co-workers.

Therapy Dog Welfare Revisited: A Review of the Literature

During the past decade, the field of human-animal interaction(s) research has been characterized by a significant increase in scientific findings. These data have contributed to our current understanding of how humans may benefit from contact with animals. However, the animal experience of these interactions is still an under-researched area. This paper addresses the welfare of dogs who participate in animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) to improve health in human recipients. This paper builds on previous work by Glenk (2017) and provides an updated review of the literature on therapy dog welfare published from 2017-2021. New advances in scientific methodology, such as the determination of salivary oxytocin, breath rate and tympanic membrane temperature, are analyzed regarding their value and limitations for research in AAIs. Moreover, welfare-related social and environmental factors (e.g., freedom of choice, exploration of novel environments, inequity aversion, individual development, working experience, relationship with handler and handler skills) that profoundly influence dog perception and well-being are reviewed and discussed. Accounting for the globally increasing interest and the number of dogs utilized in AAIs, safeguarding therapy dog well-being, and identifying situations, circumstances and protocols that may challenge animal welfare remains an emerging and crucial area of scientific effort.

The Promise of Disease Detection Dogs in Pandemic Response: Lessons Learned From COVID-19

One of the lessons learned from the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic is the utility of an early, flexible, and rapidly deployable disease screening and detection response. The largely uncontrolled spread of the pandemic in the United States exposed a range of planning and implementation shortcomings, which, if they had been in place before the pandemic emerged, may have changed the trajectory. Disease screening by detection dogs show great promise as a noninvasive, efficient, and cost-effective screening method for COVID-19 infection. We explore evidence of their use in infectious and chronic diseases; the training, oversight, and resources required for implementation; and potential uses in various settings. Disease detection dogs may contribute to the current and future public health pandemics; however, further research is needed to extend our knowledge and measurement of their effectiveness and feasibility as a public health intervention tool, and efforts are needed to ensure public and political support.

Development of a Performance Monitoring Instrument for Rating Explosives Search Dog Performance

The growing body of working dog literature includes many examples of scales robustly developed to measure aspects of dog behavior. However, when comparing behavior to working dog ability, most studies rely on training organizations' own long-established ratings of performance, or simply pass/fail at selection or certification as measures of success. Working ability is multifaceted, and it is likely that different aspects of ability are differentially affected by external factors. In order to understand how specific aspects of selection, training, and operations influence a dog's working ability, numerous facets of performance should be considered. An accurate and validated method for quantifying multiple aspects of performance is therefore required. Here, we describe the first stages of formulating a meaningful performance measurement tool for two types of working search dogs. The systematic methodology used was: (1) interviews and workshops with a representative cross-section of stakeholders to produce a shortlist of behaviors integral to current operational performance of vehicle (VS) and high assurance (HAS) search dogs; (2) assessing the reliability and construct validity of the shortlisted behavioral measures (at the behavior and the individual rater level) using ratings of diverse videoed searches by experienced personnel; and (3) selecting the most essential and meaningful behaviors based on their reliability/validity and importance. The resulting performance measurement tool was composed of 12 shortlisted behaviors, most of which proved reliable and valid when assessed by a group of raters. At the individual rater level, however, there was variability between raters in the ability to use and interpret behavioral measures, in particular, more abstract behaviors such as Independence. This illustrates the importance of examining individual rater scores rather than extrapolating from group consensus (as is often done), especially when designing a tool that will ultimately be used by single raters. For ratings to be practically valuable, individual rater reliability needs to be improved, especially for behaviors deemed as essential (e.g., control and confidence). We suggest that the next steps are to investigate why individuals vary in their ratings and to undertake efforts to increase the likelihood that they reach a common conceptualization of each behavioral construct. Plausible approaches are improving the format in which behaviors are presented, e.g., by adding benchmarks and utilizing rater training.

Development and Training for Working Dogs

Individual differences in behavior lead to wide variability in working dog suitability, and are the primary reason for rejection or early release. Behavioral suitability of a working dog is shaped by interactions with its environment during early development and specialized training. Understanding how aspects of development and training affect a working dog's performance is critical for practitioners to effectively evaluate and treat behavioral concerns in working dogs. This article provides an overview of critical aspects of puppy development that influence future behavior, and reviews important features of training that influence a dog's ability to learn and perform its designated task.

Enhancing the Selection and Performance of Working Dogs

Dogs perform a variety of integral roles in our society, engaging in work ranging from assistance (e.g., service dogs, guide dogs) and therapy to detection (e.g., search-and-rescue dogs, explosive detection dogs) and protection (e.g., military and law enforcement dogs). However, success in these roles, which requires dogs to meet challenging behavioral criteria and to undergo extensive training, is far from guaranteed. Therefore, enhancing the selection process is critical for the effectiveness and efficiency of working dog programs and has the potential to optimize how resources are invested in these programs, increase the number of available working dogs, and improve working dog welfare. In this paper, we review two main approaches for achieving this goal: (1) developing selection tests and criteria that can efficiently and effectively identify ideal candidates from the overall pool of candidate dogs, and (2) developing approaches to enhance performance, both at the individual and population level, via improvements in rearing, training, and breeding. We summarize key findings from the empirical literature regarding best practices for assessing, selecting, and improving working dogs, and conclude with future steps and recommendations for working dog organizations, breeders, trainers, and researchers.

Detection of owner-perceived emotional eating in companion dogs: A regression modelling approach

BACKGROUND

Emotional eating has been largely demonstrated in humans and laboratory rodents, but a recent survey conducted by the authors revealed that dog owners have also detected this phenomenon in their pets. However, due to the lack of diagnostic tools, veterinarians and researchers might encounter serious difficulties in detecting emotional eating in clinical settings. The present study aimed to explore different variables associated with owner perceived-emotional eating in companion dogs with the ultimate goal of designing a tool that could facilitate its detection.

METHODS

The mentioned survey included information on feeding habits, eating behaviour, temperament and emotional state of the dogs, as well as a specific question for assessing the owners' perception on emotional eating. From these data (n = 1137), a stochastic model based on binary logistic regression was used to design a regression model.

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The final model (r² = 0.179, p < 0.001) included a constant and nine variables and, of these, five did act as risk factors whereas the rest were considered as protective factors, in line with a congruent clinical perception. These variables could make up an easy-to-respond nine-item checklist to be answered by dog owners that could help veterinarians identify those companion dogs susceptible to emotional eating.

Validation of a Behavior Test for Predicting Puppies' Suitability as Detection Dogs

Behavioral characteristics are the most influential factor in the success of a working dog. The need for highly capable detection dogs continues to rise; but reliable methods for early selection are lacking. The current study aimed to assess the reliability and validity of a behavioral test for assessing detection dog suitability. A cohort of candidate detection dog puppies (n = 60) were tested at 3; 5; and 11 months of age; as well as at the completion of training at approximately one year. Tests were designed to assess important detection dog behavioral characteristics such as search ability and fearfulness. Inter-rater reliability was high between independent observers. Convergent validity was demonstrated by comparing Principal Component Analysis (PCA) scores from the behavior test to trainer ratings using the Canine Behavioral Assessment and Research Questionnaire (C-BARQ) and a survey of detection dog traits. Performance on the behavior test predicted adult selection as a detection dog as early as 3 months. The methods reported will be valuable for improving selection measures and enhancing collaborations across breeding programs in order to increase the availability of highly capable detection dogs.

Host Diversity and Potential Transmission Pathways of SARS-CoV-2 at the Human-Animal Interface

Emerging infectious diseases present great risks to public health. The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), causing coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), has become an urgent public health issue of global concern. It is speculated that the virus first emerged through a zoonotic spillover. Basic research studies have suggested that bats are likely the ancestral reservoir host. Nonetheless, the evolutionary history and host susceptibility of SARS-CoV-2 remains unclear as a multitude of animals has been proposed as potential intermediate or dead-end hosts. SARS-CoV-2 has been isolated from domestic animals, both companion and livestock, as well as in captive wildlife that were in close contact with human COVID-19 cases. Currently, domestic mink is the only known animal that is susceptible to a natural infection, develop severe illness, and can also transmit SARS-CoV-2 to other minks and humans. To improve foundational knowledge of SARS-CoV-2, we are conducting a synthesis review of its host diversity and transmission pathways. To mitigate this COVID-19 pandemic, we strongly advocate for a systems-oriented scientific approach that comprehensively evaluates the transmission of SARS-CoV-2 at the human and animal interface.

Early Evaluation of Fearfulness in Future Guide Dogs for Blind People

Fear is the leading cause of guide dog failure. Detecting the nature and causes of these fears as early as possible is the first step in preventing their occurrence. The process of habituation is a fundamental part of fear prevention. In this study, 11 puppies, all five months of age, underwent an emotional reactivity test (ERT) composed of 12 scored items, classified into three categories: unknown person (UP), sound and visual stimuli (SVS), and body sensitivity (BS). Salivary cortisol was also measured. Foster families were asked to complete a questionnaire concerning puppies' habituation. The physiological data were correlated with UP (r = 0.71) and BS scores (r = 0.67), but not with SVS scores (r = 0.16), suggesting the ability of these dogs to control themselves when faced with the latter stimulus category. Additionally, the more time a puppy spent alone, the more likely it was to be afraid of SVS (p = 0.05). A correlation, albeit moderate, was detected between cortisol and habituation scores (r = 0.48). These results give us interesting avenues to explore, particularly regarding the importance of focusing on early puppy socialization and habituation to improve the numbers of guide dog candidates becoming successful guide dogs.

Cannabis sativa L. may reduce aggressive behaviour towards humans in shelter dogs

Among the phytocomplex components of Cannabis sativa L., cannabidiol (CBD) has a recognised therapeutic effect on chronic pain. Little is known about the veterinary use of CBD in dogs. Even less is known on the effects of CBD on dog behaviour, especially in shelters. The purpose of this study was to determine if CBD affects stress related behaviour in shelter dogs. The sample consisted of 24 dogs divided into two groups that were created by assigning the dogs alternately: 12 dogs were assigned to the treatment group and 12 to the control group. Extra virgin olive oil, titrated to 5% in CBD was given to treated group; the placebo consisted of olive oil only, dispensed daily for 45 days. Behavioural data were collected using the 'focal animal' sampling method with 'all occurrences' and '1/0' methods for 3 h: before (T0), after 15 days (T1), after 45 days of treatment (T2) and after 15 days from the end of the treatment (T3). Treated dogs showed reduced aggressive behaviour toward humans following the treatment (Friedman Test: χ2 = 13.300; df = 3; N = 12; p = .004; adj. sig. p = 0.027), but the difference in the decrease of aggressive behaviour between the two groups was not significant (Mann-Whitney U test, T2-T0: Z = - 1.81; N = 24; p = 0.078). Other behaviours indicative of stress, such as displacing activities and stereotypes, did not decrease. Despite some non-significant results, our findings suggest that it is worth doing more research to further investigate the effect of CBD on dog behaviour; this would be certainly valuable because the potential for improving the welfare of dogs in shelters is priceless.

The First Rehoming of Laboratory Beagles in Finland: The Complete Process from Socialisation Training to Follow-up

The fate of experimental animals represents an ethical dilemma and a public concern. In the EU, Directive 2010/63/EU allows the rehoming of former experimental animals instead of euthanasia. However, to our knowledge, there are no previous reports of rehoming Beagles in Finland. This study aimed to describe the process behind the first rehoming of laboratory Beagles at the University of Helsinki and evaluate its success. In total, 16 former laboratory Beagles were rehomed in collaboration with animal protection organisations and the University of Helsinki. The dogs had participated in animal cognition studies and had undergone minor procedures during the development of a veterinary drug. While the dogs were still in the laboratory, a socialisation training programme lasting several months was undertaken. Through surveying of the adoptive owners, and interviewing the various stakeholders involved (researchers, animal protection organisations and animal caretakers), the overall process was evaluated, including: the socialisation training programme; the comparative success of rehoming younger compared to older animals; the criteria that were used for the selection of the adoptive owners; and the eventual success of rehoming the dogs with the new owners. The majority of the dogs adjusted well to their new home environment. Euthanasia at the end of their experimental use would have been unnecessary and possibly against the objectives of European directives.

Selecting Dogs for Explosives Detection: Behavioral Characteristics

Detection dogs are widely considered the most effective and adaptive method for explosives detection. Increases in emerging sophisticated threats are accelerating the demand for highly capable explosives detection, causing a strain on available supplies of quality canines worldwide. These strains are further compounded by rigorous behavioral standards required to meet mission-specific capabilities, leading to high rates of dogs disqualified from training or deployment. Ample research has explored the behavioral characteristics important for assistance, guide, and other traditional working roles, while those corresponding to more specialized tasks such as detection of explosives are not as well-understood. In this review we aim to identify the behavioral characteristics important for operational tasks of explosives detection dogs, contrasting with that of other working roles and highlighting key differences between explosives and other types of detection dogs. Further, we review the available research on methods for assessing and selecting candidate detection dogs and make recommendations for future directions and applications to the industry. Improvements and standardization in assessment technology allowing for the identification and enhancement of behavioral characteristics will be key to advancing canine detection technology in general.

Investigating the effects of incremental conditioning and supplemental dietary tryptophan on the voluntary activity and behaviour of mid-distance training sled dogs

Serotonin is a neurotransmitter synthesized by the amino acid tryptophan, that has the potential to impact the behaviour and activity of dogs. The objective of this study was to assess the effects of supplemental tryptophan and a 12-week incremental training regimen on the voluntary activity and behaviour of client-owned Siberian Huskies. Sixteen dogs were blocked for age, BW and sex and then randomly allocated to either the control or treatment group. Both groups were fed the same dry extruded diet; however, the treatment group were supplemented with tryptophan to achieve a tryptophan: large neutral amino acid ratio of 0.075:1. Once a week, a 5-minute video recording was taken immediately pre- and post- exercise to evaluate dogs' behaviours. Activity monitors were used to record voluntary activity on both training and rest days. Linear regression analysis was used to assess the relationship between training week and time spent performing each behaviour. Additionally, a repeated measure mixed model was used to test differences between diet groups and training week for both behavioural and activity count data. The time spent performing agonistic behaviours prior to exercise was negatively associated with week for treatment dogs (β = -0.32, 95% CI [-0.55, -0.10], P < 0.05) and no change was observed for control dogs (β = -0.13, 95% CI [-0.41, 0.15], P > 0.10). Treatment did not have any effect on activity levels (P > 0.10). For all dogs, locomotive behaviours decreased prior to exercise as weeks progressed (P < 0.05), while run day voluntary activity depended on the distance run that day (P < 0.05). These data suggest that sled dogs experience an exercise-induced reduction in voluntary locomotion in response to both single bouts and repetitive bouts of exercise. Additionally, tryptophan supplementation may decrease agonistic behaviours, without having any effect on voluntary activity.

Evaluation of stress status using the stress map for guide dog candidates in the training stage using variations in the serum cortisol with nerve growth factor and magnesium ions

Most studies on guide dogs for the blind were conducted to investigate the appropriateness of the animals, including in terms of their breeding, constitution, and temperament. However, research to comprehend the stress status of guide dog candidates in response to their training has been unclear. In this study, the levels of serum cortisol, nerve growth factor (NGF), and magnesium ion (Mg²⁺) levels of guide dog candidates during the three training stages-the elementary, intermediate, and advanced classes-were examined. Dogs were classified based on the contents of the classes and period during the training in which they were subjected. Since the dogs in the elementary class had the lowest serum NGF and Mg²⁺ levels, they were understood to be under mental stress and to be unfamiliar with their new surroundings. In contrast, the serum NGF and Mg²⁺ levels were high in the dogs in the advanced class, though they were demonstrated to be mentally stable and acclimated to their environment. Additionally, they were almost free from the stress caused by daily life, since they had the lowest serum cortisol levels. The status of each dog was plotted on a map consisting of 2 axes representing the serum NGF and Mg²⁺ levels with high or low cortisol levels. Plots could be divided into three domains corresponding to the elementary, intermediate, and advanced classes. Therefore, for working dogs, serum NGF and Mg²⁺ levels in addition to serum cortisol levels may be important factors to comprehend the type of stress situation that each dog was in.

Assistance and Therapy Dogs Are Better Problem Solvers Than Both Trained and Untrained Family Dogs

When faced with unsolvable or difficult situations dogs use different behavioral strategies. If they are motivated to obtain rewards, they either try to solve the problem on their own or tend to interact with a human partner. Based on the observation that in problem situations less successful and less perseverant dogs look more at the humans' face, some authors claim that the use of social strategies is detrimental to attempting an independent solution in dogs. Training may have an effect on dogs' problem-solving performance. We compared the behavior of (1) untrained, (2) trained for recreational purposes, and (3) working dogs: assistance and therapy dogs living in families (N = 90). During the task, dogs had to manipulate an apparatus with food pellets hidden inside. We measured the behaviors oriented toward the apparatus and behaviors directed at the owner/experimenter, and ran a principal component analysis. All measures loaded in one factor representing the use of the social strategy over a more problem-oriented strategy. Untrained dogs obtained the highest social strategy scores, followed by dogs trained for recreational purposes, and assistance and therapy dogs had the lowest scores. We conclude that assistance and therapy dogs' specific training and working experience (i.e., to actively help people) favors their independent and more successful problem-solving performance. General training (mainly obedience and agility in this study) also increases problem-oriented behavior.

Raising an Assistance Dog Puppy-Stakeholder Perspectives on What Helps and What Hinders

Simple Summary

Puppy raisers (or foster families) are volunteers who care for assistance dog puppies until they are ready to learn how to help people with a disability. During this period, some puppies develop behaviours unsuitable for assistance roles and end up changing careers or being rehomed as pets, which is wasteful. Puppy raisers control the early experiences of their puppies, and they vary in their puppy-raising outcomes, but we do not know what specifically helps some puppy raisers produce puppies that are behaviourally suitable for an assistance role. In this study, we interviewed 17 people from seven countries who were either experienced puppy raisers or provider program staff, or both. Their responses suggested several individual factors (expectations, competency, perseverance and passion) and social factors (informational and emotional supports), in addition to the puppies’ characteristics, that influenced the experiences and perceived effectiveness of their puppy-raising practices. These factors are also evident in other well-established areas of research (e.g., education, volunteerism, social support, and organisational performance). We propose recommendations for assistance dog organisations based on those relevant frameworks, which focus on enhancing puppy raisers’ competency, positive experiences, and program retention.

Abstract

Assistance dog puppies live with their raisers for up to 16 months before entering advanced training and, hopefully, becoming qualified to help people with a disability. Almost half of the puppies fail to meet the behavioural standards required for assistance dogs, and some puppy raisers produce more behaviourally favourable puppies than others. It is unclear what factors influence puppy-raising practice quality. To understand this, we interviewed 17 participants, including experienced puppy raisers (n = 8), provider organisation staff (n = 4), and those who have served both as puppy raisers and staff (n = 5). Results of a thematic analysis suggest three groups of influencing factors, namely intrapersonal factors, social support, and puppy characteristics. Intrapersonal factors such as expectations, competency, perseverance and passion were reported to influence puppy raisers’ experiences, puppy-raising quality, and continuity of service. Contextual factors such as availability of social support (informational and emotional supports) and less-demanding puppies both led to positive puppy-raising experiences, while the former also contributed to puppy raisers’ perceptions of competency. Future research should quantitatively examine the interrelationships of these factors concerning puppies’ behavioural development. Meanwhile, organisations could consider these factors when developing their recruitment and puppy-raiser support programs.

Could snorts inform us on how horses perceive riding?

Several previous studies have shown that working conditions (including riding) can induce stress in horses. Riders' actions and postures, when inappropriate, induce stress and conflict behaviours during riding and welfare impairment and negative emotional states outside work. Optimistic biases have been found in leisure horses, which, amongst positive management factors, were ridden with loose reins and low hands. Thus, one can wonder whether horses may positively perceive work or parts of it. Indicators of positive emotions are poorly known yet but we recently found that, out of the working context, a non-vocal acoustic signal, snorts, could reflect mild positive emotions in horses. We hypothesized that snorts could help identifying the working phases and actions appreciated by horses. An overview of snort production in 127 horses spread over 16 riding schools was first conducted to highlight a potential site effect. Results show a great difference in snorts frequency between facilities which may be due to different riding techniques. In order to test this hypothesis, we then focused on 37 horse-rider dyads by scoring horses' postures (neck) and riders' positions (hand, reins) during, but also out of the context of snort production. Results show that snorts were particularly associated with phases when the rider technique, i.e. long and loose reins, allowed more comfort for the horse, especially while walking. Results were more mitigated for higher paces since the association of snorts with signs of comfort was less clear-cut. Snorts could therefore be useful tools for identifying better practices, especially at slower gaits. However, care has to be taken at higher paces.

A review of maternal behaviour in dogs and potential areas for further research

Here we review information on maternal behaviour in dogs, defined as a combination of all the acts of the mother towards her offspring, which begins before parturition and continues until weaning. In dogs, maternal care is measured using the most commonly observed behaviours, such as the time spent in contact, licking/grooming and nursing of the puppies. Since newborn puppies have a very limited capacity for movement, maternal interaction is essential to their survival, nourishment and protection. It is also an important element of the bonding process between puppies and the bitch and is thought to play a role in the social development of the puppies. Nevertheless, some questions still need to be clarified, such as the best way to quantify factors that may interfere with maternal behaviour. In recent studies, maternal care, or maternal style, was measured using a scoring system and found to be influenced by factors such as litter size, breed and parity, or even human interaction. However, the impact of the emotional state of the bitch and the quality of maternal behaviour on puppy survival and development remain unclear. The long-lasting effects of mother-puppy interactions on puppy behaviour during their adult life are still poorly understood, despite their importance for breeders who wish to prevent future problem behaviours.

Evaluating Stress in Dogs Involved in Animal-Assisted Interventions

Simple Summary

Dogs are widely involved in animal-assisted interventions (AAIs), but little information is available to determine if AAIs are stressful for dogs. Maintaining the animal wellness is ethically crucial and it is decisive for the success of the AAIs. This study wanted to assess if dogs were stressed during the sessions. Nine dogs, belonging to the A.N.U.C.S.S. (the National Association for the Use of Dogs for Social Aims) association, were observed before, during, and after AAIs with patients—who had mental and/or physical disabilities—to underline any signs of stress. Our results suggested that our dogs were not stressed, as the level of anxious behaviour was low and similar in all three kinds of sessions (before, during, and after sessions).

Abstract

Animal-assisted interventions (AAIs) are co-therapies in which the animal is an integral and active part of the treatment process. Dogs are widely involved in AAI projects, but little data are available to determine if AAI sessions are a source of stress for the dogs. Understanding the emotional state of animals and highlighting any signal of stress is crucial maintaining the wellness of the animals and in enhancing the probability of success of the AAI. The purpose of this study is to assess if dogs present signs of stress during animal assisted therapies sessions. The sample consisted of nine dogs, belonging to the members of the A.N.U.C.S.S. (the National Association for the Use of Dogs for Social Aims) association. Dogs lived with their owners and their health was checked by a vet once a week. Patients involved in the AAI project had disabilities due to mental disorder and/or psychomotor problems. During the therapeutic sessions, patients had to guide the dog along facilitated agility routes and/or perform the activities of cuddling and brushing the dog. When a dog accomplished a task, the patient gave him/her a reward (throwing a ball or a biscuit). Dogs were observed for a total of 174 h, 47 h before, 81 h during, and 46 h after AAI sessions. Each session of observation lasted 10–30 min. The differences of behavioural patterns in the three contexts were analysed by mean of the non-parametric Friedman test. Dogs never showed aggressive and stereotyped behaviour; the level of anxious behaviour was low and similar in all three kinds of sessions. During therapeutic sessions, attention, affiliative behavioural patterns, and sniffing behaviour increased. The highest level of attention of dogs was directed toward their conductor, rather than to the patient and to the other operator present. The results suggest that the amount of work dogs went through was adequate and that dogs did not show behavioural signs of stress.

Not a one-way road-Severity, progression and prevention of firework fears in dogs

Noise fears represent a highly prevalent welfare problem in dogs. An online survey was performed to explore severity and progression of firework fears in dogs, and relationships with demographics, health, behaviour problems and owners’ training efforts to prevent or alleviate firework fears. Fifty-two percent of dogs in the sample (N = 1225) were at least partially affected by firework fears, and the majority developed a fear of fireworks in the first year of life, with a decreasing frequency of new occurrences up until seven years, and only few newly affected dogs beyond this age. While almost three-quarters of fearful dogs had recovered by the next morning following firework exposure, recovery took up to one day in 10%, up to one week in 12%, and several weeks or even months in >3%. Univariate analyses indicated a significant effect of breed group, age, sex, neuter status, origin and age at acquisition on severity of firework fears in dogs. However, binomial models including multiple predictors of presence/ absence of firework fears identified only age, breed group (mixed breeds being most affected), health problems, and an interaction between health problems and age as significant predictors. This discrepancy might be explained by collinearities of predictors and underlying differences between mixed-breed dogs and purebreds, such as mixed breeds being acquired from shelters more often and being neutered more often. Firework fears are highly correlated with fears of gunshots and thunder, and to a low extent with fears of other noises, but not with any other behavioural problems. Both improvement and deterioration of firework fears were frequently reported. While an early age of onset and breed differences point to a strong genetic contribution to firework fears, the data indicate that training puppies or non-fearful adults to associate the noise with positive stimuli is highly effective in preventing later development of firework fears.

Cardiovascular reactivity to emotional stress: The hidden challenge for pets in the urbanized environment

Emotional stress is currently considered an important risk factor for cardiovascular diseases. Experimental evidence clearly shows robust autonomic cardiovascular effects in animals exposed to stress stimuli. Considering the remarkable variability of stressors, the urban environment can pose a severe challenge to cardiovascular control. Interestingly, pet ownership is indicated as an efficient non-pharmacological therapy to attenuate stress effects that can reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease. However, the risk of cardiovascular diseases in pets themselves living in urban environment has not received attention it deserves. Here, we review the central mechanisms involved in the autonomic cardiovascular response to emotional stress. Next, we discuss experimental evidence showing the cardiovascular effects produced by emotional stressors in animals, aiming to establish a parallel with common urban stressors. Association of additional risk factors such as sedentarism, obesity and ambient temperature are also considered. Our aim is to identify and raise awareness of the risk of cardiovascular disease in pets exposed to quotidian emotional stressors present in the urban environment.

Greyhounds under general veterinary care in the UK during 2016: demography and common disorders

Background

The greyhound is a sighthound known for its speed and agility. Greyhounds were selectively bred as functional racing animals but increasingly are kept as pets in the UK, often after their racing careers are over. The VetCompass™ Programme collates de-identified clinical data from primary-care veterinary practices in the UK for epidemiological research. Using VetCompass™ clinical data, this study aimed to characterise the demography, mortality and common disorders of the general population of pet greyhounds under veterinary care in the UK.

Results

Greyhounds comprised 5419/ 905,544 (0.60%) dogs under veterinary care during 2016 from 626 clinics. Mean adult bodyweight was 29.7 kg (standard deviation [SD] 4.5 kg). Males (32.3 kg, SD 4.1 kg) were heavier than females (27.2 kg, SD 3.3 kg) (P < 0.001). Mean age was 7.6 years (SD 3.4). The most common colours were black (39.2%), black and white (20.8%), brindle (12.0%). Based on 474 deaths, median longevity was 11.4 years (range 0.2–16.5). Females (11.8 years) outlived males (11.2 years) (P = 0.002). The most common grouped causes of death were neoplasia (21.5%, 95% CI: 17.4–26.0), collapse (14.3%, 95% CI: 10.9–18.2) and musculoskeletal disorder (7.8%, 95% CI: 5.3–11.0). Based on a random subset of 2715/5419 (50.1%) greyhounds, 77.5% had > 1 disorder recorded during 2016. The most prevalent specific disorders were periodontal disease (39.0%, 95% CI: 37.2–40.9), overgrown nails (11.1%, 95% CI 10.0–12.4), wound (6.2%, 95% CI: 5.3–7.1), osteoarthritis (4.6%, 95% CI: 3.8–5.4) and claw injury (4.2%, 95% CI: 3.4–5.0).

Conclusions

These findings highlight the greyhound as a relatively common pet dog breed in the UK, accounting for 0.6% of dogs under primary veterinary care. Dental disease, trauma and osteoarthritis were identified as common health issues within the breed. Knowledge of common disorders can help greyhound breeders and regulators to prioritise breeding, rearing and racing management to mitigate some of the most prevalent issues. Greyhound rehoming organizations can also better inform adopters about prophylactic care.

Assessing the welfare of kennelled dogs-A review of animal-based measures

Hundreds of thousands of dogs are housed in kennels worldwide, yet there are no standard protocols for assessing the welfare of dogs in these environments. Animal science is focusing increasingly on the importance of animal-based measures for determining welfare states, and those measures that have been used with kennelled dogs are reviewed in this paper with particular focus on their validity and practicality. From a physiological standpoint, studies using cortisol, heart rate and heart rate variability, temperature changes, and immune function are discussed. Behavioural measures are also of great relevance when addressing canine welfare, thus studies on fear and anxiety behaviours, abnormal behaviours like stereotypies, as well as responses to strangers and novel objects are reviewed. Finally, a limited number of studies attempting to use cognitive bias and learning ability are also mentioned as cognitive measures. The literature to date provides a strong background for which measures may be useful in determining the welfare of kennelled canines, however more research is needed to further assess the value of using these methods, particularly in regard to the large degree of individual differences that exist between dogs.